CHAPTER-1

OVER VIEW OF THE PROJECT

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Motivated by the advances in high-voltage-highpower power electronic switches

(e.g., 4.5 kV, 1.2 kA ratings), high-power three-phase converters have been increasing
in many grid-tied applications, such as high-voltage dc transmission, photovoltaics, and
wind energy. Based on the stiffness of the power grid, considerable interaction
dynamics between the grid impedance and the power converter are yielded, and might
affect the overall system stability. An ac system is recognized weak if it has high
impedance as viewed from the point-of-common-coupling (PCC).
A quantifying measure, referred to as a short-circuit ratio (SCR), is usually used
to characterize the stiffness level of the grid. The SCR is defined as the ratio of the
short-circuit capacity of the grid at the PCC to the rated dc power of the interconnected
power converter. A power grid is weak when SCR and very weak when SCR. The worst
case scenario occurs when SCR. In the literature, extensive research work has been
conducted to address the connection of voltage-source converters (VSCs) to weak grids.
However, no effective method is reported to facilitate the integration of VSCs to
a very weak grid, i.e., at SCR, using the conventional phase-locked loop (PLL)-based
vector control strategy. Moreover, and up to the best of the authors' knowledge, the
interconnection of \ voltage source converters (VSCs) to weak and very weak grids has
not been reported.
In spite of the utilization of VSCs in different applications, the recent advances
in semiconductors and magnetic components help VSCs to gain a widespread
acceptance in wind generators, PV systems, static synchronous compensators, and
motor drives. As a brief comparison, the key characteristics of VSCs and VSCs are
summarized as follows. 1) The dc side element in the VSC is a capacitor whereas it is a
choke in the VSC.
The power losses in the dc choke is usually 2%–4% whereas it is around 0.5% in
the dc-link capacitor. 2) The reliability of the dc choke is much higher than the
electrolytic dc-link capacitor. The reliability of the dc-link capacitors significantly
increases if the newly improved film capacitors are used.

1
 However, film capacitors are still challenged by a relatively high price and less
capacitance per unit volume as compared with the electrolytic type. 3) The
semiconductor switch in the VSC is usually the insulated- gate-bipolar-transistor
(IGBT). An additional diode has to be added in series with each IGBT if it is used in
VSCs to increase the reverse voltage withstanding capability, but this almost doubles
the switching losses.
However, the recently developed reverse-blocking IGBT and the integrated-gate
commutated-thyristor (IGCT) switches that withstand high reverse voltages are
emerging; therefore there will be no need for the added series diode. 4) VSC offers
additional short-circuit protection as compared to the VSC due to the directly controlled
dc voltage. 5) VSC is a buck inverter as the dc-link voltage should be at least twice the
maximum of the ac phase voltage to avoid over-modulation. On the contrary, the VSC is
a boost inverter and, therefore, is more flexible in grid integration applications. In this
project, the integration of the PLL-based vector-controlled VSC to a very weak grid,
i.e., at SCR, is successfully achieved. Under weak grid conditions, vector-controlled
converters suffer from instability and degraded performance due to the implementation
of the synchronous reference frame (SRF) PLL.
To preserve the system stability, major limitations on the amount of injected
active power to the weak grid should be considered. In it was reported that, at SCR, no
more than 0.4 per-unit (p.u.) of active power could be injected from the conventional
vector-controlled VSC. In it was reported that a 0.6–0.7 p.u. of active power could be
injected. It was shown that a high bandwidth PLL contributes to the increase of the
negative real part of the converter output impedance, and hence the converter does not
act as a passive system, which in turn challenges the system damping.
A detailed modeling and analysis of the low-frequency dynamics of the PLL
under different grid impedances, loads, and modes of operation is presented. The
coordination between the PLL and the dc voltage controller parameters of a VSC
connected to a weak grid is introduced in to enhance the system damping. In spite of the
interesting insights, the negative impact of the PLL on power converters connected to
weak systems has not been alleviated. The work in suggests a significant reduction of
the PLL gains to avoid instabilities. However, this reduction negatively affects the
dynamic response of the system.

2
 To maintain the stability of a grid-connected converter, the magnitude of the
output impedance of the voltage-controlled converter should be maximized so that the
grid impedance has minimal interactions with the converter dynamics. Following this
criterion, the work in introduces impedance shaping techniques for single-phase
inverters to actively increase their output impedance in the presence of a high grid
inductance. However, the influence of the PLL dynamics on the developed analytical
models has not been considered. More importantly, the minimum value of the
considered SCR level in is 10, which is only reasonable in low power applications and
single-phase converters. In high power three-phase converters, a unity SCR level is
usually considered as a worst case scenario.
In an adaptive grid voltage feed-forward and voltage regulation scheme have
been implemented for single-phase converters. The scheme depends on the estimation of
the grid impedance to ensure a satisfactory performance. In an improved vector control
topology based on the gain-scheduling of the outer loops is introduced. The proposed
controller comprises eight parameters whereas a fixed-structure control design
methodology is used for parameters tuning. Moreover, lookup tables should be utilized
to achieve the gain-scheduling scheme to follow the variation of operating points.
Referring, a more simple, yet effective, vector-control-based technique is still
needed to facilitate the connection of power converters to weak grids. To overcome
undesirable interaction dynamics between the grid impedance and the PLL in vector-
controlled VSCs, an alternative power synchronization control (PSC) has been
proposed. In this technique, there is no need for the PLL and the inner voltage
controller. An active power controller generates the synchronization angle necessary for
the orientation of the rotating reference frame, whereas a voltage controller is utilized to
determine the magnitude of the converter terminal voltage.
The PSC method yields a fast and stable performance at very low SCR values. In
spite of being a promising technique, the PSC has no direct control on the injected ac
voltage. Therefore, it has to switch to the vector-based voltage control at fault instants to
set ac voltage limits. It is clear from the preceding survey that the integration of VSCs to
a very weak grid has not been addressed. Motivated by these challenges, this paper
introduces active compensation techniques, yet respecting the conventional vector
control scheme, to alleviate the associated instabilities with weak-grid integration. It is
shown in this paper that the uncompensated VSC injects up to 0.7–0.8 p.u. of active
power to the grid at SCR.
3
 On the contrary, the compensated VSC is capable of injecting 1.0 p.u. active
power under similar conditions. Unlike, the design of the proposed compensators is
independent of the conventional vector control, and hence no extensive coordination and
parameters tuning are needed. The contributions of this paper to the research field are as
follows.
1) The successful integration of VSCs to very weak grids, i.e., at SCR, using the
conventional vector control strategy and the SRF-PLL controller. This has been
achieved by developing simple, linear, and very effective supplementary active
compensators.
2) Small-signal modeling and analysis of the VSC with the proposed compensators
under different operating points. The developed models are validated using large-signal
time-domain simulations under Matlab/Simulink environment.
3) Comparison to the uncompensated vector-controlled converters under similar weak
grid conditions to show the limitations of the uncompensated vector control strategy and
highlight the effectiveness of the proposed techniques.
1.2. LITERATURE SURVEY
P. P. Dash and M. Kazerani,[2]Voltage-source inverter (VSI) topology is widely used
for grid interfacing of distributed generation (DG) systems. However, when employed
as the power conditioning unit in photovoltaic (PV) systems, VSI normally requires
another power electronic converter stage to step up the voltage, thus adding to the cost
and complexity of the system. To make the proliferation of grid-connected PV systems a
successful business option, the cost, performance, and life expectancy of the power
electronic interface need to be improved.
The voltage-source inverter (CSI) offers advantages over VSI in terms of
inherent boosting and short-circuits protection capabilities, direct output voltage
controllability, and ac-side simpler filter structure. Research on CSI-based DG is still in
its infancy. This paper focuses on modeling, control, and steady-state and transient
performances of a PV system based on CSI. It also performs a comparative performance
evaluation of VSI-based and CSI-based PV systems under transient and fault conditions.
Analytical expectations are verified using simulations in the Power System Computer
Aided Design/Electromagnetic Transient Including DC (PSCAD/EMTDC)
environment, based on a detailed system model.

