ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

OVERVIEW

RODICA MEDAN

2017

1
 Overview: Grammar and Vocabulary

Table of Contents

Unit 1: Grammar Overview: Present and Future Tenses; Vocabulary: People and
Relationships ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Present Simple .......................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Present Continuous ................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Will............................................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Be going to ................................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Future perfect ............................................................................................................ 9
Unit 2: Grammar Overview: Past and Perfect Tenses Vocabulary: Society and Social
Development ..................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Past Simple.............................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Past Continuous .......................................................................................................11
2.3 Present perfect simple ............................................................................................. 13
2.4 Present perfect continuous ...................................................................................... 15
2.5 Past perfect simple .................................................................................................. 17
2.6 Past perfect continuous ........................................................................................... 18
Unit 3: Grammar Overview: Adjectives and Adverbs Vocabulary Overview: Lifestyles,
Social and National Customs ............................................................................................ 19
3.1 Position of adjectives .............................................................................................. 19
3.2 Comparison of adjectives ........................................................................................ 21
3.3 Adjective forms ....................................................................................................... 22
3.4 (not) as… as and not so… as .................................................................................. 23
3.5 So, such, too and enough ........................................................................................ 24
3.6 Adverb forms .......................................................................................................... 25
3.7 Comparison of adverbs ........................................................................................... 27
3.8 Adverbs used before comparative adjectives .......................................................... 28
3.9 Adverbs used before past participles....................................................................... 29
Unit 4: Grammar Overview: Modals I: Present and Future; Vocabulary Overview: Work
........................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Requests .................................................................................................................. 30
4.2 Offers ...................................................................................................................... 31
4.3 Suggestions ............................................................................................................. 32
4.4 Permission ............................................................................................................... 33
4.5 Ability ..................................................................................................................... 34
4.6 Duty and advice ...................................................................................................... 35
4.7 Obligation and necessity ......................................................................................... 36
4.8 Absence of obligation or necessity ......................................................................... 38
4.9 Deductions about the present .................................................................................. 40
4.10 Speculation (present) ............................................................................................ 41
4.11 Speculation /prediction (future) ............................................................................ 42
Unit 5: Grammar Overview: Nouns and Articles; Vocabulary Overview: Education, Study
and Learning ..................................................................................................................... 45
5.1 Uncountable nouns.................................................................................................. 45

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 5.2 Collective nouns...................................................................................................... 47
5.3 Plural nouns ............................................................................................................ 48
5.4 The definite article (the) .......................................................................................... 49
5.5 The indefinite article (a/an) ..................................................................................... 51
5.6 Omission of the article ............................................................................................ 52
5.6 Omission of the article ............................................................................................ 53
Unit 6: Grammar Overview: Modals II: Past; Vocabulary Overview: Archaeology and
History............................................................................................................................... 54
6.1 Giving or refusing permission in the past ............................................................... 54
6.2 General ability to do something in the past ............................................................ 56
6.3 Ability to do something in a specific situation in the past ...................................... 57
6.4 Necessity and obligation in the past........................................................................ 58
6.5 didn’t need to v. needn’t have ................................................................................. 59
6.6 Expressing criticism of somebody’s past actions.................................................... 60
6.7 Deductions, assumptions and speculation about the past ....................................... 61
Unit 7: Grammar Overview: Reported Speech; Vocabulary Overview: Media and
Entertainment .................................................................................................................... 63
7.1 Tense changes ......................................................................................................... 63
7.2 Modal verbs ............................................................................................................ 64
7.3 Other changes.......................................................................................................... 66
7.4 When does the verb not change in reported speech? .............................................. 67
7.5 Questions in reported speech .................................................................................. 68
7.6 Commands in reported speech ................................................................................ 70
7.7 Reporting alternative suggestions with if/whether ................................................. 71
Unit 8: Grammar Overview: Determiners and Pronouns; Vocabulary Overview: Arts and
Architecture....................................................................................................................... 72
8.1 this, that, these and those ........................................................................................ 72
8.2 It for reference......................................................................................................... 73
8.3 It as a ’dummy’ subject ........................................................................................... 74
8.4 Much, many, a lot of, a few and a little................................................................... 75
8.5 Each and every ........................................................................................................ 76
8.6 One(s), another, other(s) ......................................................................................... 78
8.7 All and both ............................................................................................................. 80
8.8 Neither and either .................................................................................................... 81
8.9 No and none ............................................................................................................ 82
Unit 9: Grammar Overview: Clauses; Vocabulary Overview: Travel and Tourism ..... 83
9.1 Relative clauses ....................................................................................................... 83
9.2 Defining and non-defining relative clauses ............................................................ 85
9.3 Clauses of purpose and reason ................................................................................ 87
9.4 Clauses of result ...................................................................................................... 88
9.5 Clauses of concession and contrast ......................................................................... 89
Unit 10: Grammar Overview: Conditionals; Vocabulary Overview: Health and Fitness . 91
10.1 Zero conditional .................................................................................................... 91
10.2 First conditional .................................................................................................... 92
10.3 Second conditional ................................................................................................ 93
10.4 Third conditional ................................................................................................... 94

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 10.5 Other phrases used in conditional sentences ......................................................... 95
Unit 11: Grammar Overview: Unreal Past and Wishes; Vocabulary Overview: Biology
and the Body ..................................................................................................................... 96
11.1 The present subjunctive......................................................................................... 96
11.2 The past subjunctive .............................................................................................. 98
11.3 wish and if only ..................................................................................................... 99
11.4 It’s high time ....................................................................................................... 100
Unit 12: Grammar Overview: Passives and Causatives; Vocabulary Overview: The
Natural World and the Environment ............................................................................... 101
12.1 Passive–tenses ..................................................................................................... 101
12.3 Verbs uncommon in passive................................................................................ 104
12.3 Agent and instrument .......................................................................................... 105
12.4 Reporting opinions .............................................................................................. 107
12.5 Verbs with two objects ........................................................................................ 108
12.6 Causative ............................................................................................................. 109
Unit 13: Grammar Overview: Infinitives and Gerunds; Vocabulary Overview: Science
and Technology ................................................................................................................110
13.1 Forms of the infinitive in active and passive voice..............................................110
13.2 Use of the full infinitive ....................................................................................... 111
13.3 Use of the infinitive without to ............................................................................113
13.4 Forms of the gerund in active and passive voice .................................................114
13.5 Use of the gerund .................................................................................................115
Unit 14: Grammar Overview: Emphasis – Inversion; Vocabulary Overview: Language
and Psychology ................................................................................................................118
14.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................118
14.2 So and such ..........................................................................................................119
14.3 as ......................................................................................................................... 120
14.4 Short answers ...................................................................................................... 121
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 122
Grammar ..................................................................................................................... 122
Integrated Skills .......................................................................................................... 124
Reference .................................................................................................................... 125
Vocabulary .................................................................................................................. 126

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Unit 1: Grammar Overview: Present and Future
Tenses; Vocabulary: People and
Relationships

Translation Student’s personalized examples –

1.1 Present i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
Simple etc.
1. He frequently responds angrily Example: I frequently respond
We use the Present to even the slightest criticism. calmly ...
simple:
El răspunde frecvent cu...................
1. to talk about
.........................................................
habitual actions, .........................................................
often with adverbs .........................................................
of frequency

2. to talk about 2. The Parent Teacher’s

definite Association meeting begins at 7
arrangements in the
future
o’clock.
Întâlnirea asociației ......................
........................................................
........................................................

3. to talk about 3. A good relationship combines

permanent states love, trust and friendship.
O relație bună combină .................
........................................................
4. Emoţional and physical
4. to describe a changes in adolescence mean that
permanent truth teenagers often behave
unpredictably.
Schimbările emoționale și fizice ....
........................................................

