Sedimentology (1994) 41, 1253-1272

Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of Triassic reservoir sandstones from

southern Tunisia

S. M O R A D , * H . N. B E N ISMAIL,? L. F. D E ROS,*' I . S. AL-AASMS and

N-E. S E R R H I N I ?
*Institute of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, S-7.52 36 Uppsala, Sweden
f Dtpartment de Gkologie, Universitt de Tunis 2, Campus Universitaire 1060-Tunis, Tunisia
$Department of Geology, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada

ABSTRACT
The fluvial Triassic reservoir snbarkoses and arkoses (2409.5-2519.45 m) of the El Borma oilfield,
southern Tunisia, were subjected to cementation by haematite, anatase, infiltrated clays, kaolinite and
K-feldspar at shallow burial depths from meteoric waters. Subsequently, basinal brines controlled the
diagenetic evolution of the sandstones and resulted initially in the precipitation of quartz overgrowths,
magnesian siderite, minor ferroan magnesite and anhydrite. The enrichment of siderite in "C isotope
(613C,,B= - 14.5 to - 9%0) results from derivation of carbon from the thermal decarboxylation of
organic matter. During further burial, the precipitation of dickite and pervasive transformation of
kaolinite into dickite occurred, followed by the formation of microcrystalline K-feldspar and quartz,
chlorite and illite, prior to the emplacement of oil. Present day formation waters are Na-Ca-C1 brines
evolved by the evaporation of seawater and water/mineral interaction and are in equilibrium with the deep
burial ( 1 3 . 1 km) minerals. These waters are suggested to be derived from the underlying Silurian and
Devonian dolomitic mudstones.

INTRODUCTION
Shallow, early diagenetic minerals in continental clas-
tic sediments usually precipitate from meteoric pore
waters, but mixing with marine waters occurs in
nearshore/coastal sediments (Morad et al., 1992).
During burial diagenesis, mixing of these shallow
diagenetic waters with basinal brines occurs, and
hence profound changes in the formation water
chemistry are common (Galloway, 1984; Hanor,
1987; Egeberg & Aagaard, 1989; De Ros et al., 1994).
These geochemical changes of the formation waters,
combined with the influence of elevated temperatures
and pressures, are expected to be reflected in the
paragenetic sequence of the host sediments.
In the course of progressive burial diagenetic modi-
fications of clay minerals in clastic sediments in
several basins elsewhere, constraints have often been
'Permanent address: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande
do Sul, Instituto de Geociencias, Av. Bento GonGalves,
9500, Porto Alegre, RS, 91500, Brazil.
made only on the illitization and/or chloritization of
smectite and kaolinite. Due to the difficulties encoun-
tered in distinction between kaolinite and dickite
both microscopically and by X-ray diffraction analy-
ses, the transformation of kaolinite into dickite has
been poorly constrained and probably overlooked.
Nevertheless, there have recently been several reports
of this diagenetic transformation in sandstones
(Ehrenberg et al., 1993; McAulay et al., 1993, 1994).
The aims of this paper are: ( I ) to unravel the
relationship between the chemical/paragenetic char-
acteristics of diagenetic minerals and the origin/
geochemical evolution of formation waters in the
Triassic clastic reservoirs of the El Borma Oilfield in
southern Tunisia (Fig. 1); and (2) present textural
evidence for the recognition of kaolinite to dickite
transformation and to elucidate the conditions under
which this transformation takes place in this geologi-
cal setting. The recognition of burial diagenetic trans-
formation of kaolinite into dickite is important as it

1253
1254 S. Moradet al.
Fig. 1. Location map and a generalized tectonic setting of the study area.
is probably potentially a reliable palaeogeothermom-
eter (Ehrenberg et al., 1993).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
El Borma Field is located on the tectonically stable
Saharan platform. Epirogenic movements affected
the platform and formed wide shallow basins and
broads uplifts in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time (Ben
Ismail, 1991). The structure of the oilfield is an
asymmetric anticline orientated SSE-NNW that
formed in late Mesozoic to early Cenozoic time.
North of El Borma, Triassic siliciclastic deposits are
either thin or absent due to the formation of the
Algerian anticline (Fig. 1) which acted as an east-
west trending palaeohigh during early and middle
Triassic time. West of El Borma, in eastern Algeria,
the 3500 m deep Ghadames Basin (Fig. 1) is limited
to the north by the Algerian anticline and to the west
by the Hassi Messaoud palaeohigh. The latter is
bounded by NNE trending faults which resulted
from the late Carboniferous and Permian compres-
sional tectonics with a shortening axis orientated at
120". The faults reactivated as normal faults during
the late Triassic tectonic extension and influenced the
distribution of the Triassic reservoir sandstones in
eastern Algeria. South of El Borma, the Hoggar
shield (composed of metamorphic rocks) is located at
a distance of 650 km in the central Sahara. Horsts
and grabens, bounded by local N-S trending flexures
and faults, extend from the Hoggar to the 'Triassic
basin' close to the west of the El Borma area. Block
movements were controlled by Precambrian base-
ment faults that reactivated in Mesozoic time. Distri-
bution of the Triassic sandstones is largely influenced
by these structural elements.
In southern Tunisia, the Triassic sedimentary
sequence (Fig. 2) comprises a lower clastic sequence
(early to middle Triassic) that grades into a middle
carbonate and, subsequently, an upper evaporite
sequence (Ben Ismail, 1992). In the El Borma Field,
the basal Triassic sandstones (early Carnian) are
about 125m thick and unconformably overlie Sil-
urian and Devonian marine dolomitic mudstones
(Fig. 3). The Triassic reservoir sandstones are subdi-
vided into five reservoir intervals (A-E) separated
from each other by mudstone beds. The basal E, C
and D reservoirs are braided fluvial, whereas the B
and A reservoirs are meandering fluvial in origin
 Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of Triassic sandstones 1255