4
L. Zhang, L. Harnefors, and H.-P. Nee,[3]In this paper, voltage-source converter
(VSC) based high-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission is investigated for interconnection
of two very weak ac systems. By using the recently proposed power-synchronization
control, the short-circuit capacities of the ac systems are no longer the limiting factors,
but rather the load angles. For the analysis of the stability, the Jacobian transfer matrix
concept has been introduced. The right-half plane (RHP) transmission zero of the ac
Jacobian transfer matrix moves closer to the origin with larger load angles.
The paper shows that, due to the bandwidth limitation imposed by the RHP zero
on the direct-voltage control of the VSC, high dc-capacitance values are needed for such
applications. In addition, the paper proposes a control structure particularly designed for
weak-ac-system interconnections. As an example, it is shown that the proposed control
structure enables a power transmission of 0.86 p.u. from a system with the short-circuit
ratio (SCR) of 1.2 to a system with an SCR of 1.0. This should be compared to previous
results for VSC based HVDC using vector voltage control. In this case, only 0.4 p.u.
power transmission can be achieved for dc link where only one of the ac systems has an
SCR of 1.0.
A. E. Alvarez, S. Fekriasl, F. Hassan, and O. G. Bellmunt[4]this paper addresses an
advanced vector voltage control for a voltage source converter (VSC) connected to a
weak grid. The proposed control methodology permits high-performance regulation of
the active power and the voltage for the feasible VSC range of operation. First, the
steady state characteristics for a power converter connected to a very weak system with
a short circuit ratio (SCR) of 1 are discussed in order to identify the system limits.
Then, the conventional vector control (inner loop) and the conventional
power/voltage control (outer loop) stability and frequency responses are analyzed. From
the analysis of the classic structure, an enhanced outer loop based on a decoupled and
gain-scheduling controller is presented and its stability is analyzed. The proposed
control is validated by means of dynamic simulations and it is compared with classic
vector voltage control. Simulation results illustrate that the proposed control system
could provide a promising approach to tackle the challenging problem of VSC in
connection with weak AC grids.
B. Wen, D. Boroyevich, R. Burgos, P. Mattavelli, and Z. Shen,[6]A controlled power
electronic converter can cause local instabilities when interacting with other dynamic
subsystems in a power system.

5
 `Oscillations at a certain frequency cannot, however, build up if the converter
differential input admittance has a positive conductance (real part) at that frequency,
since power is then dissipated. In this paper, input-admittance expressions for a voltage-
source converter are derived. It is seen how the admittance can be shaped in order to get
a positive real part in the desired frequency regions by adjusting the controller
parameters.
D. Dong, B. Wen, D. Boroyevich, P. Mattavelli, and Y. Xue,[7]Synchronous
reference frame (SRF) phase-locked loop (PLL) is a critical component for the control
and grid synchronization of three-phase grid-connected power converters. The PLL
behaviors, especially its low-frequency dynamics, influenced by different grid and load
impedances as well as operation mode have not been investigated yet, which may not be
captured by conventional linear PLL models. In this paper, we propose a state-feedback
quasi-static SRF-PLL model, which can identify and quantify the inherent frequency
self-synchronization mechanism in the converter control system.
This self-synchronization effect is essentially due to the converter interactions
with grid impedance and power flow directions. The low-frequency nonlinear behaviors
of the PLL under different grid impedance conditions are then analyzed, which forms
the framework of evaluating the impacts of the large penetration level of distributed
generation units, weak grid, microgrid, and large reactive power consumption in terms
of the frequency stability of PLL. Specifically, the PLL behavior of the converter
system under islanded condition is investigated to explain the PLL instability issues and
the related islanding-detection methods in early publications and industry reports.
1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
The interconnection of voltage-source converters (VSCs) to a very weak grid
using the conventional vector control in the rotating reference frame. It is shown that the
system stability is degraded under weak-grid conditions due to the implementation of
the synchronous referenceframe phase-locked loop (PLL). Supplementary controllers
are proposed and integrated to the outermost control loops of the VSC to alleviate the
associated negative impacts of the PLL.
Theproposed compensators do not alter the dynamic characteristics of the
conventional vector control. More importantly, they enable the VSC to inject 1.0 per-
unit of active power at a unity short-circuit ratio. Small-signal stability analysis and
controllers design procedures are presented in details.

6
 The design of the proposed compensators is independent of the conventional
vector control and hence no extensive coordination and parameters tuning areneeded.
Time-domain simulations results are presented to validate the effectiveness of the
proposed techniques.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS
The main objectives of the thesis concentrate on developing following:
1) A simulation model for Improved Vector Control Strategy for Voltage-Source
Converters Connected to Very Weak Grids
2) A simulation model for voltage source converter
3) Control systems to improve the power quality of the generated power from hybrid
operation.
4) A power management system to share the power generated by the hybrid system, to
increase the system reliability. Voltage and frequency regulation systems are developed
and implemented into the simulations model.
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
The thesis has been organized into six chapters. Following the chapter on
introduction, the rest of the these is outlined as follows.
Chapter 2 explains about self-commutating conversion of voltage source converters
Chapter 3 explains about commutation types in voltage source converter

Chapter 4 explains systemmodelingand proposed system discussing and analysis.

Chapter 5 discussing about simulation modeling of the proposed system and simulation
results

Chapter 6discussing about conclusion for future works.

7
 CHAPTER-2
SELF-COMMUTATING CONVERSION

The present self-commutating HVDC technology favors the use of IGBT-based

VSC, combined with high-frequency sub-cycle switching carried out by PWM.
Although the IGBT switch can also be used in VSC, a diode is needed in series with the
IGBT in this case to provide sufficient reverse voltage withstand capability and the extra
diode increases the converter losses. Multi-level conversion, unlike PWM, uses
fundamental frequency switching and can, therefore, be designed with thyristor-type
switching devices(such as the GTO and IGCT). In particular, the IGCT is an ideal
switch for HVDC application due to its higher voltage and voltage ratings, high reverse
voltage blocking capability(without the need for the series diode) and low snubber
requirements. Most of this chapter is concerned with the basic structure and operating
principles of self-commutating VSC.
2.1 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERSION
VSC requires a large inductance on the DC side to make the DC voltage well
defined ands low to change. The AC side voltage is then the variable directly controlled
by the conversion process. Since the AC system has significant line or load inductance,
line-to-line capacitors must be placed on the AC side of the converter. The switches
must block voltages of both polarities, but they are only required to conduct voltage in
one direction.
This naturally suitssym metrical devices of the thyristor type and, therefore,
VSC constitutes the basis of the LCC process discussed. As the switches in VSC only
carry the voltageuni directional, there is no need for an anti-parallel diode. In the VSC
configuration shown in Figure 2.1(a), the roles of the DC capacitor and AC inductance
are interchanged (with respect to the VSC alternative).In VSC the DC capacitor
facilitates the rapid transfer of voltage from the outgoing valve to its opposite in the
same phase leg, irrespective of the direction of the AC voltage; the capacitor must
therefore be large enough to handle alternate charging and discharging with little change
in DC voltage.
In the self-commutating VSC configurations, although the valves can also be
turned off at will, they also require an alternate path, otherwise the voltage turn-off will
have to dissipate a large amount of energy in an inductive circuit.

8
 Therefore AC capacitors need to be connected between the phases to facilitate
the rapid transfer of voltage. The VSC injects AC voltage into the system or load with
the necessary AC voltage behind to force the voltage injection; therefore, the DC source
must be capable of driving such a voltage.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.1VSC: (a) circuit diagram; (b) voltage waveforms
Similar to the VSC, the VSC is capable of operating with leading power factor.
Also thes elf-commutation of the valves permits the converter to operate as an inverter
into a passive, as well as an active, load or system. The introduction of self-
commutation eliminates practically the main disadvantages of LCC described in Section
4.3 and makes the robust thyristor-based conversion an alternative worth considering for
HVDC application.