5. when we are 5. ‘Initially, the hero decides to

relating a story or seek out his real mother after years
telling a joke
of 'separation.’
Inițial,eroul ....................................
........................................................
........................................................

6. in newspaper 6. Minister attacks social services

headlines in child poverty scandal.
........................................................
........................................................

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1.2 Present Translation Student’s personalized examples –
Continuous i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Present 1. In Britain, the number of
continuous:
children who live with step-parents
1. to talk about an
is rising.
activity which is in În Marea Britanie numărul copiilor
progress at the care trăiesc cu părinți vitregi este
present time
în creștere ........................................
2. to talk about a 2. Their mother’s in hospital so
temporary activity the children are staying with their
grandparents.
Mama copiilor este în spital, așa
că ei stau cu bunicii .......................

3. to talk about 3. I can’t meet up with you on

our plans or Friday afternoon as I’m seeing my
arrangements for
the future
mother-in-law then.
Nu pot să mă întâlnesc cu tine
vineri după-amiază deoarece ...

4. to talk about an 4. I’m cooking lunch for the kids,

activity which is in can I call you back later?
progress as we
speak
........................................................
....., pot să te sun înapoi mai
târziu?

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1.3 Will Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
1. According to research, a child
We use will: with high self- esteem at the age of
1. to make ten will be more successful in later
predictions and life.
offers

Potrvit cercetărilor, un copil .........

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

I’ll try to persuade your father to

give you the money.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
....
2. to talk about 2. I’ll forgive you for your
decisions we make hypocritical behaviour considering
at the moment of
speaking
your apology.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

3. to describe 3. The clocks will change in the

known facts last week of October
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

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 1.4 Be going Translation Student’s personalized examples –
to i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
1. I am going to try and exercise
We use be self-control when I come face to
going to: face with the school bully who
caused me such pain as a child.
1 1. to describe our Am de gând ................................................
intentions for a
........................................................................
future time
........................................................................
........................................................................

2 2. to talk about 2. My cousins and I are going to

actions which we
hold a surprise birthday party for
have planned or
organised for the our grandmother.
future Eu și ...............................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

3. to make 3. The children are highly

predictions about vulnerable and their parents ’
the future based on
evidence we have
decision to separate is going to
in the present cause them great distress.
Copiii sunt foarte vulnerabili iar
decizia părinților de a ...................
........................................................
........................................................

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1.5 Future Translation Student’s personalized examples –
perfect i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Future 1. My grandparents will have been
perfect:
1. to talk about an
married for 50 years next April.
action which will Bunicii mei vor ..............................
be finished by a ........................................................
certain point in the
future
........................................................
........................................................
2. to talk about an 2. By the time the election results
activity which
continues over a
are announced the presidential
certain period of candidates will have been
time and which campaigning for three months
will be finished by
a certain time in
solid.
the future Până în momentul în care
rezultatele alegerilor vor fi
anunțate, ........................................
........................................................
........................................................
.........................................................

3. to make 3. Don't phone her at this time of

assumptions about night; she’ll have gone to bed by
the present
now.
Nu o suna la această .....................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

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Unit 2: Grammar Overview: Past and Perfect
Tenses Vocabulary: Society and Social
Development

2.1 Past Simple Translation Student’s personalized examples –

i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Past 1. The original study, carried out
simple:
in 1996, focused on the problem of
1. to talk about
stress at work.
an action which
Studiul original .............................
was completed
.......................................................
at a specific
.......................................................
time in the past
.......................................................
.......................................................

2. to talk about 2. Every month my grandfather

habitual actions sent me a parcel containing gifts,
in the past puzzles and children’s magazines.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................

3. to describe 3. As a child she felt very isolated

states in the past because of her disability.
Ca și copil ......................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

► This tense
is  a week ago, ......................
associated  last year, .............................
with a  yesterday,............................
number of  in 1995
time  etc.
expres-
sions such
as:

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2.2 Past Translation Student’s personalized examples –
Continuous i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

We use the Past 1. I was living in Paris when I met

continuous:
my husband.
1. to talk about
.......................................................
an activity in
.......................................................
progress at a
......................................................
particular time
in the past
2. to talk about 2. The Minister was concluding
an activity in an enquiry into road safety when
progress in the the accident happened.
past which was .......................................................
interrupted by .......................................................
another action .......................................................
.

3. to talk about 3. The secretarial staff was

two activities collecting the relevant information
which were in while the administrator was
progress preparing the report.
simultaneously Personalul de la secretariat .........
– the two .......................................................
clauses are often .......................................................
linked by while .......................................................
.......................................................

4. to set the 4. The sun was rising and a light

scene at the wind was blowing as the children
beginning of a set off from home for the last time.
narrative Soarele răsărea și un vânt slab ....
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................

5. with always 5. She was always turning up

to express late to rehearsals.
criticism of .....................................................
somebody’s .....................................................
annoying .....................................................
habits in the .....................................................
past .

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2.2 Past Translation Student’s personalized examples –
Continuous i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

► We do not
use the We were camping on my
past grandparents’ farm every summer.
continuous
to talk
about
habitual
actions in
the past.

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2.3 Present Translation Student’s personalized examples –
perfect simple i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Present 1. The headmaster has just
perfect simple:
announced his resignation.
1. to talk about
.......................................................
recent events -
.......................................................
we often use
.......................................................
just for
.
emphasis

2. to talk about 2. In most European countries

an action people have given up wearing
which took traditional dress, except on special
place at an occasions.
unspecified .......................................................
time in the past .......................................................
.......................................................
.....................................................

3. to talk about 3. Heavy rain has caused

an action widespread flooding and traffic
which took chaos.
place at an
unspecified .........................................................
time in the past .........................................................
and which has .........................................................
an obvious .
result in the
present

4. with state 4. The gulf between rich and poor

verbs to has become wider over the last
describe a two decades.
situation ........................................................
lasting up to ........................................................
the present ........................................................
moment
5. with the 5. It’s the first time that the
phrase It's the government has tackled the
first time ... problem of violent crime.
/It’s the only .........................................................
time ... .........................................................
........................................................

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2.3 Present Translation Student’s personalized examples –
perfect simple i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
► This tense
is already,
associated  ever,- .............................
with a  for, .................................
number of  in the last few days,
time ...........................................
expression  just,..................................
s such as:
 never, ................................
► We never  recently,............................
use the
 since.................................,
Present
 so far,
perfect
............................................
with a
definite  still,....................................
time  yet......................................
reference. ..

I’ve lived in Paris in 1989.

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2.4 Present Translation Student’s personalized examples –
perfect i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
continuous etc.
We use the 1. Campaigners have been
Present perfect protesting about overcrowding
continuous: and poor conditions in prisons
1. to talk about for many years. .
an activity
lasting up to and
including the
present moment

2. to talk about 2. I’ve been working on this

an activity project for a month and it’s
which has not still not ready.
yet been
completed

3. to talk about 3. My son has been revising for his

an activity exams all summer so now he’s
which has only taking a well-earned rest.
just been
completed

4. to talk about 4. I’ve been visiting a

an activity physiotherapist for some months
which we have now in the hope of curing my back
repeated over a problems.
certain period of
time

► Present Have you felt this way for long?

perfect
simple v.
Present
perfect
continuous Have you been feeling this way
for long?
The Present
perfect simple
emphasizes the
completion of
an action the
consequences
of which often
affect the

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2.4 Present Translation Student’s personalized examples –
perfect i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
continuous etc.
present time.
The Present
perfect
continuous is
used to
emphasize the
duration of an
activity.
► Some state
verbs may be
used in the
Present
perfect
simple or
continuous
with no
difference in
meaning.