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Zia

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ravrav 1
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1256
EB139
0Sand
Shale
a Evaporites
ShalySand
Fig. 3. A schematic structural cross section of the El Borma Field with location of the wells studied (modified after Ghenima,
1993).
(Serrhini, 1992). The poorly cored lowermost interval
E fills the lows of the irregular Hercynian unconfor-
mity surface.
The burial history curve (Fig. 4) is typical for
intracratonic basins where burial is gradual and
continuous with late, relatively minor uplifts. The
present day geothermal gradient of the area is
25527°C km I .
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Sixty core samples (depths of 2409.5--2512.45m; bot-
tom hole temperatures % 79-86°C) were selected
from the five reservoir intervals in two boreholes
(EB139 and EB66; Fig. 3). These two wells were
chosen because they contain completely cored Trias-
sic rocks. The samples were selected to cover all the
variations in colour and apparent texture/lithology
within the different reservoir facies. Epoxy-
impregnated thin sections were prepared and exam-
S. Morad et al.
EB66
- Cartonates
Hercynian inconformity
ined with a standard petrographical microscope. The
modal mineralogical compositions were determined
by counting 300 points per thin section. The thin
sections were coated with a thin layer of carbon for
electron microprobe (EMP) analyses using a Cameca
Camebax SX 50 instrument equipped with three
crystal spectrometers and a back-scattered electron
(BSE) detector. The operating conditions during
analysis were an acceleration voltage of 15 kV, a
measured beam current of 8 n A for siderite and
10 nA for the silicates, and a beam diameter of 1 pm.
Clay minerals analysed were larger than x 5 pm
in size. The standards used were wollastonite (Ca
and Si; 10 s), MgO (Mg; 10 s), MnTiO, (Mn; 20 s),
haematite (Fe; 10 s), corundum (Al; 10 s), albite
(Na; 5 s), strontianite (Sr; 10 s), barite (Ba; 10 s) and
orthoclase (K; 5 s).
The less than 5 pm fraction was separated from
five representative sandstone samples and kaolinite
and dickite were distinguished by X-ray diffraction
analyses using the non-basal reflections in randomly
 Diagenesis and jbrmation water chemistry of Triassic sandstones 1257

Time (Ma)
400 300 200 100

4 1000
CT)
3
-
0
a, 2000
I3
E
v

5
Q
3000
a,
n

Fig. 4. Burial history diagram of the studied Traissic sandstones.

orientated samples (Ehrenberg et al., 1993; McAulay
et a/., 1993). Twenty-nine representative samples
were coated with a thin layer of gold and examined
with a JEOL JSM-T330 scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV.
Siderites in 20 samples were analysed for 0 and C
isotope composition by treatment with 100% H,PO,
under vacuum at 50°C for 6 days (Al-Aasm et a/.,
1990). The S13C and S1’0 in the evolved CO, gas
were analysed using a SIRA-12 mass spectrometer.
The results are reported in permil deviation from
the PDB standard. Results were calculated using a
fractionation factor of 1.009082 (Rosenbaum &
Sheppard, 1986). The analytical reproducibility is
+
better than 0.05?/00for S1’C and 6180.
Formation water chemical analyses were provided
by the AGIP Oil Company. The S ” 0 analyses of
two formation water samples were performed by a
Finnigan MAT 251 mass spectrometer using the CO,
equilibration method.
TERMINOLOGY
Sandstone compositions are classified according to
the scheme of McBride (1963). Clay mineral termi-
nology follows the recommendations of AIPEA. The
kaolin group mineral polytypes dickite and kaolinite
are distinguished on the basis of powder mount
XRD peaks as detailed in Bailey (1980) and SEM.
Identification of illite and chlorite is made on the
basis of a combination of textural, morphological,
optical, EMP and XRD criteria. The term illite may
include a swelling component.
Shallow burial meteoric diagenesis was used to
indicate the interaction of depositional waters with
host sediments. This category also includes contem-
porary recharge of fresh waters through fluvial sand-
bodies. Fluids released due to compaction, along
underseated faults and by decarboxylation reactions
are described as deep burial diagenesis. Shallow and
deep burial diagenetic regimes used here are equiva-
lent to the terms eo- and mesodiagenesis (sensu
Schmidt & McDonald, 1979), respectively.
DETRITAL MINERALOGY
The sandstones are grey, green to red in colour, fine
to medium grained subarkoses and arkoses that
contain carbonized plant debris. Modal analyses
(Table 1) revealed that the most common framework
mineral is monocrystalhe quartz ( z 3045%0,aver-
age 34%). Polycrystalhe quartz forms z 5-10%
(average z 8%) of the bulk sandstones. K-feldspars
( z7-12%0; average % l0’/0) dominate over plagioclase
(trace to 3%; average 1.5%). The rock fragments
(x3-1 5%; average z 90/0) are mostly medium grade
metamorphic in origin. Micas (trace to 6%) are
dominated by muscovite. Pseudomatrix, mainly
 Table 1. Representative and average (n=60) modal compositions of Triassic sandstones of EB139 wells of the E l Borma oilfield, southern Tunisia

EB13 EB139 EB139 EB139 EB139 EB66 EB66 EB66 EB66 EB66 EB66 EB66
Sample 2449.3 2453.9 2503.1 2508.1 2511.3 2417.1 2432.8 2434.4 2443.2 2445.7 2447.8 2448.6 Average

Detrital quartz 40.0 43.7 51.3 42.3 48.3 51.3 38.0 38.7 38.7 36.0 40.0 40.0 41.8
Quartz (monocrystalline) 34.3 34.0 44.7 37.0 41.0 39.3 33.0 32.7 30.3 29.0 35.0 30.3 34.1
Quartz (polycrystalline) 5.7 9.7 6.7 5.3 7.3 12.0 5.0 6.0 8.3 7.0 5.0 9.7 7.7
Detrital feldspar 10.3 7.7 8.7 7.0 6.3 6.7 11.7 10.0 10.7 10.7 10.7 11.3 9.8
Detrital K-felspar 10.0 7.0 8.7 7.0 5.0 6.7 11.7 10.0 10.7 10.7 10.3 11.3 9.5
Orthoclase 6.7 5.7 7.0 4.0 2.7 4.7 9.3 8.3 7.7 8.0 7.0 8.3 7.2
Microcline 3.0 1.3 1.7 3.0 2.0 1.o 2.3 1.7 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.3 2.0
Perthite 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.o 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.3
Detrital plagiocase 0.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3
Plutonic r.f. 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.o 1.7 1.7 1.o 2.7 1.o 3.0 2.7 1.5
Metamorphic r.f. 4.7 3.3 0.7 1.o 3.7 12.0 7.3 10.0 8.0 9.7 9.0 6.7
Chert r.f. 0.3 1.3 1.o 1.o 1.o 0.0 0.0 1.o 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.5
Muscovite 2.3 0.3 1.o 0.3 2.7 0.0 2.0 2.0 0.7 1.o 1.7 0.7 1.6
Biotite 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3
Heavy minerals 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.3 3.0 0.3 0.7 1.3 0.7 1.7 0.7
Mud intraclasts 0.0 1 .o 0.0 0.7 1.o 1.3 0.0 0.0 3.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.5
Carbonate intraclasts 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
Clay peloids 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
Pseudomatrix 18.3 9.0 3.7 1.3 6.7 1.o 4.3 2.3 3.7 5.0 1.7 2.0 4.8