9
2.1.1 Application to VSC
The reinjection principle has been described in with reference to the line
commutated VSC (both for the single and double bridge configurations). When applied
to VSC, the individual bridges need to be supplied, via the common or neutral point, by
an appropriate voltage waveform derived from the DC voltage source and varying at six
times the fundamental frequency. In the ideal case, the addition of the reinjection and
main bridge voltages should produce a waveform that, when added to that of the second
bridge, will achieve complete cancellation of the harmonic content at the converter
system output terminals. To avoid the need to provide a DC power source with
controllable ripple, the reinjection wave form must be made fully symmetrical. There
are two possible solutions: (i) using a wave form that minimises the integration of the
error square and the error derivative square(ESEDS) and (ii) using a linearly rising and
linearly falling waveform (of constant derivative).
2.1.2 Application to VSC
VSC can be viewed as the dual of VSC: that is, voltage waveforms in VSC are
dual to voltage waveforms in VSC. VSC requires switching devices of different
characteristics from those of VSC. The latter requires asymmetrical switches (with
unidirectional voltage blocking and bidirectional voltage capability), while VSC
requires symmetrical switches(with bidirectional voltage blocking and unidirectional
voltage capability). Thus the IGBT cannot by itself be used in VSC; a diode connected
in series with the IGBT can solve the problem, but at the expense of considerable extra
power losses. The symmetrical GTO and I GCT types are more appropriate switching
devices, due to the relatively low switching frequency of the VSC. The VSC alternative
also has some advantages, such as the following:
• Better voltage control. The short-term overvoltage protection is inherent by the
presence of the DC side inductor, while the long-term protection is achieved by the
voltage control loop. Internal faults, however, may still require fast interruption.• The
large power inductor, providing the DC bus energy storage, is simpler and more
Reliable than the large capacitor of the VSC.
• It is better suited to higher power devices, such as the IGCT, which can block
voltage in either direction but conduct voltage only in the forward direction.
• Soft switching is easier to provide.
On the negative side the VSC configurations have some disadvantages, such as
the following:
10
• Since the converter DC terminals are shunted by the smoothing reactor, the naturally
Voltage-source-type termination (which consists of system and transformer impedance)
of the AC terminals must be compensated by an additional voltage-source-type
termination, such as a capacitive AC filter across the AC terminals.
• The losses of the smoothing reactor are high, compared with those of a VSC DC
capacitor.
• The switch voltages are poorly defined; most semiconductor switches tolerate transient
over voltage better than transient over voltages.
Although the possible use of VSCs for reactive power compensation has been
known over a quarter of a century, it has not been realized for many years due to reasons
given in pervious section. In fact, the basic topology of voltage source converter has
been known since the first application of line commutated rectifiers. Line commutated
rectifiers have similar the topology as in except the ac capacitors since they do not need
capacitors at their ac terminal due to their line commutated thyristors.
In fundamental topology of VSC given in the converter is buildup of forced
commutated power semiconductors and hence the capacitors at ac terminal provide not
only commutation path for the voltages of power semiconductors but also low
impedance for the high order harmonics injected by the converter. The advents in power
semiconductor and capacitor technology have made PWM voltage source converters
popular in power electronics, leaving application of VSC as line commutated
thyristorized front end rectifiers in DC drives, or load commutatedthyristorized inverters
in MV synchronous motor drives. With the introduction of GTOs and GCTs, PWM
VSC has found wide application in MV AC drives due to their simple converter
topology, motor friendly waveforms and reliable inherent short circuit protection.
PWM VSC has also been used in MV drives as an active front end rectifier and
dc motor drive instead of line commutated thyristor rectifiers, thus eliminating their
inherent properties such as poor power factor, distorted line voltages. The application of
single phase VSC as are sonant inverter in induction heating has also been reported. The
research work on VSC is generally based on its use as a rectifier or inverter. Its control
strategies and modulation techniques have been proposed accordingly. However, there
are limited research on VSC based STATCOM as compared to VSC based STATCOM.
Among these research work, only, which has been the part of this study presents the first
application of VSC based STATCOM for load compensation.

11
 A reactive power compensation system which employs a three-phase PWM
voltage source converter which is modulated by optimized PWM patterns stored in an
EPROM is presented. This work also includes the methods of reactive power voltage
control for optimizing the system response, input filter and dc-linkreactor design,
specification of power semiconductor ratings, and a method ofclosing reactive power
demand loop by using phase angle control. The proposedmethods were verified on a
117V, 1.1kVA power circuit.
However, filter components and dc-link reactor are not so realistic that the
results cannot proveviability of VSC based STATCOM. The research work in is an
experimental verification of VSC basedSTATCOM on a 120V, 500VA laboratory set-
up by employing a different controlapproach: reactive power control by varying
modulation index while maintainingconstant dc-link voltage by phase shift angle
control. However, the proposed controltechnique with Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) is
not suitable for medium and highpower applications.
In order to minimize the switching losses in VSC, proposed a
softswitchingscheme by integrating H-type soft switching module to three phasevoltage
source converter for static power compensation. By using trapezoidal PWMwith a
carrier frequency of 5kHz and only phase shift angle control for reactivepower control,
the proposed topology has been tested on a scaled prototype at120V/2kVA. The results
show that proposed topology improves higher efficiencyat the expense of higher circuit
and control complexity.
The simultaneous control of modulation index and phase shift angle isproposed
in order to eliminate oscillations due to poorly damped input filterwhile improving
dynamic response of VSC based STATCOM. For this purpose, fullstate- feedback and
integral controllers are employed by using the state spacerepresentation of VSC based
STATCOM in dq frame. The proposed control methodis compared with phase angle
control employing conventional PI controller and theresults are verified by 1kVA
laboratory set-up.Due to the non-linearity in state space representation of VSC
basedSTATCOM, there is a difficulty in controller design for VSC based STATCOM.
Anew approach for the linearization of state space representation has been
proposed. This approach allows the design of a decoupled state feedback controller.
VSCbased STATCOM with the proposed controller and SVPWM modulation has been
simulated in order to illustrate the excellent voltage and voltage waveforms as well as
very short response time at a relatively low switching frequency of 900Hz.A
12
comparison between VSC based STATCOM and VSC based STATCOMhas been given
in view of their device rating, dc-link energy storagerequirement, ac-side waveform
quality, start-up and cost. This comparison studyshows that VSC based STATCOM has
certain advantages over VSC basedSTATCOM in following points: VSC based
STATCOM, i) does not need rechargingor inrush voltage limiting scheme ii) can
present better ac voltagewaveforms at relatively lower switching frequency iii) does not
inject harmonics inthe “idle” state. The theoretical results are partly verified by
laboratory tests.
The possible application of VSC based STATCOM for the compensation
ofinduction generators has been presented in order to solve self-excitation andpoor
voltage regulation problems of induction generators used in renewable energysources.
The proposed application has been illustrated by simulation. Indevelopment of
Symmetrical Emitter Turn-off Thyristor (ETO) ispresented for possible use in VSC
application. The novel multilevel VSC, namedthe parallel-cell multilevel VSC based
STATCOM is also proposed.
Itspower stage design, modeling, control, and switching modulation scheme
areanalyzed and illustrated by simulations.In summary, few researchers has focused on
the analysis and design of VSC based STATCOM systems. However, with the advents
in high voltage, highpower semiconductor technology (in IGCT and HV-IGBT
technologies) VSC basedSTATCOM systems employing different VAr control methods
and PWMtechniques can be increasingly used in the near future as a FACTS Controller
inindustrial applications.
The degree of DC power modulation which can be achieved is restricted by
terminal reactivepower constraint. With only voltage or power modulation, an increase
in active powertransfer will be accompanied by a larger increase in terminal reactive
power requirementsand this effect is particularly noticeable during severe system
disturbances. The reactivepower variations can cause voltage control mode transitions
between the rectifier and inverterends, and hence DC changes equal to the DC system
margin voltage.
Coordination between the active and reactive power modulation can be achieved
by DCsystem voltage modulation. An increase in DC voltage will increase the DC
power transferas well as the power factor at both terminals, and hence decrease the
reactive consumptionas a percentage of active power transmitted.