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2.5 Past perfect Translation Student’s personalized examples –
simple i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Past 1. By the time Mozart was five
perfect simple: years old he had already
1. to talk about composed his first concerto.
an activity ....................................................
which was ....................................................
completed at a ....................................................
time before a ..................................................
certain point in
the past

► This tense is
not used
simply to
describe
actions
which took
place a long
time ago. It
must be used
in contrast to
another past
event.

► It is ► by the time
associated ► until,
with a ► when,
number of ► before,
time ► after,
expressions
such as:

► Unlike the ► in 1989,

Present ► when I was 11 years old
perfect tense,
definite time
references
may be used:

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2.6 Past perfect Student’s personalized examples –
continuous Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We use the Past 1. She had been writing
perfect continuous: for twenty years before her
first novel was published.
1. to talk about an ...........................................
continuing activity ...........................................
which took place ..........................................
before a certain point
in the past
2. in the same way 2. I’d been revising for
that we use the Present several months but I
perfect continuous and still wasn’t ready for the
simple to emphasis exam.
duration ......................................
......................................
......................................
......................................

The house was in a

terrible mess because
John had been re-
painting the walls.
......................................
......................................
......................................
....................................

► Like the Present

perfect continuous
this tense
emphasizes the
duration of an
activity rather than
its completion.
Some verbs which
refer to states
rather than
activities do not
have a continuous
form.

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Unit 3: Grammar Overview: Adjectives and Adverbs
Vocabulary Overview: Lifestyles, Social and
National Customs

3.1 Position of Translation Student’s personalized examples –

adjectives i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

• Adjectives ► appear,
normally
appear before ► be,
the nouns
they describe ► become,
or after link ► feel,
verbs: ► get,
► look
► taste,
► sound,
► smell

It’s a simple problem to solve.

The problem seems simple.

• Many I’m sorry (= sad, regretful) to

adjectives hear about your brother’s
may be used accident.
in both .................................................
positions, ................................................
some may ................................................
be used in
only one
position or The tramp was a sorry
the other, (= pitiful) sight in his tattered
and some clothes and battered hat.
change their ................................................
meaning ................................................
depending ................................................
on their ................................................

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3.1 Position of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
adjectives i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

position. ....

• If there are
several
adjectives in a
sentence they
can be listed
in this order:
three, several
number
---, beautiful
judgement
small, ---
dimensions

brown, ---
colour

---, Greek
origin
china, leather
material
teapots, bags

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3.2 Student’s personalized examples –
Comparison of Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
adjectives etc.

► Simple
Basic form ► Pretty
► Typical

► simpler/less simple.
Comparative ► ..............................................
forms ......prettier/less pretty
.more/less
typical..........................................
...............................................

► the simplest/the least

simple
Superlative ► the prettiest/the least
forms pretty
► the most/the least
typical..........................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................

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3.3 Adjective Student’s personalized examples –
forms Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
• Some
adjectives end
in –ly but
should not be
confused with
adverbs. Some
examples of this
kind are:
brotherly,
chilly, comely,
costly, deadly,
ghastly, etc.

• Some adjectives ► fascinated – fascinating,

have two forms, one ► enthralled – enthralling,
ending in –ed and ► surprised — surprising,
one in –ing. ► amazed – amazing

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

The children were very excited

about the carnival.

.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

We saw an amusing comedy at the

theatre.

....................................................
....................................................
................................................

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3.4 (not) as… Translation Student’s personalized examples –
as and not so… i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
as etc.
Their house is as large as ours.

.........................................................
........................................................

Today’s lecture wasn’t so

interesting as last week’s.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.....................................................

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3.5 So, such, Translation Student’s personalized examples –
too and enough i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

The pudding smells so delicious

that I’d like to eat it immediately.
.
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

It was such an interesting novel

that I read it twice.

.........................................................
.........................................................
......................................................

She feels too old to go to discos

these days.

.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

That child is (not) old enough to

dress himself.

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

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3.6 Adverb Translation Student’s personalized examples –
forms i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

• The majority • simple – simply,

of adverbs • pretty – prettily,
are formed • typical – typically,
by adding the • dramatic – dramatically, etc.
suffixes –ly
or –ally to ....................................................
adjectives ....................................................
and making ....................................................
spelling ....................................................
changes ....................................................
where ....................................................
necessary: ...............................................
She’s a hard worker. She works
• Some hard.
adverbs ........................................................
have the ........................................................
same form
as the
related He’s an early riser. He gets up
adjective. early.
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
.....

• Others may The pylon towered high above

have two the skyline. (place)
forms which
differ in .....................................................
meaning. ...................................................
I think highly of my art teacher.
(manner)
.....................................................
.....................................................

The film was pretty good.

(modifying an adjective)

.....................................................
.....................................................

25
3.6 Adverb Translation Student’s personalized examples –
forms i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

...

The child smiled prettily (manner)

Further ► hard – hardly,

examples of ► late – lately,
this kind are: ► direct – directly,
► deep – deeply,
► wrong – wrongly,
► sharp – sharply,
► scarce – scarcely
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
.................................................

26
3.7 Student’s personalized examples –
Comparison of Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
adverbs etc.
Basic form simply
typically
Comparative more/less simply
forms more/less typically
Superlative the most/the least simply
forms the most/the least typically
A few adverbs The plane arrived earlier than expected.
have –er ........................................................................
comparative ........................................................................
forms
He runs faster than I do.
........................................................................
.......................................................................

27
3.8 Adverbs Translation Student’s personalized examples –
used before i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
comparative etc.
adjectives
Adverbs of The company’s performance
this type give has been significantly better
information this year than last year..
about the
degree of ..................................................
difference ..................................................
between two ..................................................
things which .................................................
are
being Prices in supermarkets are
compared. marginally higher here than in
Other Britain.
adverbs of ........................................................................
this kind are: ........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.....................................................................

 far,
 rather,
 infinitely,
 much, etc..
 ................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................

28
3.9 Adverbs Translation Student’s personalized examples –
used before i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
past participles etc.
Some adverbs
can be used
before the past
participle of a
verb. The  a smartly dressed woman
resulting  a well known politician
collocation  a well-paid (well paid)
functions as an job
adjective. Many  a badly behaved child
of these  highly polished shoes
combinations
feature the
adverb well and
may be spelt
with or without
a hyphen.

29
Unit 4: Grammar Overview: Modals I: Present and Future;
Vocabulary Overview: Work

4.1 Requests Translation Student’s personalized examples –

i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

Can, could, Can you do some overtime next

may, might, will week as we’re going to be very
and would busy?

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................

Could you fill in the application

form and return it by Monday?
► The use of
might here is ......................................................
very formal. ......................................................
......................................................

May I ask who’s calling, please?

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................

Might I take a look at your

newspaper?

......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................

Will you tell the manager that I’m

waiting to see him?
......................................................
......................................................

Would you please send this letter

by express post? It’s urgent.
......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................

30
4.2 Offers Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Can, could, I can work your shift for you if you
may, shall, will like
and would .........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

My father could help you with your

homework. He’s a Maths teacher.
.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................

May I take your coat?

.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................

Shall I give you a lift to the office

as it’s raining?

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

I’ll take the letters. The Post

Office is on my way. Would you
like me to do those photocopies for
you?

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

31
4.3 Suggestions Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Can, could, Can I make a proposal?
might, shall, .........................................................
and should ........................................................
► The use of might
here is very formal. We could commission a report on
this subject.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................
You might try asking John. He
knows a lot about computers.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

Might I put forward a different

idea?

.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

Shall we postpone the meeting

until tomorrow?
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

We should use young people for

the modelling campaign.

