. 2/A.

P1 Explain how the features of a relational database are used for database
management.
Attribute data in the given task
Animals
Species
Keepers
Diet
Enclosure

What is relational database

A relational database is a type of database that stores and provides access to data points that
are related to one another. Relational databases are based on the relational model, an
intuitive, straightforward way of representing data in tables. In a relational database, each row
in the table is a record with a unique ID called the key. The columns of the table hold
attributes of the data, and each record usually has a value for each attribute, making it easy to
establish the relationships among data points.
How relational databases are modeled
The relational model means that the logical data structures—the data tables, views, and
indexes—are separate from the physical storage structures. This separation means that
database administrators can manage physical data storage without affecting access to that
data as a logical structure. For example, renaming a database file does not rename the tables
stored within it.
The distinction between logical and physical also applies to database operations, which are
clearly defined actions that enable applications to manipulate the data and structures of the
database. Logical operations allow an application to specify the content it needs, and physical
operations determine how that data should be accessed and then carries out the task.

Relational Model
The relational data model provided a standard way of representing and querying data that
could be used by any application. From the beginning, developers recognized that the chief
strength of the relational database model was in its use of tables, which were an intuitive,
efficient, and flexible way to store and access structured information.

Domain
A domain is the original sets of atomic values used to model data. By atomic value, we mean
that each value in the domain is indivisible as far as the relational model is concerned. For
example:
The domain of Animal Gender has a set of possibilities: male and female

Cardinality
cardinality refers to the relationships between the data in two database tables. Cardinality
defines how many instances of one entity are related to instances of another entity.
For instance ,
an animal keeper who is assigned to keep many animals . This means that the entity keeper
and entity animal is ( One to many ).

Tuple
A tuple is simply a row contained in a table in the tablespace. A table usually contains
columns and rows in which rows stand for records while columns stand for attributes. A
single row of a table that has a single record for such a relation is known as a tuple.

Relational Algebra
RELATIONAL ALGEBRA is a widely used procedural query language. It collects instances of
relations as input and gives occurrences of relations as output. It uses various operations to
perform this action. SQL Relational algebra query operations
are performed recursively on a relation.

Relational Algebra Sets

UNION (υ)
UNION is symbolized by ∪ symbol. It includes all tuples that are in tables A or in B. It also
eliminates duplicate tuples. So, set A UNION set B would be expressed as:
The result <- A ∪ B
For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold –
Attribute domains need to be compatible.
Duplicate tuples should be automatically removed.

INTERSECTION ( )
An intersection is defined by the symbol ∩
A∩B
Defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuple that are in both A and B. However, A and B
must be union-compatible.
SELECT (σ)

The SELECT operation is used for selecting a subset of the tuples according to a given selection
condition. Sigma(σ)Symbol denotes it. It is used as an expression to choose tuples which meet
the selection condition. Select operator selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

Join Operations
Join operation is essentially a cartesian product followed by a selection criterion.
Join operation denoted by ⋈.
JOIN operation also allows joining variously related tuples from different relations.
Inner Join:
In an inner join, only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria are included, while the rest
are excluded. Let’s study various types of Inner Joins:
NATURAL JOIN (⋈)
Natural join can only be performed if there is a common attribute (column) between the
relations. The name and type of the attribute must be same.
Theta Join:
The general case of JOIN operation is called a Theta join. It is denoted by symbol θ
EQUI join:
When a theta join uses only equivalence condition, it becomes a equi join.
OUTER JOIN
In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria, we also include some or
all tuples that do not match the criteria.
Left Outer Join(A   B)
In the left outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the left relation. However, if there is
no matching tuple is found in right relation, then the attributes of right relation in the join
result are filled with null values.
Right Outer Join: ( A   B )
In the right outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the right relation. However, if
there is no matching tuple is found in the left relation, then the attributes of the left relation in
the join result are filled with null values.
Full Outer Join: ( A   B)
In a full outer join, all tuples from both relations are included in the result, irrespective of the
matching condition.

An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a database with the help
of a diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram). An ER model is a
design or blueprint of a database that can later be implemented as a database. The main
components of E-R model are: entity set and relationship set.
Entity Relationships
1-1
A one-to-one relationship is a link between the information in two tables, where each record
in each table only appears once. For example, there might be a one-to-one relationship
between employees and the cars they drive.
1-many
1-to-many, or 1:N relationships, are used when you are creating a relationship between two
entities where there are multiple records from one entity associated with a single record
from another entity
Many-many
A many-to-many relationship occurs when multiple records in a table are associated with
multiple records in another table.

Generic database
A generic database is a table in which the field names are stored as field values in one column,
while the field values are stored in a second. Generic databases are usually used for attributes
of different objects.
Generic relationships are abstraction patterns used for structuring information across
application domains. They play a central role in information modeling.
Semantic database
The semantic data model is a method of structuring data in order to represent it in a specific
logical way. It is a conceptual data model that includes semantic information that adds a basic
meaning to the data and the relationships that lie between them.
Relational Keys
Keys are very important part of Relational database model. They are used to establish and
identify relationships between tables and also to uniquely identify any record or row of data
inside a table. A Key can be a single attribute or a group of attributes, where the combination
may act as a key.
Super key
Super key is a single key or a group of multiple keys that can uniquely identify tuples in a
table. Super Key can contain multiple attributes that might not be able to independently
identify tuples in a table, but when grouped with certain keys, they can identify tuples
uniquely.
Example : Animal_name is a superkey
Candidate key
The minimal set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple is known as a candidate key.
Example: KeeperPhone is candidate keys
Primary key
A primary key is the column or columns that contain values that uniquely identify each row
in a table. A database table must have a primary key for Optim to insert, update, restore, or
delete data from a database table. 
Example: KeeperID is a Primary Key
Foreign key
A foreign key is a column or a set of columns in a table whose values correspond to the
values of the primary key in another table. In order to add a row with a given foreign key
value, there must exist a row in the related table with the same primary key value.
Example : KeeperId is a foreign key for Animals.