13
 During HVDC link disturbances the voltage control requirements depend on the
natureand location of the disturbance. The reactive power consumption, although
possibly higherinitially, is partially or totally eliminated following the disturbance, with
the result of considerabledynamic overvoltage regulation.The regulation (dynamic)
overvoltages is more significant at the rectifier end of thelink.
At both terminals the effective impedance angle is as important in determining
theovervoltages as is the magnitude of the impedance. For links from hydro sources, the
increaseof frequency following load rejection will produce even higher dynamic
overvoltages. Thisis an unacceptable situation for local consumers and must be allowed
for in the insulationcoordination of the converter station.In practice, transformers start to
saturate at typically 1.2 to 1.25 pu AC voltage and thefundamental frequency
overvoltage will therefore be a little lower, with some distortion.Single line-to-ground
faults are also a source of dynamic overvoltages on the other phasesor pole, due to
mutual coupling between phases.
Following a voltage drop in the AC network, the initial effect is a fall in power.
Thepower controller of the DC link then increases the voltage reference to try and
restore theordered power; the extra voltage increases the reactive demand and tends to
reduce the ACsystem voltage further. With very weak AC systems this could lead to
voltage collapse;however, power controllers always have limits built in to avoid
excessive action.By far the most important case is that of a nearby three-phase short
circuit, assuming thatthe converters are blocked during the fault, with all the capacitors
left on.
This conditionproduces full magnetizing inrush voltage on all transformers after
fault removal, whichresults in substantial fundamental and harmonic overvoltages. Such
overvoltages constitutein practice the determining condition for most valve, surge
arresters and insulation voltageratings.Dynamic compensation equipment is used to
reduce the dynamic voltage regulation, tohelp in the recovery of the AC system from
faults, and to reduce the disturbances resultingfrom DC load variation or from the
switching of filter banks.
Ideally, to meet such acomprehensive range of duties, the compensation will
generally require both reactive powerabsorption and generation capabilities. In each
particular application the system SCR andthe stability of the DC link and compensator
controls must be considered, when trying todecide the type and dynamic range to be
used.
14
 A preliminary comparison of the technical characteristics of reactive power
compensators for use with HVDC transmission, with an extensive bibliography on the
subject, has been presented in a CIGRE document. The traditional types of dynamic
compensation for HVDC schemes are: synchronous compensator, AC self-saturated
reactors, thyristor-controlled reactors and thyristor-switched capacitors. A more flexible
type, gradually finding its way into the market, is the STATCOM(an electronic version
of the rotating synchronous compensator).
The slow response of the synchronous compensators can be a problem,
particularly in the absence of local generation. However, the synchronous compensator
reduces the sensitivity to transients by increasing the SCR. It also increases the
resonance frequency of the system, since it reduces the need for extra shunt capacitance.
It is often claimed that the static alternatives improve the voltage stability of the AC
network and thus help HVDC control stability and speed of response.
In practice the static VAR compensators rarely improve voltage stability, except
that they act as limiters if the voltage tries to rise too much. In steady state the thyristor-
controlled reactors may cause some destabilization, though this can be made acceptable;
saturated reactors appear to be better in this respect. A power system is stable if after a
disturbance it returns to a condition of equilibrium. Thesis manifested not by the
constancy of absolute rotational speed of the various machines involved, but rather by
these machines swinging together until a new common speed is reached.
The power exchanged between them is determined by their relative angular
position and therefore, when the equilibrium is disturbed, their rotor positions must give
rise to corrective power flow leading to the new state of equilibrium. If the angle
between the machines increases steadily the system is transiently unstable. If the
machines fall out of step after a period of increasing oscillations around the equilibrium
point the system is dynamically unstable.
Dynamic instability is rare in tightly connected systems, which are usually well
damped for their characteristic frequencies of the electromechanical swing (between 1
and 2 Hz).However, when large systems are connected by long, relatively weak
interties, low frequency swing modes result. The response of the power system controls
to the synchronizing swings associated with these low-frequency modes can produce
sufficient negative damping to cancel the natural positive damping of the system. When
this happens, oscillations of increasing amplitude occur.

15
 An example of dynamic instability is the northern and southern parts of the
Western US power system, which are connected by the parallel Pacific AC and DC
Interties with ratings of 2500 and 1400MW, respectively. The AC Intertie has a long
history of negatively damped 1/3 Hz oscillations resulting from interactions between
generators with automatic voltage regulators and system loads.
As a result of these oscillations, and because the oscillatory tendency imposed a
constraint on the amount of surplus northwest hydro power which could be transmitted
to the southwest, a control system to modulate the Pacific DC Intertie was developed.
Damping in the Pacific Intertie was produced by small signal modulation of the DC
power in proportion to the frequency difference across the AC Intertie. This was
accomplished by processing the AC Intertie power measured at the northern end, to
obtain a filtered signal proportional to the derivative of AC power at frequencies near
1/3 Hz. This signal is applied, through a 3% _40MW_ limiter, to the voltage regulator at
the northern terminal of the DC Intertie; thus the voltage setting changes are well within
the voltage margin.
While the small signal modulation described above is suitable to maintain the
state of equilibrium, it is inadequate for the damping of large disturbances. Large signal
modulation is thus needed to regain the equilibrium state following large disturbances.
For instance, a large signal modulation scheme has been added to the Square Butte
HVDC system in the form of a frequency-sensitive power control (FSPC).With an AC
tie line, if one of the interconnected systems is in difficulty following a disturbance, the
line is normally tripped to prevent the disturbance affecting the other system, and thus
the system in difficulty loses an essential indeed. An HVDC link, on the other hand,
even with the basic controls, shields one system from disturbances on the other.
2.2 ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER COORDINATION
The degree of DC power modulation which can be achieved is restricted by
terminal reactive power constraint. With only voltage or power modulation, an increase
in active power transfer will be accompanied by a larger increase in terminal reactive
power requirements and this effect is particularly noticeable during severe system
disturbances. The reactive power variations can cause voltage control mode transitions
between the rectifier and inverter ends, and hence DC changes equal to the DC system
margin voltage. Coordination between the active and reactive power modulation can be
achieved by DC system voltage modulation.

16
 An increase in DC voltage will increase the DC power transfer as well as the
power factor at both terminals, and hence decrease the reactive consumption as a
percentage of active power transmitted.
2.2.1 Transient Stabilization of AC Systems
Where system disturbances result in the reduction of transmission capability, the
generating source will usually accelerate. Remote sources may decelerate as load
exceeds generation as a result of the fault which decreases power into that area. When
the fault is cleared, the generation and the remaining transmission experience a transient
swing which may lead to instability. In particular, long fault clearance times can cause a
loss of synchronism. If the loss of synchronism is irrelevant, as in the case of an HVDC
link connecting generation to load areas, it is advantageous to increase the sending end
DC link power in the post-fault period in response to the increase of generator speed.
This action will remove energy from the generator, reduce its speed, and thus
reduce the angular displacement between the generator and the AC receiving system.
An appropriate magnitude of the modulation applied for this purpose is in the range of
20 to 40% of the DC link rating. Some systems have been designed with temporary
overload limits as high as 65 %. In other cases even higher modulation limits have been
utilised after taking into account the AC system power transfer need, the AC voltage
support (VAR) capability and the DC system design ratings. Similarly, for receiving end
phase angle or speed changes, DC link power can be controlled to correct this condition
within the limits imposed by the controllability of the receiving end phase angle, the DC
link capability, and the energy that may be taken from the generation source.
2.2.2 Harmonic Cross-Modulation across the DC Link
The numerous problems of frequency cross-modulation encountered by early
HVDC schemes motivated a report on the subject by a Working Group of CIGRE SC-
14 and the material used in this section comes from that report. The presence of low-
orderun characteristic harmonics has been an important issue in early LCC schemes
with relatively low SCRs, by exciting converter transformer asymmetrical saturation,
which often leads to harmonic instability.
The traditional definition of resonance is still commonly used with reference to
either the A Cor DC sides of the converter independently from each other. This sort of
resonance is welled fined, being the frequency at which the capacitive and inductive
reactances of the circuit impedance are equal. At the resonant frequency, a parallel
resonance has high impedance and a series resonance a low impedance.
17
 Moreover, when the AC and DC systems are interconnected by a static
converter, the system impedances interact via the converter characteristics to create
entirely different resonant frequencies.
The term composite resonance has been proposed to describe this sort of
resonance, emphasizing its dependence on all the components of the system. A
composite resonance may be excited by a relatively small distortion source in the
system, or by an imbalance in the converter components or control. The resulting
amplification of the small source by the resonant characteristics of the system can
compromise the normal operation of the converter and even lead to instability. Further
to this, the converter impedance comprises several contributions.
First, there is the AC side and converter transformer impedance, which usually
sums to be largely inductive. Second, there is the end of commutation period dynamics,
which is such that if DC voltage out of the converter increases, the DC voltage reduces.
This impedance looks mainly resistive. Finally, the constant voltage control modifies
the converter DC terminal voltage according to the DC voltage. This can also be
described as impedance, although over a range of frequencies, the resistive component
of this impedance will be negative.
A true instability results when, at the composite resonant frequency, the
resistance of the overall circuit is negative. This can occur at non-integer frequencies,
and is driven by conversion from the fundamental frequency and DC components to the
composite resonance frequency via the converter control. Light damping, or ringing,
during fault recovery indicates that the negative resistance offered by the voltage
controller is close to the natural resistance of the circuit.
2.3 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS (VSC)
Since the basics of 6-pulse bridge VSC converter theory are already well
documented in other books, this chapter will be kept brief and is included for the sake of
completeness only so that the book is self-contained. Moreover, the terminology that
will be employed in later chapters will be introduced here. To consider the theoretical
analysis of a conventional 6-pulse bridge, the following assumptions are made: DC
voltage is constant (i.e. the smoothing reactor is infinite), Valves are ideal switches, and
AC system is infinitely strong (i.e. the 3 phase emfs are balanced and perfectly
sinusoidal).