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................

32
4.4 Permission Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Can(’t), could All staff can take the day off on
and may (not) Friday.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

You can’t go in now. Mr Becket is

busy.

.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................

Could I take the day off on Friday?

........................................................
........................................................
..................................................

Only authorised personnel may

enter the building site.

.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................

You may not leave the exam room

until told to do so.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

33
4.5 Ability Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Can and can’t The new secretary can take
shorthand and type at 45 words
per minute.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

It’s no use asking me to help you

with your Maths homework. I can’t
add up.
.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................

At the end of the course she’ll be

able to speak fluent French.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
..................................................

34
4.6 Duty and Student’s personalized examples –
advice Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Should(n’t) and You look exhausted. You should get
ought (not) to to bed earlier.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

You shouldn’t smoke so much.

.........................................................
....................................................
You ought to buy a new alarm
clock. This one doesn’t work.
.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................

He ought not to treat her like that.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

35
4.7 Obligation Translation Student’s personalized examples –
and necessity i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Have to, must She has to wear protective
(not) and need clothing and a helmet at all times
to on the building site. (obligation)
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................

We’ll have to hurry if we don’t

want to miss the bus. (necessity)
.......................................................
.......................................................
....................................................

Visitors must report to the

managing director as soon as they
reach the office. (obligation)
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................

I must do something about the

garden – it’s in a terrible state!
(necessity)
.......................................................
.......................................................

Both switches must be on before

the drill will work. (necessity)
.......................................................
.......................................................
Employees must not use the
telephone for personal calls.
(obligation/prohibition)

...............................................
...............................................
.............................................

He needs to work harder or

he’ll be made redundant,
(necessity)

.........................................................

36
4.7 Obligation Translation Student’s personalized examples –
and necessity i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

37
4.8 Absence of Student’s personalized examples –
obligation or Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
necessity etc.
(don’t) have to, We don’t have to work overtime
(don’t) need to but there is a very competitive
and needn’t atmosphere in the office so a lot
of us do so anyway. (absence of
obligation)
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
......

► Needn’t and
don’t need to
are
interchangeable You don’t need to pay all the
in the present. money at once. You can pay in
installments. (absence of
obligation)

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
....

The company doesn’t need to

employ any new workers this
month. (absence of necessity)
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................

You needn’t finish the

reports until Friday.
(absence of necessity)

............................................
............................................

38
4.8 Absence of Student’s personalized examples –
obligation or Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
necessity etc.
............................................
............................................
.............

39
4.9 Deductions Translation Student’s personalized examples –
about the i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
present etc.
Can’t, must and That can’t be the new manager. I
will was told he was bald but this
man’s got thick black hair.

.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
..................................................

It’s Monday morning. There must

be someone at the office.
.
.......................................................
.......................................................
...................................................

Listen, someone’s honking a car

horn outside. That will be the taxi.

.......................................................
.......................................................
......................................................

40
4.10 Translation Student’s personalized examples –
Speculation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
(present) etc.
Could and The letter could be from aunt
should Martha; open it and see.

.......................................................
.......................................................
......................................................

He should be home by now; he

usually gets home at 6.
.......................................................
.......................................................
..................................................

41
4.11 Speculation Translation Student’s personalized examples –
/prediction i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
(future) etc.
May (not), might Several people may/might be
(not), shall (not), made redundant as a result of the
should (not) and economic recession.
will/won’t .....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
..

She may not have time to finish

the report.

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
He might change his mind
......................................................
......................................................
..
Our team might not win.

......................................................
....................................................
We shall know the results by the
end of the week.

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
......
I shan’t pass the exam; I’ve
done no revision at all.

.....................................................
.....................................................
....................................................

She’s very ambitious so she

should do well in her job.

....................................................

42
4.11 Speculation Translation Student’s personalized examples –
/prediction i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
(future) etc.
....................................................
...................................................

We shouldn’t be late; there isn’t

much traffic.

.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
..
The police are letting the traffic
through; we won’t be stuck here
much longer.

.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
....

He will become Managing

Director in the next round of
promotions.

....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
...

What terrible service! We won’t

come back here in a hurry

....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
..

In a few years from now the 35-

hour working week should have
become common practice.

.....................................................

43
4.11 Speculation Translation Student’s personalized examples –
/prediction i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
(future) etc.
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
....

44
Unit 5: Grammar Overview: Nouns and
Articles; Vocabulary Overview:
Education, Study and Learning
5.1 Uncountable nouns
 Uncountable nouns take a
singular verb and cannot
be used with the indefinite
article (a/an).
 Theyare often used with
the determiners some, any,
no, (a) little and much.
 Theycannot be made
plural but we can add a
phrase which specifies an
amount.
 Somenouns which we
normally think of as
uncountable can be used as
countable nouns in certain
contexts.
Translation Student’s personalized
examples –i.e. his/her
opinions, life
experience etc.
What a terrible weather!
.............................................................................
Would you like some milk?
............................................................................
Would you like some spaghettis
Would you like a plate of spaghetti?
............................................................
............................................................
..........................................................
The flood waters were rising fast.
............................................................
......................................................
He doesn’t mind the snow. He goes
out in all weathers.
...........................................................
...........................................................
........................................................
The spring rains were welcome by
farmers and gardeners alike.
...........................................................
...........................................................
......................................................
The restaurant offers a selection of
aromatic coffees.
...........................................................
...........................................................
......................................................
45
5.1 Uncountable nouns Translation Student’s personalized
examples –i.e. his/her
opinions, life
experience etc.

46
5.2 Collective Student’s personalized examples –
nouns Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Collective nouns
refer to ► army,
organisations or ► audience,
bodies made up of ► cast,
a number of ► clergy,
individuals e.g. : ► crew,
► crowd
► government,
► jury,
► media,
► press,
► public,
► union,
► youth, etc

They can take The committee hasn’t yet reached

either a singular a decision.
or a plural verb.
If a pronoun is ......................................................
used to replace ..................................................
such a noun then
it will reflect the It needs more time.
verb which has
been used. ......................................................
.................................................
The committee haven’t yet
reached a decision.

......................................................
......................................................
....................................................

They need more time.

........................................................
........................................................
.....................................................

47
5.3 Plural nouns Student’s personalized examples –
Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Some nouns can
only be used in ► cattle,
the plural and ► pyjamas,
take a plural ► stairs.
verb. .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

48
5.4 The definite article
(the)
The definite article can
be used with both
singular and plural
countable nouns and
personalize nouns. It is
used:
• to refer to a specific
noun we think is
known both to
ourselves and our
listener/reader or to
refer to a specific
example of
something.
Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
The college timetable will
have to be drawn up again.
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
The society we have created
is based on profit.
............................................................
............................................................
............................................................

• with objects which

we consider to be • the Sun,
unique such: • the Moon,
• the Sea,
• the past,
• the universe,
• Be careful though – • the environment
WE DON’T SAY:

 the nature,
 the space,

• with certain
geographical
features such as:

seas and oceans

rivers  the Channel

 the Pacific

 the Thames
groups of  the Danube
islands
mountain

49
5.4 The definite article Translation Student’s personalized examples –
(the) i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
ranges  the Cyclades

countries
 the Himalayas

 the United Kingdom

 the USA
 the Netherlands
 the Lebanon

 to describe people of  the Indians

a particular  the French
nationality
 with certain  the young
adjectives used as  the disabled
nouns
 with titles  the Queen,
 the Chairman
 the Headmistress
 in the superlative  the least acceptable
form of adjectives  the best
 with a The monk seal is under
singular threat.
noun to
make a
generic
reference
to a group

 in the titles  The Independent

of  The Sunday Telegraph
newspapers
in which
case it is
capitalized
She plays the flute and the
 with saxophone.
musical
instruments ..............................................
..............................................
..............................................

