Journal of

PHYSIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
and Applied Human Science

Original

Nutrient Intake of Highly Competitive Male and Female

Collegiate Karate Players

Kaori Teshima1), Hiroyuki Imamura2), Yoshitaka Yoshimura1),

Seiji Nishimura3), Noriko Miyamoto 2), Yoichi Yamauchi4),
Hitoshi Hori 5), Chinatsu Moriwaki6) and Tomoko Shirota7)

1) Department of Food and Nutrition, Beppu University

2) Laboratory of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, Department of
Food and Nutrition, Nakamura Gakuen University
3) Federation of All Japan Karate-do Organizations
4) Sojo University
5) Nippon Bunri University
6) Department of Food and Nutrition, Beppu University Junior College
7) Department of Food and Nutrition, Nakamura Gakuen Junior College

Abstract Nutrient intake of 29 male (M Group) and 16 Introduction

female (F Group) highly competitive collegiate karate
players were compared. The results were also compared
with the daily energy expenditure (DEE), Japanese
recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) or adequate
dietary intakes (ADIs). Dietary information was collected
using a 3-weekday diet record. Although the M Group
showed significantly higher mean %RDAs or %ADIs in
iron, vitamin B1 , phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium
than the F Group, many of the mean %RDAs or %ADIs
were below RDAs or ADIs in both groups. The subjects
who skipped meals tended to show lower mean %DEE,
Japanese %RDAs or %ADIs in minerals and vitamins than
the subjects who did not skip in both M and F Groups.
The consumption of green and other vegetables and milk
and dairy products in both M and F Groups were low. It
is concluded that the male and female highly competitive
karate players studied in the present study may be at risk
of sub-optimal nutrient intake, which increases the
potential for nutrient deficiency. The subjects were
advised not to skip meals, and to consume a balanced
high-carbohydrate, moderate-protein, low-fat diet with
increasing green and other vegetables and milk and dairy
products to increase mineral, vitamin and dietary fiber
intakes. J Physiol Anthropol 21 (4): 205–211, 2002
http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/en/
Keywords: Karate, nutrient intake, body composition
Karate is one of the most popular martial arts practiced
both inside and outside of Japan. Traditional karate
training consists of the practice of basic techniques, kata
and sparring. The basic techniques such as punching,
kicking, blocking and striking are practiced either in the
stationary position or with body movements in various
formal stances. Kata are set forms in a pre-established
sequence of defensive and offensive techniques and
movements. Movements in kata are very formal,
systematic and sometimes very slow, in prescribed
stances and directions. Sparring is the execution of
defensive and offensive techniques while freely moving
against an opponent. In addition to the traditional karate
training, many competitive practitioners cross train by
following strenuous running and weight training
programs to increase endurance, muscle development
and power.
The American and Canadian Dietetic Associations
(1993) stated that the carbohydrate intake should be up
to 65% to 70% of the daily energy intake for athletes
training at a high intensity on successive days. However,
it has been reported that many collegiate athletes
consume less than 50% of the energy as complex
carbohydrates (Short and Short, 1983). Some body
builders follow a high protein and low carbohydrate diet
(Faber et al., 1986). Although many competitive karate
players follow a strenuous weight training program, the
nutrient intake of male and female highly competitive