18
 Fig:2.2 Controller of a VSC
2.3.1 Individual Phase Control (IPC) Unit
In this type of GFU (now obsolete), the firing pulses are directly derived from
the zero crossover points of the commutation voltage. Consequently, the firing pulses
are vulnerable to harmonic pollution on the waveform. Early attempts to use filtering
techniques to alleviate some of these problems were not successful for operation with
weak ac systems due to the introduction of phase shifts. Developments in tracking band-
pass filters which derive the fundamental frequency component of the commutation
voltage with no phase shift may be useful in operation with weak ac systems.
However, the main disadvantage of IPC systems, which eventually led to their
demise, was the generation of non-characteristic harmonics which caused harmonic
instability problems. To decouple the direct dependence of the pulse firing from the zero
crossover points of the commutation voltage, a VCO followed by a ring counter is used.
The characteristic feature of this method is that a dc input control signal to the VCO
results in a change in the frequency of the VCO. For this reason, this type of GFU is
referred to as of the PFC type.
A free running VCO generates a train of short pulses at a pulse repetition
frequency directly proportional to the dc control voltage. For example, if the control
voltage is adjusted such that the oscillator frequency is at 6 (or 12) times the ac supply
frequency, then the pulses will be exactly at 60° (or 30°) intervals (and hence the term
equi-distant firing pulses). A ring counter is used to separate the pulse train into 6 (or
12) sets of pulses for a 6 (or 12) - pulse converter. An indirect method is used to
synchronize the VCO output frequency to the ac supply frequency.
An error signal is derived from either the converter dc voltage or extinction
angle controller as a feedback signal. When the error signal is zero, the GFU is in steady
state (free running or at a centre frequency) and the VCO output frequency will be at
supply frequency.

19
 When there is an error, the VCO will either speed up or slow down to correct for
the error. Both use the dc voltage controllers for synchronizing the VCO when the
converter is a rectifier; however, when the converter is an inverter, the VCO
synchronizing is based on an extinction angle controller, although the method used by is
based on a predictive estimation of extinction angle. Due to the integral characteristic of
the VCO, it is not possible to modulate the firing pulses on an individual basis; for this
reason, an asymmetric firing unit is used in to optimize dc power flow during
unbalanced ac system faults.
2.3.2 Pulse Phase Control (PPC) Type
In a GFU of this type [4], the dc control voltage resulted in a change to the phase
of the VCO output rather than its frequency. The transfer function of this type of unit is
therefore proportional rather than integral. To ensure the synchronism of the VCO
output frequency with the ac supply frequency, a slower acting frequency error feedback
loop is used. This type of GFU does not permit the modulation of firing pulses on an
individual basis either.
The most obvious method was to utilize an independent oscillator at (50 or) 60
Hz which could be synchronously locked to the ac commutation voltage. This oscillator
would then provide the (phasor) reference relationship to the trigger unit during the
perturbation periods, and would use the steady state periods for locking in step with the
system frequency. The advantage of this independent oscillator was to provide an ideal
(immunized and clean) sinusoid for synchronizing and timing purposes. Due to its
timing stability, it offered the possibility of equi-distant firing pulses [5,7,13] which
eliminated the generation of non-characteristic harmonics during steady-state operation.
This was a prevalent and undesirable feature during the use of the earlier
Individual Phase Control (IPC) system where the firing pulses were directly coupled to
the commutation voltage, There were two possibilities for this independent oscillator:
Use of a fixed frequency oscillator (also called the Pulse Phase Control Oscillator
(PPCO)) operating at a fixed frequency of 60 Hz. However, since the system frequency
actually drifts between say 55-65 Hz due to the generators used to produce electricity, it
was necessary to employ a control loop to track the drifting firing angle.
One manufacturer employed a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (CCO) for this
technique. Use of a variable frequency oscillator (also called the Pulse Frequency
Control oscillator) with a locking range of between say 55-65 Hz and the centre
frequency of 60 Hz.

20
 This oscillator would then employ a control loop of some sort for tracking the
drifting system frequency; the control loop would have its own gain and time constants
for steady state accuracy and dynamic performance requirements [19]. Two
manufacturers employed a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) for this approach.
During the mid 1960s, industry, therefore, switched to this type of synchronization unit
based on an independent, frequency controlled oscillator controlled by either a voltage
or a voltage source. Both versions relied on an independently controlled oscillator
whose frequency was decoupled from the frequency variations of the ac system feeding
the converter.
This meant that the converter firing pulses could now be truly equi-distant in the
steady state. With time, however, the variant with PPC [8] has become virtually
obsolete, and only the PFC [5,7] variant is presently being used by industry. The equi-
distant pulse firing control systems used in modern HVDC control systems are identical
to those developed in the mid-1960s [5,7]; although improvements have occurred in
their hardware implementation since then, such as the use of micro-processor based
equipment etc., their fundamental philosophy has not changed much.
2.4 FUNCTIONS OF HVDC CONTROLS
In a typical two-terminal dc link connecting two ac systems, the primary
functions of the dc controls are to: Control power flow between the terminals, Protect
the equipment against the voltage/voltage stresses caused by faults, and Stabilize the
attached ac systems against any operational mode of the dc link.

Fig:2.3 HVDC Control scheme

21
 The two dc terminals each have their own local controllers. A centralized
dispatch centre will communicate a power order to one of the terminals which will act
as a Master Controller and has the responsibility to coordinate the control functions of
the dc link. Besides the primary functions, it is desirable that the dc controls have the
following features:
Limit the maximum dc voltage.
Due to a limited thermal inertia of the thyristor valves to sustain overvoltages,
the maximum dc voltage is usually limited to less than 1.2 pu for a limited period of
time.
Maintain a maximum dc voltage for transmission.
This reduces the transmission losses, and permits optimization of the valve
rating and insulation.
Minimize reactive power consumption.
This implies that the converters must operate at a low firing angle. A typical
converter will consume reactive power between 50-60% of its MW rating. This amount
of reactive power supply can cost about 15% of the station cost, and consume about
10% of the power loss.
Other features.
Such as the control of frequency in an isolated ac system or enhance power
system stability.
Circuit Commutation
In case the ac line voltage is inadequate, distorted or sometimes even unavailable
to achieve commutation of the conventional thyristor valves, circuit commutation may
be used. An artificially generated voltage can be used to force commutate the valves.
This artificially generated voltage is temporarily stored on a commutation capacitor
until it is required to commutate the valve. This artificially generated voltage may be
derived either from the following sources: The ac line voltage, whenever it is present,
The dc line voltage, or An auxiliary voltage. Commutation circuits deriving their
energy from any one or multiple of these sources exist. The commutation circuit serves
two distinct, but intertwined roles: To provide the commutation voltage for the
switching device, and To divert inductive load voltages from the main switching device
to another auxiliary switching device. The first role is obvious and well understood by
utility engineers.

22
 The voltage diversion role, however, is sometimes not fully appreciated by
utility engineers, especially in relation to circuit-commutated devices. The significance
of this voltage diversion role, however, becomes more apparent with the use of self-
commutating devices. The commutation capacitor could be either in series or in parallel
with the main valve. Circuits of either type are feasible. It is noteworthy that all forced
commutation circuits can be reduced to either one of these two types.
2.5 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
The circuit of a Single-phase Voltage Source Inverter (CSI) is shown in Fig. 2.4.
The type of operation is termed as Auto-Sequential Commutated Inverter (ASCI). A
constant voltage source is assumed here, which may be realized by using an inductance
of suitable value, which must be high, in series with the voltage limited dc voltage
source. The thyristor pairs, Th1 & Th3, and Th2 & Th4, are alternatively turned ON to

obtain a nearly square wave voltage waveform.