50
5.5 The indefinite Student’s personalized examples –
article (a/an) Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
The indefinite
article is used
with singular
countable nouns
only and we use
it: I bought a new shirt today.
• to talk about
something ........................................................................
when we ........................................................................
assume our
listener/reader
does not know
which specific
thing we are
talking about.

• to talk  2.00 an
about hour,
different  3 days a week
kinds of
measure-
ments:

 although  per 4 hours,

we  per day
can also
use
the word:
• to refer to A Mrs Spencer phoned while you
somebody were out.
who is
unknown ........................................................................
to us ........................................................................
........................................................................
A python is not a suitable pet.
• with a singular
noun to make a ........................................................
generic reference ........................................................
to a group ......................................................

51
5.6 Omission of Student’s personalized examples –
the article Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

No article is  Jennifer Marshall,

needed:  Mrs Davies

 before names
 lunch
 before names  dinner
of meals
 Princes Street
 before most  Oxford Street
street names
 when referring  church,
to certain public  court,
places when we  home,
want to talk  hospital,
about their  market,
function rather  prison,
than a specific  school ,
building  work,
Here are some
examples: He decided not to go to university.

........................................................................
........................................................................
Her youngest son is at nursery school
now.

........................................................................
........................................................................

52
 when we use Mathematics is a closed book to me.
plural nouns or
uncountable ........................................................................
nouns to talk ........................................................................
about somebody
or something in People are so strange, aren’t they?
general. A lot of
abstract ........................................................................
uncountable ........................................................................
nouns are used in Education is the key to economic
this way. prosperity.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
I never listen to advice.
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
5.6 Omission of Student’s personalized examples –
the article Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 before certain
geographical
features –
 Lake Windermere
lakes
 Everest

mountain peaks  Asia

 North America
continents
 Tunisia
 Greece
countries

53
Unit 6: Grammar Overview: Modals II: Past;
Vocabulary Overview: Archaeology
and History

6.1 Giving or Translation Student’s personalized examples –

refusing i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
permission in the etc.
past

could(n’t), The researchers could examine the

was/were artefacts as long as they put each
(n’t) allowed to one back in place.
and wouldn’t
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

When he worked for the Bank he

couldn’t send personal e-mails in
work time.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

She was allowed to enter the

archaeological site because she
had a special permit.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

We weren’t allowed to touch any of

the exhibits in the museum.

.........................................................
.........................................................
The manager wouldn’t let the
teenagers into the cinema because
they were underage.
........................................................

54
6.1 Giving or Translation Student’s personalized examples –
refusing i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
permission in the etc.
past

........................................................
........................................................
.....................................................

55
6.2 General Student’s personalized examples –
ability to do Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
something in the etc.
past
could(n’t) and She could see the mountains in the
was(n’t)/ distance from her grandmother’s
were(n’t) able to house.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
.....................................................
He couldn’t read and write until
he was six years old.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

James wasn’t able to walk

properly after the accident.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
After a week’s training the staff
were able to use the new computer
system.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

56
6.3 Ability to do Student’s personalized examples –
something in a Translation i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
specific situation etc.
in the past
wasn’t/were(n’t) There were two questions on
able to and ancient history and he wasn’t able
managed to answer either of them.
to/didn’t manage
to .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................

The climbers were able to find

their way out of the cave through a
tunnel in the rock face

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

She managed to free her foot from

under the rock and swim to the
surface.

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
.

I didn’t manage to finish my essay

in time for the deadline.

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
......................................................

57
6.4 Necessity and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
obligation in the i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
past etc.
We had to walk home because we
had missed the bus.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................
They didn’t have to show their
passports again after they crossed
the border.
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
had to/didn’t
.....................................................................
have to and
needed to/didn’t
He needed to rest after his long
need to
and tiring journey.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................

She didn’t need to sit the exam

again because she passed first
time.
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

58
6.5 didn’t need Translation Student’s personalized examples –
to v. needn’t i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
have etc.
When you do We needn’t have rushed to get to
something in the the cinema. We arrived far too
past which you early and had to stand outside in
later discover the cold for half an hour
was not
necessary, you ........................................................................
use needn’t have. ........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.....................................................................

If you don’t The second showing of the film

perform a certain wasn’t until 11 pm so we didn’t
action in the past need to rush to get to the cinema.
because you We finished out supper and strolled
knew beforehand to the cinema.
that it was not ........................................................
necessary you ........................................................
use didn’t need ........................................................
to. ........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

59
6.6 Expressing Translation Student’s personalized examples –
criticism of i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
somebody’s past etc.
actions
You should have asked me before
you borrowed the car.

.......................................................
.......................................................
...................................................

We shouldn’t have left so abruptly;

they’ll think we’re terribly rude.

.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
......................................................
should(n’t) have
or ought (not) to
He ought to have consulted me
have
before he told the boss.

........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................
They ought not to have spoken to
the headmistress like that.

......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
...................................................

60
6.7 Deductions, Translation Student’s personalized examples –
assumptions and i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
speculation etc.
about the past
must have, may He must have worked very hard to
(not) have, get to the position he is in today.
might (not)
have, could(n’t) ........................................................
have and can’t ........................................................
have ...................................................
She may not have heard you. Ring
the bell again.

......................................................
......................................................
...................................................
They may have changed their
minds about coming today

...............................................
...............................................
...............................................
......
You might have left your keys in
the lock; go and have a look.

........................................................................
........................................................................
.......................................................................
Thomas might not have heard the
news yet.

........................................................
..................................................
Helen could have meant Tuesday,
not Thursday.

.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
That boy couldn’t have stolen the
money; he wasn’t even here that
day.

.......................................................
.......................................................

61
6.7 Deductions, Translation Student’s personalized examples –
assumptions and i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
speculation etc.
about the past
.......................................................
...................................................
They can’t have forgotten! I
reminded them this morning.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

62
Unit 7: Grammar Overview: Reported Speech;
Vocabulary Overview: Media and Entertainment

7.1 Tense Translation Student’s personalized examples –

changes i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
‘I’ll buy a He said he would buy a
Playstation.’ Playstation.
‘I must hurry .........................................................
up.’ .........................................................
‘I may change .....................................................
my mind. ’
‘I can’t tell the He said he had to hurry up.
difference. ’ ........................................................
‘You needn’t ........................................................
dress up for .....................................................
dinner. ’
He said he might change his mind.
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................

He said he couldn’t tell the

difference.
........................................................................
........................................................................
...................................................................

He said I didn’t have to dress up

for dinner.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

63
7.2 Modal Translation Student’s personalized examples –
verbs i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Present simple ‘Sports programmes are popular
―› past simple with most teenagers.’
........................................................................
........................................................................
......................................................................

He said sports programmes were

popular with most teenagers.
........................................................................
........................................................................
....................................................................
Present ‘Jenny Fernandez is starring in the
continuous ―› new film. ’
past ...............................................................................
...............................................................................
continuous ...............................................................................

He said Jenny Fernandez was

starring in the new film.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
Past simple ―› ‘The audience walked out. ’
past perfect .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
He said the audience had walked
out.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
Past ‘They were playing Super Mario.’
continuous .........................................................
―› past .........................................................
perfect .........................................................
continuous .........................................................

He said they had been playing

Super Mario.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

64
7.2 Modal Translation Student’s personalized examples –
verbs i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
.......................................................

Present perfect ‘She has been playing basketball

simple ―› past for years.’
perfect simple .......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................

He said she had been playing

basketball for years.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................