Integrity Constraint
 Integrity constraints are a set of rules. ...
 Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes
have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
 Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

Entity Integrity
 ensures that there are no duplicate records within the table and that the field that identifies
each record within the table is unique and never null.

Referential Integrity
Referential integrity refers to the relationship between tables. Because each table in a
database must have a primary key, this primary key can appear in other tables because of its
relationship to data within those tables.

2/A.M1 Analyse how the features of a relational database contribute to a final solution for
database management.
Planning
Planning involves establishing objectives and selecting appropriate strategies to achieve these
objectives. 
An objective is the aim or goal of an organisation.  
A strategy is a possible course of action that might enable an organisation to achieve its
objectives. 
 Planning can be either short-term (tactical and operational planning) or long-term (strategic
planning).
Decision Making
Managers of all levels within an organisation make decisions. 
Decision making always involves a choice between alternatives.The first part of the decision-
making process is planning. 
The second part is control.
Control
Managers use the information relating to actual results to take control measures and to re-
assess and amend their original budgets or plans. 
Actual performance of the organisation is compared with detailed operational plans.e.g. check
whether the company is over or under spending on materials. 
Any deviations from the plans are identified and corrective action is taken.

Importance of planning
Planning is an essential managerial role in the growth and sustainability of an organization. It
helps the organization in defining its objectives and the course of action aimed at realizing the
organizational goals. The process requires the manager understand the current position of the
organization and identify areas of improvement for better future of the organization.  The
most important aspect of planning is creating a competitive advantage for the organization.
Through reviewing the current strengths and weaknesses in an organization, the managers
can determine the industry position about the competitors. The management of an
organization should analyze competitors’ weaknesses and craft marketing strategies that take
advantage of such weaknesses.

Importance of controlling
Controlling is another critical component of managerial accounting. The process involves the
comparison between achieved and planned performance in an organization. Management of
organizations should be able to detect deviations from the plan and take appropriate
corrective measures for the betterment of the organizational growth (Bhattacharyya, 2011).
Management must have relevant control parameters and designing efficient finance processes
to determining the controlling methods, systems and instruments.

Importance of decision-making
Managers are always required to make decisions regarding the daily processes in an
organization. The process involves deciding the best solution from a set of different
alternatives.  The decisions made by the organizational management mean a lot to the
planning and controlling process in the organization.  Correct decision making requires a
collection of right information and gathering the information in time). Most of the valuable
information is achieved through the company’s accounting processes that give an insight to
the managers on the quality of decisions to make.

2/A.D1 Evaluate how the features and functions of a relational database contribute to a
final solution for database management.
Functions of a RDBMS
A (RDBMS) relational database management system is a term used to describe an entire suite
of programs for both managing a relational database and communicating with that relational
database engine.
Sometimes (SDK) Software Development Kit front-end tools and complete management kits
are included with relational database packages. Microsoft Access is an example of this. Both
the relational database and front-end development tools for building input screens are
packaged within the same piece of software. In other words, an RDBMS is both the database
engine and any other tools that come with the database. RDBMS is just another name for a
relational database product.

Providing Data Abstraction and Application flexibility with Relational Databases

The relational data model also introduced high-level query languages that provided an
alternative to programming language interfaces, making it much faster to write new queries.
Relational systems were initially targeted to the same applications as earlier systems, and
provided flexibility to develop new queries quickly and to reorganize the database as
requirements changed. Hence, data abstraction and program-data independence were much
improved when compared to earlier systems.

Benefits of a relational model

The primary benefit of the relational database approach is the ability to create meaningful
information by joining the tables. Joining tables allows you to understand
the relationships between the data, or how the tables connect. SQL includes the ability to
count, add, group, and also combine queries. SQL can perform basic math and subtotal
functions and logical transformations. Analysts can order the results by date, name, or any
column.
Those features make the relational approach the single most popular query tool in business
today.
Relational databases have several advantages compared to other database formats:
Reduced redundancy 
Relational databases eliminate data redundancy. The information for a single customer
appears in one place—a single entry in the customer table. The order table only needs to store
a link to the customer table. The practice of separating the data to avoid redundancy is called
normalization. Progressional database designers make sure the tables normalize during the
design process.
Ease of backup and disaster recovery 
Relational databases are transactional—they guarantee the state of the entire system is
consistent at any moment. Most relational databases offer easy export and import options,
making backup and restore trivial. These exports can happen even while the database is
running, making restore on failure easy. Modern, cloud-based relational databases can do
continuous mirroring, making the loss of data on restore measured in seconds or less. Most
cloud-managed services allow you to create Read Replicas, like in IBM Cloud Databases for
PostgreSQL. Replicas can be promoted to Read/Write instances for disaster recovery as well.