Total diagenetics 17.0 21.3 22.3 38.7 25.0 21.7 21.7 34.0 23.7 27.7 21.3 23.7 23.8
Clay coats 3.0 0.3 1.o 0.0 5.0 0.0 2.7 0.7 1.o 1.7 0.3 1.7 1.o
Haematite 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.3 1.3 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.2
Quartz overgrowth 3.7 8.7 2.0 6.0 4.7 6.7 6.7 2.3 3.0 6.0 6.7 5.3 5.0
Quartz discrete 0.3 1.o 0.3 1.o 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3
K-feldspar overgrowth 1.3 1.3 0.3 4.0 0.3 3.3 4.3 3.3 1.3 4.0 4.3 2.7 2.3
K-feldspar discrete 0.3 1.o 0.3 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.7 1.o 0.2
Siderite/magnesite (poikilotopic) 1.O 3.3 2.3 1.7 5.0 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5
Siderite/magnesite (blocky) 0.0 0.3 0.3 2.0 2.3 0.0 1.o 9.3 4.0 2.7 1.3 1.3 2.0
Siderite/ma&esite
(microcrystalline) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1
Sideritelmagnesite (in grain) 4.3 2.0 3.7 1.7 0.7 2.0 1.3 12.7 4.3 4.3 3.0 0.7 3.6
Siderite/magnesite (in p.matnx) 1.7 1.o 1.3 1.7 0.7 1.0 0.7 4.0 2.7 2.0 0.0 0.0 1.5
Siderite/magnesite (in mica) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
Kaolinite/Dickite (intergranular) 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.0 1.7 2.3 4.3 1.3
Kaolinite/Dickite (in grain) 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.7 1.7 2.3 1.o 4.0 1.7
Kaolinite/Dickite (in mica) 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Kaolinite/Dickite (in pmatrix) 0.0 0.0 2.7 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.4
Illite (fibrous) 0.7 0.7 1.o 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.o 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2
Anhydrite 0.0 1.7 2.7 12.3 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4
Anhydrite (in grain) 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Pyrite 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1
Anatase 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.7 3.0 0.3 0.7 1.o 0.3 0.7 0.5

Macroporosity 2.3 9.0 6.0 6.7 5.0 11.7 5.0 2.7 6.0 8.0 11.3 8.7 7.8
Intergranular 2.0 8.0 4.3 6.0 4.7 9.7 4.3 2.3 5.0 5.0 10.0 5.7 6.4
Intragranular 0.3 1.o 1.7 0.7 0.3 2.0 0.7 0.3 1.o 3.0 1.3 3.0 1.4
Microporosity abundant common common rare common rare common common common common common abundant common
Integranular volume 11.0 18.3 13.0 33.7 22.3 18.7 19.7 16.7 14.0 19.3 15.7 17.0 16.7
Grain volume 89.0 81.7 87.0 66.3 77.7 81.3 80.3 83.3 86.0 80.7 84.3 83.0 83.3
Grain replacement total 6.0 3.0 10.7 8.7 3.3 3.0 2.0 17.3 9.3 9.0 4.3 6.3 7.7
Packing tight loose normal loose tight normal tight loose tight tight normal normal tight
Granulometry fine medium fine medium fine medium fine fine fine fine medium fine fine
Sorting moderate moderate moderate good good good good moderate moderate good moderate good good
1260 S. Morad et al.