65
7.3 Other Translation Student’s personalized examples –
changes i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
today that day
tomorrow the next/the following day/the day
yesterday after
this the previous day/the day before
evening/this that evening/that week/etc.
week/etc.
here there
now then
this that
I – You – We
me – us – my he/she – I – they
your – our – him/her – them – his/her
mine – yours –
ours my – their – his/hers – mine – theirs

66
7.4 When does Translation Student’s personalized examples –
the verb not i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
change in etc.
reported
speech?
• When the ‘The Sun rises in the East’
situation in
question has not
........................................................................
changed and is .....................................................................
known to the
reporter to still be
true we don’t
He said the Sun rises in the East.
need to change ..........................................................
the tense of the ..........................................................
original
..........................................................
statement.
...................................................
• When the ‘Where’s Linda?’
reporting verb is
in the present
‘She’s lying down. She says her
tense this also head is killing her.’
shows that the ........................................................................
original statement
is still true as we
........................................................................
report it. ........................................................................
.......................................................................

• With the
Past
perfect tense
and
some modal
verbs
there are no
further
changes
which can
be
made to th
verb.

67
7.5 Questions Translation Student’s personalized examples –
in reported i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
speech etc.
The changes to
tenses and time
references etc. ‘Where are you going?’
For reporting
questions are ........................................................
the same as for ...................................................
reporting
statements. He asked me where I was going.
He asked me where was I going.
 Wh- questions
To report ........................................................
questions ........................................................
which begin ........................................................
with wh-
words (where,
who etc.), we ‘What have you done?
always use the ........................................................
pattern ........................................................
subject-verb, ....................................................
not verb- He asked me what I had done.
subject. He asked me what had I done.
.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

 Yes/No ‘Have you seen that new

questions advert?’
If the answer to
a question is ..............................................
yes/no we use if ..............................................
or whether to ..............................................
report the ..............................................
question.
He asked me if I had seen
that new advert.

..............................................
..............................................
..............................................

68
7.5 Questions Translation Student’s personalized examples –
in reported i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
speech etc.
He asked me had I seen that
new advert.

69
7.6 Commands Translation Student’s personalized examples –
in reported i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
speech etc.
‘Leave the room He ordered me to leave the room
immediately!’ immediately.
........................................................................
........................................................................
.....................................................................

‘Don’t take the He told me not to take the red file.

red file.’ ........................................................................
He told me not to take the redfile.
........................................................................
........................................................................
......................................................................

70
7.7 Reporting Translation Student’s personalized examples –
alternative i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
suggestions etc.
with if/whether
‘Would you like He asked me if I would like to go to the
to go to the cinema or the theatre.
cinema or the ........................................................................
theatre?’ ........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
......................................................................

‘Shall we stay She asked me whether we should

in or eat out?’ stay in or eat out.
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.......................................................................

71
Unit 8: Grammar Overview: Determiners and Pronouns; Vocabulary Overview:
Arts and Architecture

8.1 this, that, Translation Student’s personalized examples –

these and those i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
• We use this and
these to refer to
things which
are close to us
in time or
distance and
that and those
for things
which are
further away.
• We use these Those faults are soon to be
and those as remedied.
determiners. ........................................................
........................................................
...................................................

 We use this and He grew up in a household of

that as artists. That is why he is so
pronouns to creative.
refer back to an .........................................................
idea or ideas .........................................................
which have
.........................................................
already been
mentioned. ........................................................

Museums have had their funding

slashed, curators are underpaid
and new exhibitions are rarely
mounted. This is the sorry state
many institutes are in today.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................

72
8.2 It for Translation Student’s personalized examples –
reference i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
The thieves’ plan was to hide the
• We can use it to diamonds in their shoes but it
refer back to a didn’t work.
previously
mentioned idea. .........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

 Or to refer
forward in the It is not unusual to see famous
sentence. painters and writers in this café.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

It’s not often that we have good

weather in the summer.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................

73
8.3 It as a Translation Student’s personalized examples –
’dummy’ i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
subject etc.
Sometimes it It’s very hot today.
doesn’t refer back
to a previous idea .........................................................
but is used as .........................................................
what is called a
‘dummy subject’.
It’s raining again.
This structure is
often used to
describe things. .........................................................
.........................................................

It’s almost midnight.

.........................................................
.........................................................

It smells funny in here.

.........................................................
.........................................................

74
8.4 Much, Translation Student’s personalized examples –
many, a lot of, i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
a few and a etc.
little
We use much, a We don’t have much time.
lot of and a little
with : uncountable ..................................................
nouns. We use
Are there many paintings by Klee
many, a lot of
in the exhibition?
and a few with
countable nouns.
We usually use
much and many .........................................................
in negative .........................................................
statements and
questions.
........................................................

► A lot of is more
common in informal
English. We haven’t got a lot of time.
........................................................
........................................................
........................................................

75
8.5 Each and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
every i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 Each and every Each / Every child was given a
are used with a verb present.
in the singular and a
noun in the singular
and are usually .........................................................
interchangeable .........................................................
........................................................

 Each as a The students were discussing the

pronoun. same subject but each had a
different point of view.

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................

 Each with of. Each of the drawings is unique.

........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................
Each for Peter and Kate each carried their
emphasis. money separately for fear of being
robbed.

........................................................
........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................

Every for You had every right to speak your

emphasis. mind.

.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................

I had every reason to believe he

was lying.

.........................................................

76
8.5 Each and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
every i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
Every after
possessives for The secret police were watching
emphasis. the spy’s every move.

.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................

77
8.6 One(s), Translation Student’s personalized examples –
another, i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
other(s) etc.
 One and Which one do you like?
ones can
replace
countable
nouns. Could I have the red ones, please?

 One + of
(with a One of the first people I met
singular verb) there was Michael.
.

One of us is going to have to

leave.

 Another can
mean ‘a I don’t like this book – will you
different give me another?
one’ or ‘the
same again’.

Shall we have another drink?

Give me another of those paper

clips.

 Other can Where’s my other sock?

be used as a
determiner
or a
pronoun. Here’s one of the books; have you
got the other?

 Others can I’ve only seen the first episode. I

only be used can’t wait to see the others.
as a

78
8.6 One(s), Translation Student’s personalized examples –
another, i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
other(s) etc.
pronoun.

 Sometimes Did you come alone? Where are

the others the others?
means
‘people’.

79
8.7 All and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
both i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 All and both All the spectators cheered wildly.
can be used
as She talks all the time.
determiners
or pronouns.
Where are the chocolates? Have
you finished them all?

All of them came.

Both sisters enjoy cycling.

Both of us agree that this is the

right decision.

I took two books out of the

library and read them both.
.

80
8.8 Neither and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
either i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 Neither and Neither painting appeals to me.
either are
followed by .
a verb in the
singular. Neither of us knew the answer.

►A plural
verb is often Neither Chris nor his sister
used in reads a great deal.
spoken
English.
Either of the plans suits me.

Either colour can be used for the

walls and ceiling.

Don’t ask for my opinion; I don’t

like either.

81
8.9 No and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
none i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 No and none No progress has been made.
are used
with
singular,
plural and No politician dares to speak out
uncountable on this issue.
nouns and
with a
singular
verb. None of the songs was any
good.
►In informal
English, a
plural verb
may be used. Half a bar of chocolate is better
than none!

None of my friends have been to

see me.

82
Unit 9: Grammar Overview: Clauses; Vocabulary Overview: Travel and Tourism

9.1 Relative Translation Student’s personalized examples –

clauses i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
• If the relative That is the director who won the
pronoun (who,
which, that, whom)
Oscar.
refers to the
subject of the verb
which follows it, it
may not be
omitted. He owns a Picasso which hangs
in his bedroom.