205
206 Nutrient Intake of Karate Players
karate players have not been reported in the
international literature. Furthermore, the above
mentioned studies were reported from the US (Short and
Short, 1983) and South Africa (Faber et al., 1986).
Japanese people have a higher intake of carbohydrate and
lower intake of fat than that in western countries
(Ueshima et al., 1982, Ueshima, 1990).
Although significant differences in nutrient intake
between male and female intercollegiate athletes in
various sports have been reported (Short and Short,
1983), it has not been clear that comparisons were made
between groups with comparable training schedules and
levels of competition. Nowak et al. (1988) compared
nutrient intake and nutrient supplement of male and
female intercollegiate basketball players with comparable
training schedules and levels of competition and reported
that mean percent recommended dietary allowances
(RDAs) of all nutrients except vitamins A and D were
greater for men. However, most of the differences were
eliminated when the contribution of nutrient
supplement, which had a significant effect on the
women’s total intake, was considered.
The purpose of this study was: 1) to collect baseline
data on nutrient intake in order to advise athletes about
nutrition practices that might enhance performance; 2)
to compare nutrient intake of male and female highly
competitive collegiate karate players; and 3) to compare
the nutrient intake with daily energy expenditure (DEE),
Japanese RDAs or Japanese adequate dietary intakes
(ADIs).
Methods
Subjects
Twenty-nine male (M Group) and 16 female (F Group)
highly competitive black belt karate players volunteered
to participate in this study. Each group was divided into
2 groups according to their food style; 9 subjects who
skipped 2 or more meals (M1 Group) and 16 subjects who
did not skip (M2 Group), and 7 subjects who skipped
meals (F1 Group) and 9 subjects who did not skip (F2
Group). They were members of the 4 intercollegiate
karate teams in the 3 prefectures in Japan and were
recruited through their head coaches. One team usually
practiced for at least 3 hours Monday through Saturday.
The other 3 teams usually practiced for at least 2 hours.
Of the M Group, 2 subjects were former world champions,
5 others were prize winners in international competitions
and the other 22 were national class competitors in
Japan. Of the F Group, one subject was a former world
champion, another subject won the 2nd place in a world
competition and the other 14 were national class
competitors in Japan. Men and women trained together
in each team, and karate was the only current type of
training at least for 5 years in both groups. These players
competed in sparring matches all year round, and dietary
information was collected in June, which was considered
representative of their physiologic status during training
for their next competition. All subjects in the present
study participated in national intercollegiate karate
competition, which was held witho ut any weight
divisions. The subjects who represented Japan for the
world and international contests competed with weight
divisions. However, only one subject needed to lose
weight for the weight division.
The study protocol was approved by the Ethics
Committee of the Nakamura Gakuen University and
informed consent was obtained from each subject.
Anthropometric measurements
The weight and height were measured to the nearest
0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. The body mass index was
calculated as weight/height (kg/m2). The biceps, triceps,
subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thicknesses were
measured with a Harpenden caliper on the right side of
the body with the subject in a standing position. The
average of 3 measurements at each site was used to
calculate the body density (Durnin and Rahaman, 1967)
and percentage of body fat (%Fat) (Siri, 1956).
Dietary information
Dietary information was collected using a 3-weekday
diet record. The voluntary recording was made on
standard forms given to the players by a dietitian who
instructed them in the procedures involved in accurately
recording dietary intake. The subjects were asked not to
alter their usual diet during this 3-day period. At the end
of the 3-day period, accuracy of the records was checked
through individual interviews with prescribed equipment
including household measuring cups and spoons, serving
and eating utensils and food models. Each player was
questioned by the investigators as to whether or not he/
she was using nutrient supplement, on a diet, and other
daily physical activities such as how many hours the
subject sit for study and walk to commute and so on. DEE
was estimated from the basal metabolic rate, body surface
area, and time and relative metabolic rate for various
activities (Imamura et al., 2000). The body surface area
was calculated according to the following formula: W0.444
× H 0.663 × 88.83 (Fujimoto et al., 1968). The relative
metabolic rate during karate exercises for male (0.130
kcal · kg–1 · min–1) and female (0.075 kcal · kg–1 · min–1) were
calculated from the results of two studies (Imamura et al.,
1999 and in press). Each food item was coded according
to the Tables of the Japanese Foodstuff Composition (The
Resources Council of the Science and Technology
Agency, 1987). The coded data were computer processed
to obtain the daily average intake of the nutrients. Data
were compared with the DEE, Japanese RDAs or ADIs.
The definition, applications and basis for calculation of
 Teshima, K et al. 207

Table 1 Characteristics of the subjects Table 2 Nutrient intake of the subjects

M Group (n=29) F Group (n=16) M Group (n=29) F Group (n=16)