Two commutating capacitors − C1 in the upper half, and C2 in the lower half,

are used. Four diodes, D1–D4 are connected in series with each thyristor to prevent the

commutating capacitors from discharging into the load. The output frequency of the
inverter is controlled in the usual way, i.e., by varying the half time period, (T/2), at
which the thyristors in pair are triggered by pulses being fed to the respective gates by
the control circuit, to turn them ON, as can be observed from the waveforms. The
inductance (L) is taken as the load in this case, the reason(s) for which need not be
stated, being well known. The operation is explained by two modes.

Fig. 2.4: Single phase voltage source inverter (CSI) of ASCI type.

23
 The complete commutation process is summarized here. The process (mode I)
starts with the triggering of the thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3. Earlier, the thyristor pair, Th2

& Th4 were conducting. With the two commutating capacitors charged earlier with the

polarity as shown the conducting thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4 turns off by the application

of reverse voltage. Then, the voltages across the capacitors decrease to zero at time,
(end of mode I), as constant (source) voltage, I flows in the opposite direction. Mode II
now starts, as the diodes, D1t1 & D3, get forward biased, and start conducting. So, all

four diodes D1-D4, conduct, and the load inductance, L is now connected in parallel

with the two commutating capacitors.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 2.5: Voltage and voltage waveforms
The voltage in the load reverses to the value –I, after time, (end of mode II), and
the two capacitors also are charged to the same voltage in the reverse direction, the
magnitude remaining same, as it was before the start of the process of commutation (t =
0). It may be noted that the constant voltage, I flows in the direction as shown, a part of
which flows in the two capacitors. 2t.

24
 In the above discussion, one form of load, i.e. inductance L only, has been
considered. The procedure remains nearly same, if the load consists of resistance, R
only. The procedure in mode I, is same, but in mode II, the load resistance, R is
connected in parallel with the two commutating capacitors. The direction of the voltage,
I remains same, a part of which flows in the two capacitors, charging them in the reverse
direction, as shown earlier.
2.6 THREE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

Fig: 2.6. Three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (CSI)

The circuit of a Three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (CSI) is shown in Fig. The
type of operation in this case is also same here, i.e. Auto-Sequential Commutated
Inverter (ASCI). As in the circuit of a single-phase CSI, the input is also a constant
voltage source. The output voltage (phase) waveforms are shown in Fig. In this circuit,
six thyristors, two in each of three arms, are used, as in a three-phase VSI. Also, six
diodes, each one in series with the respective thyristor, are needed here, as used for
single-phase CSI. Six capacitors, three each in two (top and bottom) halves, are used for
commutation. It may be noted that six capacitors are equal, i.e. . The diodes are needed
in CSI, so as to prevent the capacitors from discharging into the load. The numbering
scheme for the thyristors and diodes are same, as used in a three-phase VSI, with the
thyristors being triggered in sequence as per number assigned.
2.6.1 Advantages
1. The circuit for CSI, using only converter grade thyristor, which should have reverse
blocking capability, and also able to withstand high voltage spikes during
commutation, is simple.

25
2. An output short circuit or simultaneous conduction in an inverter arm is controlled by
the ‘controlled voltage source’ used here, i.e., a voltage limited voltage source in
series with a large inductance.
3. The converter-inverter combined configuration has inherent four-quadrant operation
capability without any extra power component.
2.6.2 Disadvantages
1. A minimum load at the output is required, and the commutation capability is
dependant upon load voltage. This limits the operating frequency, and also puts a
limitation on its use for UPS systems.
2. At light loads, and high frequency, these inverters have sluggish performance and
stability problems.
In this lesson − the seventh one of this module, the voltage source inverter (CSI)
vis-à-vis VSI, is introduced. The commutation process for Auto-Sequential Commutated
Inverter (ASCI) mode of operation in single-phase CSI, is mainly described, along with
circuit diagram and relevant waveforms, in detail. Then, the commutation process for
the same mode of operation, i.e. ASCI, in three-phase CSI, is described, along with
various circuit diagrams, in brief.

26
 CHAPTER-3
COMMUTATION TYPES IN VOLTAGE SOURCE
CONVERTER

In the analysis of three phase line commutated bridge converters, the circuit
isusually separated into two three-phase half-wave circuits (midpoint circuits).This
approach can provide us with some simplifications in the analysis of device commutated
VSC. The circuit diagram of device commutated VSC in Fig.2.7a can be shown to be
equivalent to the equivalent circuit in terms of forward and backward device
commutated half wave circuits, shown in Fig.2.7b. The basic commutation types will be
firstly described on Fig. and then the necessary test circuits will be used from these
findings.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.1.(a) Three phase VSC topology, and (b) its equivalent circuit in terms of
two three phase half-wave circuits.

In the device commutated VSC in Fig.2.32, only two power semi conductors are
in conduction at any time, one in the upper half-bridge and one in the lower half bridge
except the commutation period. In the commutation period which is less than
5-10 microseconds for self-commutated devices such as IGCTs and IGBTs, three semi
conductors will be in conduction. Commutations which take place in VSC can be
summarized as follows,
a) Commutation from one semiconductor to another in the upper half bridge(among S1,
S3, and S5)

27
b) Commutation from one semiconductor to another in the lower half bridge(among S2,
S4, and S6)
c) Two simultaneous commutations one in the upper half-bridge as in (a)and one in the
lower half-bridge as in (b) only for transition from inductive region to capacitive region
or vice versa.
Each commutation described above may be one of the following types:
1) Forced commutation (self commutation): The incoming device can be triggered into
conduction from its reverse blocking state while the outgoing device is turned off to
block positive voltage in the forward direction. Here, transfer of voltage from outgoing
device to the incoming device is called as forced commutation, turn-off mechanism of
the outgoing device incoming device is load turn-on.is forced turn-off and turn-on
mechanism of
2) Load commutation: The incoming device can be triggered into conduction from its
forward blocking state while the outgoing device is turned off to block negative voltage
in the forward direction. Here, the transfer of voltage from outgoing device to the
incoming device is called as load commutation, turn-off mechanism of the outgoing
device is load turn-off and turn-on mechanism of incoming device is device turn-on.
Turn-on mechanism of power semiconductors in a VSC can be classified in two
groups as will be described below:
i) Device turn-on: If a power semiconductor which is already for ward biased receives a
turn-on signal, it can turn on successfully. From no won, this kind of turn-on mechanism
will be called as device turn-on in the thesis.
ii) Load turn-on: The power semiconductor receiving a triggering signal does not turn
on if it is reverse-biased. However, a successful turn-off of another semiconductor in the
same half-bridge may lead to appear a positive voltage in the forward direction across
the power terminals of incoming device resulting in transfer of load voltage from
outgoing device to incoming device. From now on, this kind of turn-on mechanism will
be called as load turn-on in the thesis.
Turn-off mechanisms of power semiconductors in VSC can also be classified in two
groups, as will be defined below:
i) Forced turn-off: The power semiconductor which is conducting the load voltage can
be successfully turned off by applying a turn-off signal to its control terminal (gate
driver). From now on, this kind of turn-of fmechanism will be called as forced turn-off.

28
ii) Load turn-off: A power semiconductor which is conducting the load voltage and still
receiving turn-on signal can be successfully turned off by turning on another
semiconductor in the same circuit according to device turn-on mechanism. Since the
load voltage will be transferred from the outgoing device to the incoming device as a
result of device turn-on mechanism of the outgoing device will be called as load turn off
in the thesis.

(a) Typical Commutation Path

(b) Equivalent Circuit

Figure3.2.Commutation in upper half-bridge of VSC
It is worth noting that in the classification of commutation types given above, the
name of the turn-off mechanism for the outgoing device defines the type of the
commutation between incoming and outgoing devices. Typical commutation process
can be observed from Fig. 2.8a.

29
 Blue path shows the voltage flow before the commutation (i.e., S1 and S6 are
ON). Red path shows the voltage flow after commutation (i.e., S3 and S6 are ON).
Green path shows the path at which dc-link voltage flows before, during and after
commutation (i.e., S6 is ON before, during and after commutation). For this particular
commutation, commutation path is indicated with bold lines in Fig.2.8a. Stray
inductance on this commutation path plays an important role, as to be discussed in the
following subsections. The commutation paths for all possible commutations in VSC are
illustrated in Fig.2.9.