Fig. 5. SEM photomicrographs of: (a) parallel stacked, pseudohexagonal kaolinite crystals which are partially transformed
into dickite and enveloped by diagenetic quartz overgrowths (Q); (b) authigenic dickite crystals (D) that post-date quartz
overgrowths (Q); (c) kaolinite pervasively transformed into dickite with a few thin remnants of the original vermicular
kaolinite (arrows); (d) a basal view of kaolinite transformed into dickite showing the etching of kaolinite remnants (arrows);
(e) kaolinite crystals transformed into illite and dickite; note that illitization is restricted to the thin remnants of kaolinite
(arrows); (f) thread-like illite that has grown on kaolinite crystals which are completely transformed into dickite.
 Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of Triassic sandstones
formed by the deformation of mud intraclasts, forms
between 1 and 18% (average ~ 5 % )of the bulk
sandstones. The intergranular macroporosity ( z 2-
14%; average z 6%) dominates over intragranular
macroporosity (trace to 3%; average z 1.5%).
DIAGENETIC MINERALOGY
Kaolinite and dickite
Kaolin (0-6%; average ~ 2 . 5 %of bulk sandstones;
Table l), which occurs as intergranular cement and
as replacement of detrital feldspars, comprises
numerous stacked pseudohexagonal crystals that
often develop into vermicular aggregates. Detrital
micas are kaolinized and display the typical expanded
texture. Kaolinite is enveloped by quartz over-
growths (Fig. 5a). Dickite is texturally distinguished
from kaolinite by its more euhedral blocky habit (cf.
Tilley & Longstaffe, 1989; Ehrenberg et al., 1993) and
smooth surfaces. XRD analyses of randomly orien-
tated powder samples revealed several strong reflec-
tions typical of dickite (4.13, 3.79, 2.50 and 2.327 A)
and, in one sample (EB-139, 2454.25 m), very
weak kaolinite reflections (4.18, 2,495 and 2.339 A).
The XRD analyses of the orientated clay fractions
revealed that the total kaolin varies between about
1 and 15% of the bulk clay fraction (Serrhini, 1992).
Dickite occurs in two modes: (1) as transformation
of authigenic kaolinite, with the preservation or a
slight disruption of the original vermicular stacking
habit of the kaolinite and, less commonly, (2) as
scattered crystals precipitated on the surface of authi-
genic quartz and in post-compactional intergranular
pores (Fig. 5b). Replacement of kaolinite by dickite
was recognized based on the vermicular stacking
habit characteristic for kaolinite and the presence of
etched remnants of kaolinite. Furthermore, kaolinite
replaced by dickite occurs as sand sized patches with
well defined outlines, probably related to earlier,
complete replacement of detrital feldspars. Kaolinite
transformed into dickite is commonly engulfed by
quartz overgrowths. Authigenic dickite also occurs as
randomly orientated blocky crystals that cover the
quartz overgrowths. Transformation of kaolinized
micas into dickite has occasionally caused a disrup-
tion of the original kaolinite layered texture. Perva-
sive to complete transformation of kaolinite into
dickite occurs in samples from all facies and is
accomplished through the growth of blocky, mono-
clinic dickite between the pseudohexagonal crystals
of kaolinite. The kaolinite remnants are etched, due
1261
MgCO3 50 FeC03+MnC03
Fig. 6 . A triangular plot showing the compositional ranges
of siderite and rnagnesite.
to partial dissolution (Fig. 5c,d), and/or selectively
subjected to illitization (Fig. 5e). Dickite crystals are
much thicker ( z 2 1-8 pm) than kaolinite (< 1 pm)
and show no etching but are often covered by, and
hence pre-date, authigenic illite (Fig. 5f).
Siderite and magnesite
The only carbonate cements detected in the sand-
stones (trace to 22%; average %7%; Table 1) are
from the siderite-magnesite (FeC0,-MgCO,) series.
They occur together in sandstones of all the reservoir
intervals as finely crystalline (<50 pm) to coarsely
crystalline ( z 50-250 pm), occasionally poikilotopic
pore filling and grain replacive cements.
The siderites are extremely Mg-rich (MgCO,= 18-
47 mol%), being either sideroplesites or pistomesites
(siderites having 5-30 and 30-50 mol% MgCO,,
respectively; Deer et a/., 1966) (Fig. 6). In some cases,
the Mg content is up to 50-58 mol% and the phase
can thus be termed breunnerite, which is a ferroan
magnesite with 5-50 mol% FeCO, (Deer et al., 1966).
The substitution of siderite and magnesite by MnCO,
is 1 . 8 4 5 mol%, whereas their substitution by
CaCO, is between 0.2 and 2mol%. Strontium is
detected in trace amounts (< 150 ppm) in a few of the
siderites analysed.
The siderite crystals display complex zonation pat-
terns in terms of Fe and Mg contents. The cores are
richer in either iron or magnesium than the rims (Fig.
7a,d,f). There are no crystals showing systematic
changes in Fe and/or Mg from core to rim; all have
sharp alternating Fe-poor/Mg-rich (pistomesite to
1262 S. Morad et al.

Fig. 7. (a) BSE image of pore filling magnesian siderite (S; MgCO,= 1 8 4 2 mol%) and ferroan magnesite (dark grey zones;
arrows, FeCO,=44 mol%); note the presence of abundant quartz overgrowths (Q). (b) BSE image showing the small scale
zonation of siderite due to variations in the Mg for Fe substitution (MgCO3=3W7mol%); the arrow points to a ferroan
magnesite zone (FeCO,=40 mol%,).(c) BSE image showing the dissolution of sideroplesite (light grey) and its replacement by
pristomesite (dark grey). M, ferroan magnesite. (d) A BSE image showing the replacement of mud intraclasts by magnesian
siderite crystals with MgCO, content that varies between 19 mol%, (bright) and 40 mol% (grey). (e) A BSE image showing that
siderite (light grey) filled the intergranular pores, corroded the quartz grains (dark grey), and almost completely replaced
feldspar grains (see remnants; arrows); (f) A BSE image of zoned magnesian siderite (S) and anhydrite (An) filling
intergranular pores. Dark grey grains are quartz.
 Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of' Triassic sandstones
breunnerite) and Fe-richlMg-poor (sideroplesite)
zones. Some zones are extremely thin (1-2 pm; Fig.
7b). The breunnerite zones are both rare and very
thin in all the siderite crystals. In all samples, the
textural relationships suggest that the sideroplesite
zones are corroded and replaced by the pistomesite
(Fig. 7c).
In most samples, siderite has replaced the mud
intraclasts (Fig. 7d) and grown displacively along the
cleavage planes of severely dissolved and expanded
micas. Thus, siderite formation seems to be closely
related to the breakdown of clay minerals in the
argillaceous fragments, and of micas. The replaced
mud intraclasts (trace to 4%; average 1.5%; Table 1)
are recognized by their oversized character as well as
the presence of abundant clay minerals and silt sized
quartz. These features are absent in the adjacent pore
space.
Siderite partially fills the dissolution voids in detri-
tai feldspars and slightly corrodes the grains (- 1-
13%; average ~ 3 . 5 % Table
; 1). In some cases, the
replacement of quartz and feldspar grains by siderite
was pervasive, leading to the development of a tex-
ture resembling cemented oversized pores (Fig. 7e).
Siderite abuts and slightly corrodes, and hence post-
dates, quartz and K-feldspar overgrowths. Siderite is
engulfed by, and hence pre-dates, anhydrite. How-
ever, in some sandstones, the textural relationship
between siderite and anhydrite suggests precipitation
at the same diagenetic stage (Fig. 70.
The range of carbon and oxygen isotopic compo-
sitions of siderite in the Triassic sandstones is rather
small: 613C,,B= - 14.5 to - 9%0, 6'80,,B= - 7.8
to -2.3%0 (Fig. 8). To our knowledge, siderites
displaying similar zonation patterns to those in the
Triassic sandstones have not been published in the
literature. However, two- and three-zoned magnesian
siderite crystals have been reported in Cretaceous and
Jurassic sandstone sequences by Mozley & Carothers
(1992) and Macaulay et al. (1993), respectively.
Purvis (1992) observed that in the Lower Permian
Rotliegend sandstones, magnesian siderite crystals
(MgCO, x 5--50 mol%) have a uniform composition
and show no or mottled zonation.
Quartz
Quartz is the most common and often the most
abundant cement ( ~ 2 ~ 1 2 %average
; 5.3%; Table 1)
in the sandstones. It occurs mainly as overgrowths
( x 2-10%; average 5%) that envelop the quartz grains
either partially or almost completely as continuous
1263
0
mco
€8
-8 ' ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ' " " ~ ~
-15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8
6 3cPDB '
Fig. 8. The 6I3C versus 6l80plot of sideritelmagnesite.
layers with euhedral outlines or as numerous small
crystals. In some instances, the quartz overgrowths
are coated with drusiform aggregates of prismatic
quartz. The boundaries between the detrital quartz
and the overgrowths are poorly defined, but are
occasionally marked by haematite, fluid inclusions or
illitic clay coatings (Fig. 9a). Microcrystalline quartz
( z3-10 pm across) occurs, together with fibrous
illite, on quartz grains coated with infiltrated clay.
Microcrystalline quartz (trace to 2%; average
x 0.3%), together with diagenetic chlorite, illite and
K-feldspar, replaced the mud intraclasts.
K-feldspar
K-feldspar occurs (trace to 5%; average 2.5%; Table
1) in most sandstones and from all facies mainly as
overgrowths (few micrometres to 100pm in width)
around detrital K-feldspars. Feldspar overgrowths
are enclosed by, and thus pre-date, siderite, anhydrite
and quartz cements. In some cases, the detrital feld-
spar cores have been dissolved partially to completely
whereas the overgrowths as well as the clay coatings
are preserved (Fig. 9b). The pores resulting from the
dissolution of feldspars are filled with dickite, chlorite
and illite. The feldspar overgrowths also reveal evi-
dence of partial to pervasive dissolution (Fig. 9c).
Microcrystalline ( x 3-10 prn across), rhombohedra1
and prismatic K-feldspars have, together with illite
and chlorite, replaced the mud intraclasts (Fig. 9d).
1264 S. Moradet al.