Age (years) 20.1 ± 1.3 19.7 ± 1.0 Energy (kcal) 2763 ± 741 1947 ± 398***
Height (cm) 173.6 ± 6.4 158.9 ± 4.9* Energy (kcal · kg–1) 42.29 ± 12.73 34.92 ± 8.12*
Weight (kg) 66.2 ± 7.5 56.3 ± 6.8* Protein (g) 89.8 ± 24.5 64.7 ± 16.1**
BMI (kg/m2) 22.0 ± 2.0 22.3 ± 2.6 Protein (g · kg–1) 1.38 ± 0.46 1.17 ± 0.35
%Fat 12.4 ± 3.0 24.1 ± 5.5* Animal Protein (g) 44.9 ± 22.0 33.4 ± 15.1
Fat Mass (kg) 8.3 ± 2.8 13.7 ± 4.3* Fish Protein (g) 8.9 ± 11.8 4.7 ± 5.0
LBM (kg) 57.9 ± 5.5 42.6 ± 4.5* Fat (g) 83.1 ± 28.9 65.1 ± 18.8*
KE (years) 10.1 ± 4.7 9.2 ± 3.8 Fat (g · kg–1) 1.27 ± 0.48 1.18 ± 0.38
Animal Fat (g) 39.7 ± 20.9 25.1 ± 11.8**
BMI=body mass index, %Fat=percentage of body fat,
Fish Fat (g) 3.0 ± 4.0 2.2 ± 3.1
LBM= le an bo dy mass, KE=karate experi ence.
Carbohydrate (g) 374.9 ± 109.2 266.8 ± 60.8***
*p<0.001.
Carbohydrate (g · kg–1) 5.73 ± 1.77 4.77 ± 1.12
Calcium (mg) 421 ± 198 461 ± 126
Phosphorus (mg) 1259 ± 331 940 ± 186***
the Japanese RDAs are translated into English (The Magnesium (mg) 154 ± 50 113 ± 24**
Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1991). The Japanese Iron (mg) 10.8 ± 2.9 8.2 ± 2.0**
Animal Iron (mg) 3.8 ± 1.9 2.7 ± 1.4*
RDAs for minerals and vitamins are available for calcium,
Sodium (mg) 4472 ± 1254 3211 ± 1020**
iron, vitamins A, B1, B2, C and D and niacin. Because of Potassium (mg) 2356 ± 723 2094 ± 470
the paucity of scientific data, no Japanese RDAs exist for Salt (g) 11.4 ± 3.2 8.2 ± 2.6**
sodium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, dietary V.A (IU) 2106 ± 1877 1913 ± 1137
fiber and vitamin E. However, these are expressed as V.B1 (mg · 1000 kcal–1) 0.51 ± 0.14 0.44 ± 0.05***
ADIs in numerical values similarly as RDAs. Sixty six V.B2 (mg · 1000 kcal–1) 0.51 ± 0.21 0.63 ± 0.17
percent of the RDAs or ADIs was used as cut-off point for V.C (mg) 71 ± 38 86 ± 66
Dietary Fiber (g) 9.0 ± 2.9 6.4 ± 1.9**
inadequate nutrient intake because a diet can be
Dietary Fiber (g · 1000 kcal–1) 3.4 ± 1.1 3.3 ± 0.9
classified as being inadequate if the diet supplied less %E-Carbohydrate 54.6 ± 7.6 55.0 ± 6.1
than two thirds of the RDA or ADI for one or more of the %E-Cereal 50.7 ± 7.8 36.9 ± 10.0***
listed nutrients (Leverton, 1975). %E-Protein 13.2 ± 2.2 13.3 ± 2.1
%E-Fat 26.8 ± 5.8 30.0 ± 5.6
Statistical analysis %-Animal protein 48.5 ± 14.4 50.1 ± 14.5
Descriptive statistics included means and standard %-Animal fat 46.4 ± 13.9 39.7 ± 17.7
deviations (SD). Differences in mean values between 2 V=vitamin, %E=percentage of energy intake. *p<0.05, **p<0.01,
groups were analyzed by 2-tailed t-test. ***p<0.001.