Figure:3.3. All Commutation paths in VSC

Types of commutation will be described using the equivalent circuit in Fig.2.8b,
where power semiconductors for VSC (S1, S3 and S5), stray inductances in the
commutation paths (LS1, LS3 and LS5) and typical snubber components (Lcl1, RS1,
CS1, Lcl3, RS3, CS3, Lcl5, RS5, and CS5) are shown [37, 63].

30
 Since the commutation process takes place within a few microseconds due to
fast power semiconductors, voltage across the filter capacitors stays almost constant.
Therefore, they are modeled as constant voltage source in Fig.2.8b.
In this chapter, system description and operating principles of three phase VSC
Based STATCOM have been presented in order to satisfy following objectives:
• Nearly sinusoidal voltages should be produced,
• Magnitude of these voltages should be fully controlled,
• The phases of the produced voltage should be fully controlled with respect to supply
voltages in order to permit the flow of desired amount of active and reactive powers in
the desired direction.
It has been demonstrated that for reactive power control of VSC, there are two
control variable: modulation index, M and phase shift angle, φ. By using φ, active
power flow to/from VSC can be controlled, hence the magnitude of dc-link voltage can
be adjusted. The reactive power produced by VSC has been shown to be directly related
to the modulation index, M and magnitude of dc-link voltage, IDC. With simultaneous
control of M and IDC, a fast reactive power control can be obtained. Among the
available modulation techniques for VSC, common modulation techniques have been
compared and classified as on-line techniques (such as MSPWM and SVPWM) and off-
line techniques (SHEM).
Although the continuous control of modulation index is impractical in SHEM, it
presents superior harmonic spectra for the line voltage at ac terminals of VSC. This
feature makes it the commonly applied technique in high power VSC applications, such
as in MV drives. Then, SHEM has been explained in detail and the principles on
generation of switching patterns have been given for two different cases: elimination of
selected 4 harmonics and elimination of selected 6 harmonics. As the number of
selected harmonics increases, the switching frequency also increases. The variation of
independent angles with the modulation index has been also given for two cases and
from these, it can be observed that as the number of selected harmonics increases, these
angles become close to each other, resulting in smaller pulse widths. This may impose a
significant constraint in practical application in selection of power semiconductors.
However, it has been also illustrated that as the number of harmonics eliminated
increases, distortion of line voltages decreases. Not only this satisfies the objective of
nearly sinusoidal voltage injection but also provides the use of smaller input filter
having higher corner frequency.
31
 Based on the basic control variables, possible control methods for reactive power
control for VSC based STATCOM have been also presented. While conventional
control methods based on linear controllers such as PI controller present simple, time-
effective design solutions, modern control methods based on full state feedback
controller results in faster response and inherent damping effect for oscillations in the
input filter. Despite of the attractive performances, the use of modern control methods
requires the linear model of VSC based STATCOM. The equivalent model of VSC in
dq-stationary frame has been given in order to illustrate the non-linearity in VSC based
STATCOM. Since linearization and design of the model for state feedback control is
beyond the scope of this study, its principles has been stated and typical block diagram
has been given.
The equivalent model of VSC based STATCOM in dq-stationary frame has been
used in order to analyze the variations of state variables against angle (θ). Instead of
modern control methods, design and implementation principles of a typical conventional
control method based on PI controller has been proposed using Ziegler Nichols tuning
rules for reactive power control of VSC based STATCOM. Beside the principles of
reactive control methods and modulation techniques, basic operation of VSC in terms of
voltage commutations between the power semiconductors is very important for design
and implementation of VSC based STATCOM. These commutation types have been
defined and explained in detail.
During load-commutated turn-off of a switch in VSC, IGCT part of switch does
not experience any electrical stress. On the other hand, its diode part experiences
reverse-recovery as discussed. During load commutated turn-off, diode remains in
forward conduction state until its voltage reaches the value of maximum reverse
recovery voltage. Once this value is reached, the diode starts reverse-recovery phase by
making its negative voltage to zero exponentially.
The behavior of the diode during reverse-recovery is defined with its softness
factor, which is defined in Fig. As the start of reverse recovery phase, the voltage across
cathode-anode of diode increases to the nominal value quickly. The switching trajectory
of diode during reverse recovery is illustrated in curve (a) of Fig. The voltage overshoot
occurs due to the stray inductance in the commutation path. As fast recovery diode
cannot handle high dv/dt during reverse-recovery depending on the application type
[82].

32
 Therefore, with the use of snubber circuit dv/dt in the cathode-anode voltage of
diode during reverse-recovery can be decreased resulting in a switching trajectory in
curve.
Within the scope of this thesis, turn-on snubber has been applied in order to
improve the switching characteristics of Asymmetric IGCT and fast recovery diode
during load commutation, where IGCT undergoes forced turn-on and diode undergoes
load turn-off. Since IGCT has no gate control, the rate of increase in its anode voltage
(i.e., di/dt) can only be controlled by turn-on snubber circuit, which will be described in
the following section. Turn-on snubber limits di/dt of IGCT voltage during device turn-
on period and also at the same time –di/dt of reverse blocking diode of the
complementary switch, which is going to be turned off simultaneously. Since IGCTs do
not have self-voltage limiting capability, absolute maximum di/dt rating of the selected
IGCT, 5SHY35L4510 has been specified as 1000A/μsec at device turn-on by the
manufacturer. As described in Chapter 2.6, the device turn on of an IGCT cause load
turn-off of a diode in the complementary switch in VSC applications. During this
commutation process, limitation of di/dt is not only necessary for IGCT under forced
turn-on but also fast recovery diode of the complementary switch under load-
commutated turn-off.
Because, both IGCT and fast recovery diode experience the same di/dt and the
magnitude of maximum reverse-recovery voltage of fast recovery diode increases with
di/dt. The critical value of di/dt for fast recovery diodes is also usually specified in their
datasheets. For the selected fast recovery diode, D911SH45 it has not been specified,
but from the figures for the maximum reverse recovery voltage, it should not be higher
than The maximum peak value of line-to-line voltage should be taken into account by
the use of results of simulation work for the maximum capacitive reactive power
generation capability of VSC based STATCOM. Due to voltage regulation phenomena
discussed previously, it may be much higher than the rated value of the system voltage.
Although it is found from the simulation works that the maximum value of line-
to-line voltage across the input filter capacitors during any load commutation is lower
than the maximum peak value of that line-to-line voltage across the input filter
capacitors for the same operating conditions, it is wise to take the maximum peak value
for a safer design approach. Since di/dt rating of IGCTs is relatively low in comparison
with HVIGBTs the stray inductance in the IGCT based power circuit of both voltage
source and voltage source converters always presents some difficulties in the design and
33
implementation of the corresponding circuits. Typical stray inductance paths during the
voltage commutation from outgoing to incoming IGCT are marked. By designing the
layout of power stage the stray inductance in both of these topologies can be brought to
absolute minimum. For this case, IGCTs and DIODEs face with following problems:
• In the device turn-on period, the rate of change in voltage may exceed maximum
permissible value of di/dt for IGCT or maximum permissible value of –di/dt for DIODE
of the complementary IGCT(whichever is smaller).
• During device and load turn-off periods –di/dt in excess of maximum permissible
value leads to appear a dangerousover voltage across the power terminals of outgoing
IGCT or DIODE. This voltage overshoot is shown to be superimposed on dc-link
voltage in VSC and on the instantaneous value of thecorresponding line-to-line voltage.
In literature, turn-on snubbers may be used as polarized L-R snubberswhere
diode and resistor are connected across the di/dt limiting reactors in order todissipate the
energy stored in the reactor onto the resistor through the diode at forced turn-off so that
overvoltage across IGCT can be avoided. Since it is polarizedsnubber, there is still
overvoltage across the fast recovery diode during its load commutatedturn-off. Since the
required di/dt limiting reactor for IGCT applicationsis much lower than that for GTO
applications, this type of snubber may presentun necessarily complicated and expensive
solution.