Fig. 9. (a) SEM micrograph of quartz overgrowths (Q) enveloping illitized infiltrated clay coatings (I); illite (arrow) also
covers Q. (b) A secondary pore (partially filled with chlorite; arrows) that has resulted from the dissolution of K-feldspar core;
note the preservation of the K-feldspar overgrowths (0).(c) A BSE image showing the dissolution of K-feldspar overgrowths
(arrows); the bright areas in the feldspar grain are richer in Ba than the light grey host. The surrounding greyish grains are
quartz with overgrowths; note the engulfment of K-feldspar overgrowth by quartz overgrowths (lower right). (d) A SEM
micrograph showing a part of a mud intraclast replaced by microcrystalline K-feldspar (arrows), illite (I) and chlorite (Ch).

EMP analyses reveal that the authigenic feldspar
is chemically pure, near stoichiometric KAISi,O,
end-member, except that there is an excess of A1 by
0.002-0.05 atoms. It should, however, be noted that
this might be caused by errors in the analyses or is
a consequence of assuming an ideal 8 oxygen atoms
in the formula calculation. The detrital K-feldspars
are often barian (BaO =0.0-2.20/0) and contain vari-
able amounts of albite solid-solution (Ab=2.5-
13.6 mol%) but no anorthite (Ca).
Anhydrite
Poikilotopic anhydrite cement (0-12%; average
~ 1 . 5 % ;Table 1) occurs in sandstones from all the
reservoir intervals. It encloses the K-feldspar over-
growths with marginal replacement features. In any
single sample, some of the anhydrite encloses consid-
erable amounts of well developed, euhedral, quartz
overgrowths whereas in other patches, quartz grains
embedded in the anhydrite have developed only trace
amounts of overgrowths. In the latter case, the
anhydrite usually replaces the framework grains,
leading to the development of cemented oversized
spaces similar to what is seen with siderite (Fig. 7e).
Quartz overgrowths are, however, much more abun-
dant in areas which are uncemented by anhydrite and
display a closer grain packing. This textural evidence
indicates that: (a) poikilotopic anhydrite and quartz
 Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of Triassic sandstones
overgrowths have intermittently and alternately pre-
cipitated, and (b) precipitation of quartz overgrowths
continued subsequent to the termination of anhydrite
precipitation.
Infiltrated clays
Infiltrated clay mineral coatings (trace to 3%; average
1%; Table 1) comprise platelets tangentially depos-
ited on the framework grains and show other textural
features (e.g. detachment from grain surfaces) that
match the criteria given by Moraes & De Ros (1990)
for infiltrated clays. These coatings are texturally
similar to the smectite with smooth surface texture
described by Keller et al. (1986). However, due to its
presence in trace amounts, smectite was not detected
by XRD. Mechanically infiltrated clays are intro-
duced during the near surface diagenesis of continen-
tal sediments subjected to episodic flooding under
semiarid conditions (Walker et al., 1978). As shown
below, during burial diagenesis, the infiltrated clay
coatings were subjected to partial to complete illiti-
zation and chloritization.
Illite
XRD analyses revealed that illite is the dominant
clay mineral, varying in abundance between about
80 and 95% (Serrhini, 1992). Illite occurs as coat-
ings of mat-like laths that lie parallel to the surfaces
of detrital grains (Fig. 9a). These coatings were
possibly derived from the partial to complete
replacement of infiltrated smectite. This type of illite
commonly has hair-like terminations (trace to 1%;
average ~ 0 . 2 % Table
; 1) that lie perpendicular to
the grain surfaces (Fig. 9a). Illitized coatings are
enveloped by quartz and feldspar overgrowths, and
are thus very early in origin. lllite also occurs as hair-
or thread-like crystals that have coated and/or inter-
grown with authigenic chlorite and dickite (Fig. 5 f ) ,
on the surfaces of quartz overgrowths, and as
replacement of authigenic kaolinite (Fig. 5e). Illite
also occurs as sand sized patches with relatively
well defined boundaries resulting from the replace-
ment of compacted mud intraclasts. The amount of
smectite mixed layers in the illite (Serrhini, 1992)
varies between 5 and 20%. Variations in illite
composition are minor. The average formula of
illite calculated from EMP analyses of oxide
weight% is: K .39(Fe2+,.,,Mg,.,,Al,., ,)(All.17Si6.83)
O,,(OH),.
1265
Chlorite
Chlorite occurs as sand sized patches with relatively
well defined boundaries resulting from the replace-
ment of compacted mud intraclasts (Fig. IOb,c). Such
a chlorite is often intergrown with variable amounts
of authigenic illite and microcrystalline quartz and
K-feldspar. Chlorite has also precipitated as inter-
locked pseudohexagonal crystals, occasionally with a
rosette-like habit on top of the mat-like illite. This
chlorite fills the intergranular and intragranular (after
dissolved feldspars) pores and replaces the infiltrated
clay coatings (Fig. 1Od). XRD analysis of the clay
fractions revealed trace to 5% chlorite (Serrhini,
1992). The chlorite has a small, broad 14A peak
which was largely unaffected by glycolation,
although a slight reduction in intensity was noted.
Average EMP analyses of pure authigenic chlorite
could not be obtained due to the intimate inter-
growth with other clay minerals, K-feldspar and
quartz.
Minor diagenetic minerals
Pyrite is very rare (04.7%; average 0.1%; Table 1),
being observed only in a few samples. It occurs
mainly as framboidal aggregates ( 6 1 0 pm in diam-
eter) that lie on the surface of quartz overgrowths.
Individual pyrite crystals in the framboids are 0.5-
1 pm in diameter.
Microcrystalline haematite (60.7%; average 0.2%;
Table 1) occurs beneath quartz and K-feldspar over-
growths, indicating the oxidizing conditions of the
early continental meteoric diagenesis. Locally, finely
crystalline haematite has recrystallized to euthedral
pseudohexagonal specularite.
Ti oxides (0.3%; average 0.5%; Table 1) occur as
pore lining anatase crystals that are enveloped by all
other diagenetic minerals, and as an alteration
product of detrital Fe-Ti oxides and biotite. In the
latter case, anatase is associated with authigenic
chlorite.
FORMATION WATER CHEMISTRY
The present day formation waters have a uniform
composition (Table 2). They are extremely saline
(TDS between 193 and 263 g 1- ') Na (58.5-67.5 g
l-')-Ca (19.6253 g l-')-Cl (143.9-161.7 g I - ' )
brines and contain appreciable amounts of Mg
(5567-7343 mg 1- I), K (1969-2430 mg 1- I ) , Sr (440-
500 mg 1 - I ) and Fe (166289 mg 1 I). Br concen-
tration varies between 870 and 1217mg 1-'. The
1266 S. Morad et al.

Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of: (a) mat-like illite with fibrous terminations that have resulted from the complete illitization of
smectite grain coatings; (b) an altered mud intraclast; (c) Part of 10 (b) showing that the mud intraclasts have been replaced
mainly by chlorite with smaller amounts of quartz (0)and illite (arrows); (d) authigenic chlorite (Ch) that has replaced
partially the infiltrated smectite coatings (Sm).

61x0,,,, values of two formation waters are +0.44 (0.5-10 mg 1- ') and formate (0.5-14 mg 1- I), and
and +0.65%0.The formation waters are characterized traces of propionate and butirate.
by relatively low pH (5.22-6.03) and hence low
alkalinity (2@-90mg 1 '). The alkalinity is
~

accounted for by mainly HCO;. However, pH DISCUSSION

measured at low temperature and pressure is not
representative for the in situ pH (Merino, 1975; Origin and evolution of formation waters
Nesbitt, 1980; Reed & Spycher, 1984). This is due The Br versus CI and the Br versus Na' values
~ ~ ~

mainly to degassing of the water sample during
collection and the temperature dependence of disso-
ciation of weak acids and bases. The pH calculated
based on the approach of Nesbitt (1980), which
assumes that pH is controlled by the carbonate
alkalinity and calcite solubility, varies between 4.38
and 5.57. The formation water samples contain small
amounts of aliphatic acids, dominated by acetate
of the formation waters plot close to sea water
evaporation lines, suggesting that these brines
originally evolved by sea water evaporation (cf.
Carpenter, 1978; Holser, 1979; Moore, 1983;
Stoessell & Moore, 1983). As the studied sandstones
are of fluvial origin, these brines have been derived
from an external source displacing and/or mixing
with the meteoric waters. The brines may have been
 Diagenesis and forination water chemistry of Triassic sandstones 1261

Table 2. Ionic concentrations (mg 1 ~ I), temperature ("C), pressure (kg cm- 2, and measured pH of formation waters from the
Triassic reservoirs of the El Borma Field.
Well 62 43 84 127 56 36

Na 61 838 62 694 59 417 59 071 59 121 58 657

K 2036 1969 2092 2029 2073 1996
SiOz 27 20 27 26 23 22
Fe 200 193 186 182 160 179
Ca 21 033 21 048 19 400 19 580 20 885 19 361
Sr 500 478 452 448 466 467
Mg 6117 6934 5567 6004 6107 5934
Ba 9.5 11.0 10.0 6.0 6.0 8.3
Li 14 21 14 12 11 12
Br 1I49 1161 I046 1 I27 1139 I I32
c1 155 308 155 095 147 334 144 859 144 217 143 932
so4 299 288 333 327 322 355
NH4 129 134 118 145 145 146
HCO, n.d. n.d. n.d. <10 (10 <25
HW, 205 152 195 233 230 233

Temperature 84 83 83 86 80 82
Pressure 193.7 213.6 235.0 21 1.8 243.1 243.1
PH 5.48 6.00 5.94 5.70 5.72 5.8 1