Results
The characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1.
There were no significant differences between the M and
F Groups in age, body mass index and karate experience.
However, as expected, the M Group showed significantly
higher mean body height and weight and lean body mass
and significantly lower mean %Fat and fat mass than the
F Group.
The nutrient intake in the M and F Groups is shown in
Table 2. The M Group showed significantly higher energy
intake and many other nutrient intakes than the F Group.
However, when energy and macro-nutrient intakes were
calculated based on the body weight, the M Group only
showed significantly higher energy intake.
The nutrient intakes expressed as absolute values as
well as percentages of the DEE, RDAs or ADIs are shown
in Table 3, in which the number and percentage of the
subjects who consumed more than 100%, between 67%
and 99%, or less than 66% of the DEE, RDAs or ADIs are
also indicated. Although the M Group showed
significantly higher mean %DEE, %RDAs or %ADIs in
iron, vitamin B1, phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium
than the F Group, many of the mean %DEE, %RDAs or
%ADIs were below DEE, RDAs or ADIs in both groups.
The nutrient intakes expressed as percentages of the
DEE, RDAs, or ADIs between the M1 and M2 Groups or F1
and F2 Groups during the 3-day diet record period were
compared in Table 4. Thirteen subjects (45%) in the M
Group skipped a total of 28 meals (12 breakfasts, 13
lunches and 3 suppers), and seven subjects (44%) in the F
Group skipped a total of 13 meals (11 breakfasts and 2
lunches). In the M Group, 4 subjects skipped one meal, 6
skipped 2, one each skipped 3, 4, or 5 meals, respectively.
The last one who skipped 5 meals was on a diet. In the F
Group, 4 subjects skipped one meal, and 3 skipped 3
meals, respectively. None of the subjects used vitamin or
mineral supplement. In the M group, there were no
significant differences in any nutrients when the 12
subjects who skipped meals as a whole group were
compared to the subjects who did not skip. However,
208 Nutrient Intake of Karate Players

Table 3 Nutrient intakes expressed as a percentage of the daily energy expenditure (DEE), recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) or
adequate dietary intakes (ADIs)

Male Group (n=29) Female Group (n=16)

number of subjects (%) number of subjects (%)
DEE %DEE ≥100% 67~99% <66% DEE %DEE ≥100% 67~99% <66%
Energy (kcal) 3958 70.5 ± 20.4 1 (3) 17 (59) 11 (38) 2652 73.9 ± 16.3 1 (6) 11 (69) 4 (25)
RDAs %RDAs ≥100% 67~99% <66% RDAs %RDAs ≥100% 67~99% <66%
Protein (g) 90 98.6 ± 32.6 14 (48) 10 (35) 5 (17) 80 83.6 ± 25.3 4 (25) 6 (38) 6 (38)
Fat (g) 110 41.7 ± 24.6 1 (3) 2 (7) 26 (90) 85 38.6 ± 18.4 – 1 (6) 15 (94)
Calcium (mg) 600 64.5 ± 32.6 4 (14) 5 (17) 20 (69) 600 76.9 ± 21.0 2 (13) 6 (38) 8 (50)
Iron (mg) 10 97.6 ± 31.0 13 (45) 11 (38) 5 (17) 12 68.1 ± 17.0*** 1 (6) 7 (44) 8 (50)
V.A (IU) 2000 105.3 ± 93.8 11 (38) 8 (28) 10 (35) 1800 106.3 ± 63.2 6 (38) 6 (38) 4 (25)
V.B1 (mg · 1000 kcal–1) 0.40 106.2 ± 48.2 15 (52) 9 (31) 5 (17) 0.40 82.7 ± 24.4* 2 (13) 9 (56) 5 (31)
V.B2 (mg · 1000 kcal–1) 0.55 78.1 ± 50.5 4 (14) 11 (38) 14 (48) 0.55 85.7 ± 30.1 5 (31) 7 (44) 4 (25)
V.C (mg) 50 141.2 ± 75.8 18 (62) 5 (17) 6 (21) 50 172.8 ± 131.3 10 (63) 5 (31) 1 (6)
ADIs %ADIs ≥100% 67~99% <66% ADIs %ADIs ≥100% 67~99% <66%
Phosphorus (mg) 1300 96.8 ± 25.5 14 (48) 11 (38) 4 (14) 1300 72.3 ± 14.3*** – 9 (56) 7 (44)
Magnesium (mg) 300 51.5 ± 16.5 – 6 (21) 23 (79) 300 37.7 ± 7.9** – – 16 (100)
Sodium (mg) 4000 111.8 ± 31.4 19 (66) 7 (24) 3 (10) 4000 80.3 ± 25.5** 4 (25) 7 (44) 5 (31)
Potassium (mg) 2000 117.1 ± 36.2 20 (69) 7 (24) 2 (7) 2000 104.7 ± 23.5 10 (63) 6 (38) –
DF (g · 1000 kcal–1) 10 27.3 ± 10.6 – – 29 (100) 10 24.7 ± 8.8 – – 16 (100)

V=vitamin, DF=dietary fiber. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.