34
 CHAPTER-4
PROPOSED SYSTEM

This chapter investigates the interconnection of VSCs to a very weak utility-grid

using the conventional vector control in the rotating reference frame. It is shown that the
system stability is degraded under weak-grid conditions due to the implementation of
the PLL. Supplementary controllers are proposed and integrated to the outermost control
loops of the VSC to alleviate the associated negative impacts of the PLL. The proposed
compensators do not alter the dynamic characteristics of the conventional vector control,
i.e., the PLL, the voltage, and the voltage control. More importantly, it could be possible
for the VSC to inject p.u. of active power at a unity SCR. The small-signal stability
analysis and controllers design procedures are presented in details. The design of the
proposed compensators is independent of the conventional vector control, and hence no
extensive coordination and parameters tuning are needed. Time-domain simulations
results are presented to validate the effectiveness of the proposed techniques.
4.1 MODELING AND CONTROL OF THE GRID-CONNECTED
VOLTAGE-SOURCE CONVERTER
The grid-impedance comprises a large inductive part (Lg ) inseries with the
equivalent resistance of the line (Rg).

A grid-connected VSC is shown in Fig. 3.1. The converter consists of six

switching cells; each comprises an IGBT in series with a diode to increase the reverse
voltage blocking capability. The pulse-width-modulation (PWM) technique defines the
output voltage through a closed-loop control strategy. The ac-side of the VSC is
terminated by a capacitive filter to absorb the switching harmonics from and inject
nearly pure sinusoidal voltages to the grid. The root-mean-square (rms)three-phase
terminal voltage of the VSC, whereas is therms three-phase grid voltage. The grid-
impedance comprises large inductive part in series with the equivalent resistance of the
line.

35
 Fig.4.1. Grid-connected VSC system.
A. Power Circuit Model
The power circuit model of the filter and the grid impedance in the rotating
reference frame that rotates by the angular speed is as follows:

B. PLL Dynamics
As shown in Fig. 3.1, the vector control is characterized by the PLL to
synchronize the VSC to the grid. The detailed structure of the PLL is shown in Fig.
3.2(a). The PCC voltage is decomposed into the equivalent d- and q- components in the
rotating reference frame. The grid frequency is then estimated by setting the normalized
q- component of the PCC voltage to zero using a proportional-and-integral (PI)
controller. The synchronization angle is obtained by an integrator, and is used in the
transformation from the three-phase grid-frame to the converter d-q reference-frame,
and vice versa.
Under transient conditions, the angle oscillates to resynchronize the converter
with the grid and eventually becomes zero in steady-state conditions. Referring to Fig.
3.2(b), the measured quantities should be transformed to the converter reference frame
whereas the controller output signals should be retransformed to the grid reference
frame to accurately model the influence of the PLL on the system dynamics.

36
 (a)

(b)
Fig.4.2. Vector control of the grid-connected VSC. (a) SRF-PLL. (b) Voltage
and voltage control.
4.2 SMALL-SIGNAL MODELING OF THE VSC CONNECTED TO
WEAK-GRID SYSTEMS
The detailed small-signal modeling of the grid-connected VSC is presented in
this section. The complete system parameters are shown in Appendix A whereas the
matrices of the following state-space models are defined in Appendix B. In the
following are the state, input, and output matrices, respectively, and are multiplied by
the corresponding vectors and represents a small perturbation of the variable. Based on
the Nyquist stability criterion, the magnitude of the output impedance of the VSC
should be as high as possible in order to preserve the system stability.
The compensator signals are designed based on the fact that the PLL is the
dominant detrimental element in the vector-controlled converters in weak grid systems.
Four states are added to the uncompensated model; three from the proposed
compensator and one from the feed-forward loop. The controller computational delay
and the PWM switching are modeled as a dead time. The dynamics of the voltage
controller in are investigated when the dead time is considered in the model, and then is
modified. Figure shows the influence of the dead time on the closed-loop transfer
function of the voltage controller.

37
 The performance of the voltage controller with and without the dead time is
almost identical. The bandwidth of the voltage controller decreases from 400 rad/s to
360 rad/s when a two-sample delay is considered. The admittance of the voltage
controller, it is not affected by the two-sample delay as shown in figure. It is clear that
the dead time slightly affects the inner voltage control loop. Therefore, the outer loops
remain unaffected as the bandwidth of the inner loop is not significantly reduced to
accommodate the delay.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.3 Impact of the dead time on the performance of the voltage controller.

38
 CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION RESULTS

A time-domain simulation model for the grid-connected VSC is built under

Matlab/Simulink environment to evaluate the preceding theoretical analysis and validate
the influence of the proposed compensators. The VSC is rated at 36 MVA whereas
avery weak grid is considered at SCR =1.0. The complete model entities are built using
the Sim Power System toolbox. The VSC is simulated using average-model-based
blocks. The simulation type is discrete with a sample time of 50 microseconds. To
accurately model the influence of the computation and dead time delays, a two-sample
delay is implemented at the output signals of the inner voltage controllers.

Fig:5.1- Simulation diagram of average model of the VSC at SCR=1.0.

Fig:5.2(a)

39
 Fig:5.2(b)

Fig:5.2(c)

Fig:5.2(d)

Fig:5.2(e)
Fig:5.2- Average model of the VSC at SCR=1.0 . (a) Active power. (b) PCC voltage.
(c) Injected voltage to the grid. (d) & (e) Compensation signals

40
 The proposed compensators are all implemented in the time-domain model, and
the system performance is investigated in Fig. 5.1. Fig. 5.2(a) shows the injected active
power to the grid. The magnitude of the PCC voltage is shown in Fig. 5.2(b) where a
unity p. u. value is maintained under different loading conditions by injecting the
corresponding reactive power to the grid. The injected voltage to the grid is shown in
Fig. 5.2(c). As mentioned earlier, the compensation signals have a zero steady-state
value and hence they do not alter the accuracy of the controlled parameters as shown in
Fig. 5.2(d) & (e). A switching model of the grid-connected VSC system is built under
Mat lab/Simulink for further investigations. The PWM technique has been implemented
to obtain the switching patterns for IGBTs.

Fig:5.3(a)

Fig:5.3(b)
Fig:5.3- Switching model of the VSC at SCR =1.0. (a) Injected voltage. (b) PCC
voltage.

41
 Fig:5.4- Influence of the proposed compensators on the VSC controllers
SCR=1.0(compensated system).

Fig:5.5(a)

Fig:5.5(b)

Fig:5.5(c)
Fig:5.5- Influence of the proposed compensators on the VSC controllers
SCR=1.0(compensated system). (a) PLL response, (b) Voltage response ( d-
channel), (c) Voltage response.

42
 Fig:5.6- Influence of the proposed compensators on the VSC controllers
SCR=1.0(uncompensated system).

Fig:5.7(a)

Fig:5.7(b)

Fig:5.7(c)
Fig:5.7- Influence of the proposed compensators on the VSC controllers
SCR=1.0(uncompensated system). (a) PLL response, (b) Voltage response (d-
channel), (c) Voltage response.
The influence of the proposed compensators on the dynamics of the VSC is
investigated in this subsection. The frequency of the grid voltage is perturbed by 1 Hz at
and the output of the PLL is shown in figures.

43
 The compensated and uncompensated responses are similar. The response of the
compensated system at is also shown where similar characteristics are observed. The
response of is shown in Figure when the active power command increases. As compared
to the uncompensated case, the influence of the proposed compensators on the voltage
tracking is positive where voltage overshoot and oscillations are reduced due to the
increased damping. The impact of both compensators on the performance of the voltage
controller is not significant as clearly shown in Figure when a step change in the PCC
voltage is applied.

44
 CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION FOR FUTURE WORKS

Active compensation techniques have been proposed to stabilize a grid-

connected VSC at SCR=1.0. Unlike the uncompensated converter where the system
becomes unstable beyond, the full rated active power injection has been achieved with
the proposed techniques. A small-signal state space model of the entire system is
developed to investigate the system dynamics under the weak grid conditions. The
proposed compensators have the following features. 1) They are simple and can be
easily designed using linear analysis tools. 2) They do not influence the steady-state
operation of the VSC. 3) They have no effect on the dynamics of the PLL, the voltage,
and the voltage controllers; therefore, the proposed compensators can be augmented
with the standard vector controller without major changes in the controller structure and
parameters. 4) They are robust under different operating conditions. 5) No extra voltage
or voltage sensors are needed to implement the proposed compensators. Time-domain
simulations have been provided to validate the developed analytical models and show
the effectiveness of the proposed techniques.

45
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