• If the relative
pronoun refers to
the object of the
The holiday (which) I went on
verb it may be was a disaster.
omitted.

This is the friend (whom) I was

telling you about.

• Whose is used for

both people and
things and cannot
That’s Anna, whose husband
be omitted. works for Olympic Airways.

The green house, whose garden

backs onto the railway, is for sale.

• We use of which to
distinguish
between several
There are five restaurants in
different things. town, of which only two are
worth visiting.

• We can use the That was the day when everything

relative adverbs
when, where and
changed.
why to refer to
time, place and
the reason for
something.

83
9.1 Relative Translation Student’s personalized examples –
clauses i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

Crete is the island where we spent

the summer.

The poor working conditions are

why I left my last job.

84
9.2 Defining Translation Student’s personalized examples –
and non- i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
defining etc.
relative clauses
 A defining
relative clause
contains
information
essential to
the
understanding
of the
sentence.
Without it, the
sentence
would be He’s the man who lives opposite.
meaningless.

‘He’s the
man.’ Or Jonathon is someone whom I Iove
‘Jonathon is dearly.
someone’,
have little
meaning if
they stand
alone.

 A non- The island of Skyros, which is

defining packed with tourists all summer,
relative is becoming increasingly popular.
clause
contains non-
essential
information
which can be
omitted
without
affecting the
main
meaning of
the sentence.
The non-
essential

85
9.2 Defining Translation Student’s personalized examples –
and non- i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
defining etc.
relative clauses
information
appears
between two
commas.
 When a ‘The Doll’s House’ is the play in
preposition is which he acted.
used in the
relative
clause we can
follow these ‘The Doll’s House’ is the play
patterns. (which) he acted in.

Here is the gentleman to whom the

letter was addressed.
.

Here is the gentleman (whom)

the letter was addressed to.

86
9.3 Clauses of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
purpose and i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
reason etc.
so as not to I didn’t ask for a second helping so
as not to seem greedy.

to – infinitive I came to see if you needed any

help.

in order (not) He must spend five years training

to in order to be able to practice
medicine.

for + -ing This gadget is for getting oysters

out of their shells.

because of I’m leaving because of his

unacceptable personal behavior.

as, since We’ll have to use the other phone

box as this one’s broken.

Since it’s your last night here why

don’t we go out for a meal?

87
9.4 Clauses of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
result i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
therefore The manager considered the
accident to be his personal
responsibility and therefore
tendered his resignation.

consequently The baggage handlers strike has

not yet been resolved and
consequently all outgoing flights
will be subject to delay.

thus Mr. Jarrold’s visa was found to be

invalid and thus he was obliged to
return home.

hence Fuel prices are subject to sudden

rises, hence airlines may be
obliged to pass a small surcharge
on to their customers.

as a result She contracted malaria while

travelling in India and as a result
was hospitalized.

in such a way as John worded his letter in such a

to/that
way as to cause the minimum
offence.

88
9.5 Clauses of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
concession and i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
contrast etc.
although He travelled to France by air
although he doesn’t enjoy flying.

but The family wanted to book a trip to

Paris but there were no tickets left.

however I made my suggestion, however,

no-one agreed with me.

even though Even though he never gets any

exercise he’s very fit.

in contrast to Girls were discovered to have a

concentration span of 15 minutes,
in contrast to just 5 minutes for
boys.

despite The boss approved the project,

despite my objections.

in spite of In spite of her immaculate

references, she didn’t get the job.

nevertheless The sea was pretty rough.

Nevertheless, the captain decided
to make the crossing.

89
9.5 Clauses of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
concession and i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
contrast etc.
all the same I don’t think you’re entirely right;
all the same I see your point.

while/whereas Shares in the FirstHouse hotel

chain have dropped, while
FirstHouse restaurant shares are
rising.

yet He was warned of the danger yet

he insisted on continuing.

90
Unit 10: Grammar Overview: Conditionals;
Vocabulary Overview: Health and
Fitness

10.1 Zero Translation Student’s personalized examples –

conditional i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
if/when + present If you jump the traffic lights,
tense, present tense
you’re breaking the law.
.

When you do aerobic exercise, you

burn up calories.

91
10.2 First Translation Student’s personalized examples –
conditional i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
if/unless + If you need to have a blood test,
present tense, I’ll come along to give you moral
will/may + bare support.
infinitive

I won’t believe her unless she

shows me the evidence.

If you exercise too hard without

warming up, you may pull a
muscle

when/once/befor Once you’ve reached your ideal

e/as soon weight you can give up your diet.
as/if/etc. +
present perfect,
future form/can
+ bare infinitive He’ll phone you when he has
received the results.

Other future If we don’t hurry up, the yoga

forms used in class will have started before we
first conditional get there.
sentences

92
10.3 Second Translation Student’s personalized examples –
conditional i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
if + past If you went to the dentist’s
simple, regularly, you could avoid tooth
would/could/mi decay.
ght + bare
infinitive

You would be healthier if you took

more exercise.

93
10.4 Third Translation Student’s personalized examples –
conditional i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
if + past perfect, If my parents hadn’t both worked
would/could/mi for the same company, they might
ght have + past never have met.
participle

My aunt could have died if she

hadn’t got to the hospital in time.

94
10.5 Other Translation Student’s personalized examples –
phrases used in i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
conditional etc.
sentences
The following Provided that both sides lay down
phrases can also their arms, the treaty will be
be used in signed.
conditional type .
sentences:
providing/provi Supposing he has missed his flight,
ded that, what are we going to do?
suppose/supposi
ng, on condition
that, assuming Children are admitted to the
that, but for, as restaurant on condition that they
long as. don’t make. A lot of noise.

Assuming that Peter comes for the

weekend, we will be six for dinner
on Sunday.

But for my mother’s support, I

would never have gone through
this difficult time.

You can take my laptop on holiday

with you as long as you look after
it.

95
Unit 11: Grammar Overview: Unreal Past and Wishes;
Vocabulary Overview: Biology and the Body

11.1 The Translation Student’s personalized examples –

present i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
subjunctive etc.
The present She insisted that she pay for the
subjunctive (the damage.
use of the
infinitive
without to in all
persons) is
rarely used He suggested that we call the
except in formal police.
English.
However, it
does occur after
certain reporting
verbs and some
adjectives as
well as in a
number of set
phrases.

 report verb +
that +
infinitive
without to

 Adj + that + It is advisable that she leave.

infinitive
without to

It is essential that the patient be

left in peace until he recovers.

Other verbs and

adjectives She insisted that she should pay
which often for the damage.

96
11.1 The Translation Student’s personalized examples –
present i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
subjunctive etc.
follow this
pattern are:
order, propose,
recommend,
request, think,
desirable,
preferable, etc.
In less formal
English, the
following
structure could
be chosen
instead of the
subjunctive:

 (that) +
should +
infinitive
without to
 Set phrases
 be that as it may,
 come what may,
 suffice it to say,
 far be it from me,
 so be it,
 Heaven forbid!
 God save the King!

97
11.2 The past Translation Student’s personalized examples –
subjunctive i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
The past If he weren’t so stubborn, they
subjunctive (the might reach an agreement.
use of were in
all persons) is (‘If he wasn’t so stubborn, they
used: might reach an agreement.’)

 in formal
English
(where spoken
English would
generally use He wishes his mother weren’t so
was) strict.
(‘He wishes his mother wasn’t so
strict.')

 in the phrase, I wouldn’t set off in this weather if

If I were you, I were you.
…

 in the pattern, Were the prime-minister to reveal

were + subject the truth, there would be a
+ to infinitive nationwide scandal.