Table 4 Nutrient intakes expressed as a percentage of the daily energy expenditure (DEE),
recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) or adequate dietary intakes (ADIs)

M1 M2 F1 F2
%DEE (± SD)
Energy (%) 64.3 ± 21.8 90.5 ± 23.8* 64.4 ± 12.3 83.5 ± 17.8*
%RDAs (± SD)
Protein (%) 78.7 ± 24.4 105.0 ± 34.7 71.7 ± 17.2 92.8 ± 27.4
Fat (%) 27.5 ± 18.0 48.8 ± 27.1* 33.3 ± 13.0 42.7 ± 21.5*
Calcium (%) 46.0 ± 15.5 74.8 ± 38.8* 64.6 ± 9.3 86.5 ± 22.9
Iron (%) 68.1 ± 16.9 109.0 ± 29.2** 59.3 ± 16.0 75.0 ± 15.0
V.A (%) 84.1 ± 39.4 116.2 ± 122.2 106.4 ± 75.6 106.2 ± 56.5
V.B1 (%) 82.5 ± 26.5 112.7 ± 56.9 71.4 ± 15.2 91.5 ± 27.2
V.B2 (%) 48.5 ± 16.3 95.8 ± 61.1** 67.0 ± 17.6 100.3 ± 30.3*
V.C (%) 114.4 ± 64.8 154.7 ± 83.0 99.6 ± 30.1 229.7 ± 152.6
%ADIs (± SD)
Phosphorus (%) 79.1 ± 20.6 104.0 ± 26.6* 62.8 ± 9.5 79.7 ± 13.3*
Magnesium (%) 43.5 ± 11.4 51.4 ± 17.4 39.0 ± 6.5 36.7 ± 9.1
Sodium (%) 92.9 ± 33.7 112.9 ± 24.4 76.9 ± 30.5 82.9 ± 22.4
Potassium (%) 97.2 ± 28.3 122.1 ± 35.2 89.4 ± 13.0 116.7 ± 23.3*
Dietary Fiber (%) 21.7 ± 5.8 29.1 ± 10.9 20.7 ± 6.8 27.9 ± 9.2

M1=9 male subjects who skipped 2 or more meals, M2=16 male subjects who did not skip
meals, F1=7 female subjects who skipped more than one meal, F2=9 female subjects who
did not skip meals. *p<0.05, **p<0.01.

when the 9 subjects who skipped 2 or more meals (M1
Group) were compared to the subjects who did not skip
(M2 Group), the M1 Group showed significantly lower
mean %DEE, %RDAs in fat, calcium, iron, and vitamin B2,
and %ADI in phosphorus. The percentage of the subjects
who consumed less than 66% of DEE, RDAs or ADIs in
these nutrients and some other nutrients were greater in
the M1 Group than the M2 Group. Similar trends were
obtained in the F Group when the 7 subjects who skipped
meals as a whole group were compared to the subjects
who did not skip.
Physical characteristics of M1, M2, F1, and F2 Groups
 Teshima, K et al. 209

Table 5 Characteristics of the subjects

M1 (n=9) M2 (n=16) F1 (n=7) F2 (n=9)

Height (cm) 173.9 ± 6.2 174.6 ± 6.1 59.1 ± 4.7 158.8 ± 5.4
Weight (kg) 65.0 ± 6.8 67.6 ± 8.1 56.9 ± 7.0 55.9 ± 7.0
BMI (kg/m2) 21.5 ± 2.1 22.2 ± 2.1 22.5 ± 2.9 22.2 ± 2.5
%Fat 13.4 ± 2.7 11.8 ± 3.3 25.5 ± 4.3 23.0 ± 6.4
Fat Mass (kg) 8.8 ± 2.6 8.2 ± 3.1 14.7 ± 3.9 13.0 ± 4.6
LBM (kg) 56.2 ± 4.6 59.4 ± 5.8 42.2 ± 3.8 42.9 ± 5.1

M1=9 male subjects who skipped 2 or more meals, M2=16 male subjects who did
not skip meals, F1=7 female subjects who skipped more than one meal, F2=9
female subjects who did not skip meals. BMI=body mass index, %Fat=percentage
of body fat, LBM=lean body mass, KE=karate experience. *p<0.05, **p<0.01.