injected along faults from the underlying Silurian
and Devonian marine dolomitic mudstones (see
Fig. 3).
However, due to sediment-water interactions,
several of the ions have either higher or lower con-
centrations relative to the sea water evaporation
lines. For instance, the formation waters are depleted
in SO',- (212-346 mg 1 '), Mg2' and K + relative to
- shown in Fig. 11. This sequence is based on the
the seawater evaporation lines, as revealed from their
plot versus C1- and Br . Depletion of these ions is
- textural relationships. However, due to the complex
due to the precipitation of anhydrite+minor pyrite
(SO',- ), siderite+chlorite (Mg2') and illite+K-
feldspar (K'). Depletion in Mg2+ has probably also
occurred due to dolomitization in the underlying
Silurian and Devonian rocks. The Na' versus C1-
values plot above the seawater evaporation line,
indicating some dissolution of halite (cf. Kumar &
Martinez, 1981).
Conversely, the formation waters are enriched in
Ca2' and Sr2' relative to the normal seawater
evaporation lines, probably due to the dolomitization
in the Silurian and Devonian formations. No Sr was
detected in the detrital K-feldspars by means of the
EMP analyses. Detrital plagioclase is rare in the
studied rocks and in the underlying formations and
hence unimportant as a control on Ca2' concen-
tration. Albitization of plagioclase has been con-
sidered by several authors as a master control on the
evolution of Ca-rich brine (Fisher & Boles, 1990;
Land & Macpherson, 1992).
Paragenetic sequence
A paragenetic sequence has been constructed as is
distribution pattern of diagenetic minerals and their
diagenetic pattern a complete knowledge of the
timing and exact depths cannot be achieved for all
the diagenetic effects observed. The paragenetic
sequence has been controlled by shallow, meteoric
diagenesis and, at greater depths, by basinal brines
evolved from the evaporation of seawater and
modified by water-rock interactions.
The meteoric diagenesis resulted in the infiltration
of clay coatings, kaolinitization of feldspars and
micas, and the precipitation of Fe and Ti oxides,
kaolinite and K-feldspar overgrowths. The ions
needed for the formation of feldspar overgrowths
were mainly derived from the alteration of detrital
micas and feldspars. Later, anhydrite and quartz
overgrowths precipitated episodically and alter-
nately. The precipitation of anhydrite, in particular,
marked the onset of the influence of basinal brines on
mineral diagenesis.
 1268 S. Morad et al.

Fe and Ti oxides
Shallow - = Deep

Smectite coatings

Kaolinite - (illitized and chloritized during burial)

K-feldspar

Anhydrite

Quartz

Pyrite

Siderite

Mesogenetic dissolution

Dickite

Chlorite

Illite

Oil emplacement

Meteoric e-evaporative-
water
I

Fig. 11. Sequence of diagenesis in the Triassic sandstones and its possible relationship to changes in formation water
chemistry.

Subsequently, the influence of basinal brines in-
creased with increasing burial depths, and resulted in
the precipitation of quartz overgrowths, siderite and
anhydrite. As stylolites and intergranular pressure
dissolution are rare in the Triassic sandstones, silica
must have been derived from the brines and, inter-
nally, from the replacement of detrital quartz, rock
fragments and feldspars by anhydrite and siderite.
The following diagenetic event was a slight disso-
lution of framework grains and cements. Subsequent
to, or simultaneous with, this dissolution event, the
precipitation of dickite and pervasive transfor-
mation of kaolinite into dickite took place. Upon
further burial, the precipitation of microcrystalline
K-feldspar, quartz, chlorite and illite occurred. The
infiltrated clay mineral (smectite) coatings were
illitized and chloritized whereas the mud intraclasts
were replaced by illite, chlorite, microcrystalline
quartz and K-feldspar. Therefore, it appears that
many of the ions needed for the formation of deep
burial ( 23.1 km; Fig. 4) minerals have been derived
locally from within the sandstones (e.g. mud intra-
clasts, kaolinite, detrital feldspars and infiltrated clay
coatings).
Clay mineral stability
Transformation of kaolinite into dickite occurs
through a dissolution-precipitation process, as evi-
denced by the severe etching of the pseudohexagonal
kaolinite remnants (Fig. 5c,d; cf. Ehrenberg et al.,
1993). Partial transformation of kaolinite into dickite
did not disrupt the original vermicular stacking
patterns of the kaolinite, yet the individual dickite
crystals are blocky and considerably thicker.
The exact temperature of the kaolinite to dickite
transformation is unknown. However, in North-Sea
reservoir sandstones, transformation of kaolinite into
 Diagenesis and formation water chemistry of Triassic sandstones
dickite becomes prevalent at temperatures of about
80-130°C (Ehrenberg et al., 1993; McAulay et al.,
1993, 1994). Tilley & Longstaffe (1989) concluded
that diagenetic dickite in Lower Cretaceous sand-
stones of the Alberta Deep Basin formed at 150°C.
The maximum burial of the Triassic sandstones was
a3100 m (Fig. 4). Assuming the present-day geo-
thermal gradient of 25-27°C km ', the maximum
temperature which affected the sandstones is
100°C.This would mean that the transformation of
kaolinite into dickite occurs at a temperature range
similar to that estimated for the Brent Group reser-
voirs of the North Sea by McAulay et al. (1993,
1994).
If transformation of kaolinite into dickite occurred
while the formation waters were still enriched in Mg
and Fe (following the precipitation of siderite and
magnesite), then the question that might arise is: why
did kaolinite transform into dickite rather than
chlorite? Although we have no proper answer to this
question, transformation of kaolinite into dickite is
probably related to an increase in aH+relative to
aMg?+ and aFe2+.This chemical change in pore water
chemistry might also have caused the burial dissolu-
tion of feldspars, siderite and anhydrite. Acidic fluids
could have been derived from the maturation of
organic matter in the source rocks (cf. Surdam et al.,
1984). If this is true, then there is probably a relation-
ship between the timing of kaolinite to dickite trans-
formation and burial porosity enhancement due to
dissolution of framework grains and cement in
reservoir sandstones. McAulay et al. (1993, 1994)
observed that the transformation of kaolinite into
dickite in the Brent Group occurs simultaneously
with feldspar dissolution.
The present day formation waters fall close to the
stability boundaries of illite-chlorite-K-feldspar in
a,+/a,+ versus aMgz+/a2"+(Fig. 12), which is in
agreement with our petrographical/mineralogical
data on the late deep burial minerals. Although illite
has crystallized on and between the dickite crystals
(Fig. 5f), there is no conclusive textural evidence
indicating a replacive relationship. However, flaky
and fibrous illites have been preferably grown on the
surfaces of etched kaolinite and/or occupy textural
sites of kaolinite remnants in vermicular stacked
kaoliniteldickite (Fig. 5e). These relationships, which
are in accsrdance with the results of Ehrenberg et al.
(1993), suggest that illite has preferentially replaced
kaolinite whereas dickite is unaffected.
The greater stability of dickite is probably related
to its better ordered crystal lattice compared with
1269
4 K-feldspar t
Fig. 12. Activity diagram (XO"C, 300 bars; based on data
from Helgeson ef al., 1978) showing the stability relation-
ships between kaolinite, illite, chlorite and K-feldspar, and
assuming quartz saturation. The formation waters plot
along the stability fields of illitexhlorite-K-feldspar.
kaolinite. As discussed by Brindley (1980), in kaolin-
ite, the vacant octahedral site occurs in the same
relative position in each succeeding layer whereas in
dickite these sites alternate between positions from
one layer to the next. Kaolinite thus has one 1:l
layer per unit cell, while two layers are necessary to
define the unit cell of dickite. Kaolinite has triclinic
symmetry; the a13 displacement of each succeeding
1 :1 layer results in b= 104.8",and minor displacement
along 6 results in a slight departure from 90" in a.
Dickite is monoclinic; b is the same as for kaolinite,
but there is no displacement along b. Kaolinite and
dickite can display varying degrees of disorder result-
ing from random displacement of successive layers by
1/36. In kaolinite the degree of such disorder can be
extreme, but in dickite the degree of disorder is
limited.
Conditions of carbonate authigenesis
The high Mg content of siderite is related to the high
Mg concentration in the formation waters. The very
low Ca content of the siderites (Fig. 6) is due to : (a)
the preferable incorporation of Ca in anhydrite,
and/or (b) the difference in ionic radius of Ca from
Fe, which limits its substitution compared with Mg.
Substitution of Ca for Fe in siderite is limited to
10-15molYi CaCO, (Deer et nl., 1966). Mozley
(1989) concluded that considerable substitution by
CaCO, (up to 15 mol"/) is characteristic for early
diagenetic, marine siderites.
I270 S. Morad et al.