Table 6 Foodstuff intake of subjects

Food (g) M Group (n=29) F Group (n=16)

Rice 296.5 ± 113.0 110.8 ± 58.1***
Breads 29.1 ± 40.5 54.4 ± 31.5*
Noodles & Other cereals 105.7 ± 65.5 62.3 ± 51.4*
Potatos 32.9 ± 30.9 25.8 ± 29.4
Sugars & Confectionaries 27.5 ± 33.2 74.1 ± 72.9*
Fats & Oils 21.6 ± 13.0 22.9 ± 15.5
Soybeans & Soybean products 48.3 ± 39.9 24.5 ± 31.9*
Fruits & Fruit juices 24.5 ± 51.7 82.2 ± 66.9**
Green vegetables 25.2 ± 18.1 15.7 ± 20.2*
Other vegetables 150.6 ± 85.4 144.7 ± 134.2
Algae 2.7 ± 3.8 0.8 ± 1.2*
Beverages 428.9 ± 422.7 602.3 ± 429.9
Fish (Raw & Processed) 47.5 ± 71.3 22.7 ± 24.7
Meat (Raw & Processed) 151.7 ± 81.0 104.2 ± 70.8
Eggs 46.7 ± 33.3 32.8 ± 32.0
Milk & Daily products 94.2 ± 149.0 150.9 ± 108.6*

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.

are shown in Table 5. There were no significant
differences in any parameters between M1 and M2
Groups or F1 and F2 Groups.
The foodstuff intake in the M and F Groups is shown in
Table 6. The M Group showed significantly higher mean
foodstuff intakes in rice, noodles and other cereals,
soybeans and soybean products, green vegetables and
algae and significantly lower intakes in breads, sugars
and confectionaries, fruits and fruits juice, milk and daily
products than the F Group.
Discussion
1993). The F Group also showed the lower mean %Fat
than the value for the sedentary women of similar age
(24.1 ± 5.5% v.s. 27.8 ± 4.2%) (unpublished data collected
with the same method in this laboratory). Although the
M1 or F1 Group showed significantly lower mean %DEE
than the M2 or F2 Group, respectively, their mean body
weight and other physical characteristics did not differ
significantly between the M1 and M2 Groups or F1 and F2
Groups. These results, at least in part, could be explained
by the finding that over-nutrition increases the resting
metabolic rate and thermic effects of feeding, while
under-nutrition decreases them (Van Zant, 1992).

Anthropometric data Nutrient intake

The mean body height, weight, and body mass index for
the M and F Groups were 2.1 and 0.8 cm, 3.6 and 4.6 kg,
and 0.72 and 1.63, respectively, higher than the reference
person for 20 years of age (The Ministry of Health and
Welfare, 1991). The M Group showed the lower mean
%Fat than the value reported for the sedentary men of
similar age (12.4 ± 3.0% v.s. 14.0 ± 4.2%) (Takami et al.,
Brotherhood (1984) suggested that at least 55% of
calories should come from carbohydrate, less than 30%
from fat, and about 12% from protein for a healthy or
prudent diet. The results of the national nutrition survey
in Japan showed that diet compositions of men (56.0%,
25.7%, and 14.1%, respectively) and women (56.5%,
27.7%, and 14.3%, respectively) for 20–29 years of age
210 Nutrient Intake of Karate Players
compare favorably with this standard (The Ministry of
Health and Welfare, 1991). Diet compositions of the M
and F Groups in the present study showed that these
karate players ate a typical Japanese diet. The lower
intake of carbohydrate and higher intake of fat has been
reported from the other countries. Ellsworth et al. (1985)
investigated the nutrient intake of 13 male and 14 female
members of the US Nordic Ski Team and noted that these
skiers ate a typical American diet: high in fat and
relatively low in carbohydrate. The mean values of the
dietary records showed that carbohydrate intake for men
was 45% of total energy intake and for women was 46%,
and fat intake for men was 39% and for women was 38%.
Similar results were reported in university athletes in
various other sports in the US (Short and Short, 1983)
and South African national level throwing field athletes
(Faber and Benade, 1991). For athletes, the American
and Canadian Dietetic Associations (1993) stated that the
carbohydrate intake should be up to 65% to 70% of the
daily energy intake for athletes training at a high
inte nsit y o n succ essive days. The ca rb oh ydr a te
consumption of the M and F Groups were lower than this
recommended target (59.2 ± 8.4% of total calories for the
M Group and 52.3 ± 7.0% for the F Group).
The American and Canadian Dietetic Associations
(1993) stated that providing 12% to 15% of total energy
fr o m p ro tein ma y b e e xce ssive for ath letes with
exceptionally high energy intake or may be inadequate
for athletes with very low energy intake. In these cases,
providing 1.0 to 1.5 g · kg – 1 · day – 1 may be a more
appropriate guide. In Japan, the protein RDA for the
adult population is 1.08 g · kg–1 · day–1 and for sports people
is from 1.2 to 1.4 g · kg–1 · day–1. The protein intake needs
to be adjusted if animal protein ratio is below 40%.
However, animal protein ratio for male was 48.5% and for
female was 50.1%, so that these values were not adjusted
in the present study. The protein consumption of the M
and F Groups compare favorably with these
recommendations (1.38 ± 0.46 g · kg–1 and 13.2 ± 2.2% of
total calories for the M Group and 1.17 ± 0.35 g · kg–1 and
13.3 ± 2.1% for the F Group). Although we cannot draw
any conclusions as to what the o ptimum p rotein
requirement for highly competitive karate players, these
athletes may require more protein than the Japanese
RDA for sports people to build and repair tissue because
many competitive karate players follow a strenuous
weight training program to increase muscle development
and power and spar quite often which might cause
muscular damage. Tarnopolsky et al. (1992), using the
leucine kinetic and nitrogen balance methods,
investigated the dietary protein requirements of strength
athletes compared with sedentary subjects. They
reported that the protein intake for zero nitrogen balance
for sedentary subjects was 0.69 g · kg –1 · day –1 and for
strength athletes was 1.41 g · kg –1 · day –1 ; with a safety
margin of ± 1 SD, the suggested recommended intake
were 0.89 and 1.76 g · kg–1 · day–1, respectively.
In Japan, the recommended fat energy ratio is from 25
to 30% for sports people (The Ministry of Health and
Welfare, 1991). The mean fat consumption of the M and
F Groups was within the range of this recommendation
(26.8 ± 5.8% of total calories for the M Group and 30.0 ±
5.6% for the F Group).
In the present study, it was not possible to determine if
the subjects observed were suffering from any nutrient
deficiencies in minerals and vitamins. However, the
Japanese RDAs or ADIs for minerals and vitamins are
specified for reference individuals with average body
heights and weights and are not specified for sports
people. Thus, karate players may require more minerals
and vitamins than the Japanese RDAs. The subjects were
advised to not skip meals because subjects who skipped
meals tended to show lower mean Japanese %RDAs or
%ADIs in minerals and vitamins, and the percentage of
the subjects who consumed less than 66% of the RDAs or
ADIs in these nutrients and some other nutrients were
greater in the subjects who skipped meals than who did
not in both M and F Groups.
To increase mineral, vitamin and dietary fiber intakes,
the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (1991)
recommended the consumption of 200 g of milk and dairy
products, 100 g of green vegetables and 200 g of other
vegetables. According to these recommendations,
consumption of these foodstuffs in both M and F Groups
we re lo w. T he A me r ic an a nd Can adia n Die tet ic
Associations (1993) stated that athletes at risk for low
mineral and vitamin intake are those who consume a low-
calorie diet. The increased requirement for some
minerals and vitamins through physical activity can be
met by consuming a balanced high-carbohydrate,
moderate-protein, low-fat diet.
Conclusion
It is concluded that the male and female highly
competitive karate players studied in the present study
may be at risk of sub-optimal nutrient intake, which
increases the potential for nutrient deficiency. The
subjects were advised not to skip meals, and to consume a
balanced high-carbohydrate, moderate-protein, low-fat
diet with increasing green and other vegetables and milk
and dairy products to increase mineral, vitamin and
dietary fiber intakes.
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Received: May 29, 2001
Accepted: June 7, 2002
Correspondence to: Kaori Teshima, Department of Food
and Nutrition, Beppu University, 82 Kita-Ishigaki, Beppu-
shi 874-8501, Japan
e-mail: kaoteshi@mc.beppu-u.ac.jp