The stable isotopic data obtained are for bulk ture = 79-86°C; maximum burial temperature
carbonate crystals and it is uncertain whether the ~ 1 0 0 ° Cof
) the El Borma oilfield has been accom-
strong fluctuations in the concentrations of Mg and plished as follows.
Fe were accompanied by significant shifts in the
isotopic composition of the formation waters too.
1. Shallow, early meteoric diagenesis that resulted in
the infiltration of smectite clay coatings and the
The relatively late timing of precipitation (Fig. 11)
precipitation of Fe and Ti oxides, kaolinite and
coupled with the low 613C values of siderites indicate
K-feldspar overgrowths.
that dissolved carbon was derived mainly from the
2. During subsequent burial, the sediments were
thermal decarboxylation of organic matter. Organic
becoming influenced by basinal brines derived from
matter occurs in the interbedded mudstones and in
the underlying Silurian and Devonian marine dolo-
the source rocks. The presence of only trace amounts
mitic mudstones. These brines were originally sea-
or, more commonly, complete lack of pyrite in the
water which later evolved through evaporation and
rocks suggests that no significant amounts of dis-
mineral interaction. At this stage the precipitation of
solved carbon were supplied by sulphate reduction
quartz overgrowths, siderite and anhydrite occurred
reactions, and that siderite precipitated under
both episodically and alternately. However, the pre-
dominantly reducing non-sulphidic conditions.
cipitation of quartz overgrowths, which continued
Based on the fractionation equation of siderite-
after the termination of anhydrite precipitation, was
water given by Carothers et al. (1988), the 6 l 8 0
followed by the precipitation of highly magnesian
values indicate precipitation at temperatures between
siderite (sideroplesite and pistomesite) and highly
42 and 74°C (mostly 55-60"C), assuming the
ferroan megnesite (breunnerite). The temperature of
6'sOs,,w values of present day formation waters
precipitation (based on 6"O of siderite and of
(average +0.55%0). However, one might argue that at
present day formation waters) varied between 42 and
the time of siderite precipitation (shallower than
74°C (dominantly 5560°C).
dickite), the formation waters were probably influ-
3. During deep burial diagenesis ( 5 3.1 km;
enced by meteoric fluids and thus had lower 6"O
z lOO"C), the precipitation of authigenic dickite and
values than present. This would mean that siderite
pervasive to complete transformation of the shallow
has been precipitated at lower temperatures than
meteoric kaolinite into dickite occurred. Subse-
those estimated above, which is unlikely when the
quently, the precipitation of microcrystalline quartz
relatively late timing of siderite formation is con-
and K-feldspars, illite and chlorite, as well as
sidered. Furthermore, siderites with the greatest
illitizationkhloritization of infiltrated clay coatings
6"O values are those displaying high intergranular
(smectite), kaolinite remnants and mud intraclasts
volume and enclose minor amounts of quartz over-
occurred. Finally, the oil was emplaced.
growths, compared with siderites that have low
Despite the fact that the present day formation
6'*0 values. This confirms the role of temperature,
waters fall close to the stability boundaries of illite-
rather than mixing with meteoric waters, in the 6 l 8 0
chlorite-K-feldspar, dickite has not been replaced by
signatures of the siderite. Mozley & Carothers (1992)
any of these minerals. Dickite is kinetically more
and Macaulay et al. (1993) observed that highly
stable than kaolinite, due to its more ordered crystal
magnesian siderite in Cretaceous and Jurassic
structure.
reservoir sandstones form at 77236°C and 9 0 T ,
respectively.
The precipitation temperatures above were calcu- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
lated assuming a fractionation relationship for pure
siderite. However, due to the small size difference We thank Hans Harryson for the help with the EMP
between Fe2+ and Mg2+, the shift in fractionation analyses, P. K. Egeberg for calculating the ionic
related to the considerable MgCO, solid solution activities, Christina Wernstrom for drafting the fig-
should be minor (Mozley & Carothers, 1992). ures, Christer Back and Bertel Gios for the photo-
graphic work, and H. Gaaya and M. Dridi for
technical assistance. This research was funded by the
CONCLUSIONS Swedish Natural Science Research Council, NFR
(to S.M.), the University of Tunis (to-H.B.I.), the
Mineral diagenesis during successive burial of the Canadian Natural Sciences and Engineering
Triassic reservoir sandstones (bottom hole tempera- Research Council, NSERC (to I.S.A.), and Brazilian
 Diagenesis and jormation water chemistry of’ Triassic sandstones
National Research Council, CNPq (grant 2004651
92.9-GL to L.F.D.R.). Constructive reviews by S. D.
Burley, S. Ehrenberg and G. McAulay are gratefully
acknowledged.
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