98
11.3 wish and if Translation Student’s personalized examples –
only i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 wish/if only +
past tense/past I wish I had more time to relax.
subjunctive –
to talk about a
present
situation If only I was coming with you!
which you
would like to
change

 wish/if only + She wishes she hadn’t spoken so

past perfect - rudely to her boss.
to talk about a
past situation
which you
wish had been If only we had set off five minutes
different in earlier!
some way

99
11.4 It’s high Translation Student’s personalized examples –
time i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 it’s (high) It’s high time you stopped
time, it’s about moping about the house and got a
time + past job!
simple/past
continuous/pa
st subjunctive

It’s time I was leaving.

.

100
Unit 12: Grammar Overview: Passives and Causatives;
Vocabulary Overview: The Natural World and
the Environment

12.1 Passive– Translation Student’s personalized examples –

tenses i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
Man destroys
thousands of Thousands of species are destroyed
species per year. every year.
……………….

The hurricane
caused millions Millions of pounds worth of
of pounds worth damage was caused by the
of damage. hurricane.

The government A new offensive on traffic

is planning a congestion is being planned by the
new offensive on government.
traffic
congestion.

The local people Plants and herbs were being used

were using by the local people to make
plants and herbs traditional medicines.
to make .
traditional
medicines.

The government After a storm of protest the

has set aside its government’s plans for a nuclear
plans for a power station have been set aside.
nuclear power
station after a
storm of protest.

Even before the Even before the advent of the

advent of the chainsaw, serious damage had

101
12.1 Passive– Translation Student’s personalized examples –
tenses i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
chainsaw, man already been done to the
had already rainforests.
done serious
damage to the
rainforests.

Environmentali Environmentalists hope that the

sts hope their hunting of whales will be halted by
efforts will halt their efforts.
the hunting of
whales.

Leading nations Carbon monoxide emissions will

will have cut have been cut drastically by 2021.
carbon
monoxide
emissions
drastically by
2021.

Genetically Previously unknown allergies may

modified be caused by genetically modified
products may products.
cause
previously
unknown
allergies.

Radioactive The fish could have been killed by

waste could radioactive waste.
have killed the
fish.
The rescue Certain precautions ought to be
workers ought taken by the rescue workers.
to take certain .

102
12.1 Passive– Translation Student’s personalized examples –
tenses i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
precautions.
…………….

She loves She loves being given flowers.

people giving
her flowers.
…………….

He remembers He remembers having been taken

somebody to the zoo as a child.
taking him to
the zoo as a
child.
………………..

103
12.3 Verbs Translation Student’s personalized examples –
uncommon in i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
passive etc.

Some verbs
cannot be used
or are  be,
uncommon in  grow up,
the passive.  hop,
 sit,
 sleep,
 Intransitive  die, etc.
verbs (verbs
without an
object)
 apologize to,
 Single-object  belong to,
prepositional  compete with,
verbs  glance at,
 laugh about,
 listen to,
 participate in,
 smile at,
 wait for etc.

 exclaim,
 Verbs  hesitate,
unusual in  joke,
passive  pretend,
 reply,
 resemble,
 wonder,
 yell etc.

104
12.3 Agent and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
instrument i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

 In order to The nature reserve was opened by

talk about the the Mayor of the city.
person or thing
that performed
an action (the
agent) we use
by.

 In order to The new house was built with

talk about the recycled, eco-friendly materials.
instrument with
which an action
was performed
or the material '
from which The victim seems to have been
something is struck with a heavy object.
constructed we
use with.

 It is not The young vandals were arrested.

necessary to (by the police)
include the
agent when the
identity of the
agent is
unknown, He was educated at Oxford
irrelevant or University. (by his tutors)
when the
agent’s identity
is self-evident
from the
context.
Ten elephants have been shot in
this area this year. (we don’t know
who shot them)

 We do include If the head finds out that the

the agent if that window was broken by his own
information son, he’ll be furious.
seems

105
12.3 Agent and Translation Student’s personalized examples –
instrument i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
important
however.

106
12.4 Reporting Translation Student’s personalized examples –
opinions i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

 We use the It is thought that by the end of

following this century, the sea level will
patterns with have risen by one metre.
verbs think,
believe, report,
etc. in order to
report people’s He is believed to be an expert in
opinions. his field.

107
12.5 Verbs with Translation Student’s personalized examples –
two objects i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

 Sometimes a The Mayor awarded the ‘best-kept-

sentence has village’ prize to Little Hampton.
more than one
object.

 Depending on Little Hampton was awarded the

which piece of best-kept-village prize.
information we
wish to give
emphasis to
there are two The best-kept-village prize was
patterns we can awarded to Little Hampton.
follow:

108
12.6 Causative Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.

 Subject + The scientist will have the test

have + object + results checked by an expert.
past participle
.

We’re having our garden designed

by a famous landscape gardener.

 In informal Where did you get your hair done?

English, we can
use get instead
of have.

109
Unit 13: Grammar Overview: Infinitives and Gerunds;
Vocabulary Overview: Science and Technology

13.1 Forms of Translation Student’s personalized examples –

the infinitive in i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
active and etc.
passive voice
Present
She seems to have difficulties.

Present continuous
She seems to be having difficulties.

Past
Active
She seems to have had difficulties.

Past continuous
She seems to have been having
difficulties.

Present
The problem seems to be solved.

Present continuous

–
Passive
Past
The problem seems to have been solved.

Past continuous
–

110
13.2 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
full infinitive i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 After certain He tends to exaggerate.
verbs –
attempt, begin,
try, seem, tend,
want etc.
 After certain We were keen to leave early in order to
adjectives – avoid the rush hour.
certain, easy,
difficult,
interested,
keen, glad,
likely, obliged,
unable, etc.
 After wh- I don’t know what to do.
clauses.

We’re unsure how to begin.

 To express They have passed the drug through a

purpose. number of tests to see how effective it is.

 With only to He worked for days on the project, only

talk about a to be told it had been cancelled.
disappointing
result.
 As a The next person to tell me (who tells me)
replacement for my theory is far-fetched is in for trouble.
a relative
clause.

 With too and She’s too young to have experience in

enough this field.

The statistics are not conclusive enough

to convince the sponsors.

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13.2 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
full infinitive i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 After the He was seen to slip the top-secret file
verbs help, into his briefcase.
hear, make,
feel and see in
the passive in
which case it
indicates that
the action in
question was
completed.
 As the To have given up after such hard work
subject of a seems a shame.
sentence.

112
13.3 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
infinitive i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
without to etc.
 After modal His claim may prove to be true.
verbs. .
You could have been mistaken.

 After had We’d better get a move on!

better and
would rather. He’d rather go hungry than accept
charity.

 After the He helped me collate the data.

verbs feel,
hear, see, We watched them connect the modem.
watch, help
and make in
the active voice
in which case it
indicates that
the action has
been
completed.

113
13.4 Forms of Translation Student’s personalized examples –
the gerund in i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
active and etc.
passive voice
Present
Active I don’t recall reading this book.

Past
I don’t recall having read this book.

Present
Active He resents being imposed upon.

Past
He resented having been imposed upon.

114
13.5 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
gerund i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 After certain
verbs.  begin,
 start,
 keep,
 see,
 go,
 stop,
 mention,
 consider,
 recommend, etc.

We went sightseeing.

Would you consider helping us?

 After verbs
with dependent  insist on,
prepositions.  confess to,
 be fed up with,
 count on,
 agree to,
 consist of etc.

The scientists’ success depends on

securing financial backing.

She congratulated him on winning the

prize.

115
13.5 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
gerund i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 After
adjectives with  capable of,
dependent  dependent on,
prepositions.  good at,
 reliant on,
 responsible for,
 upset about, etc.

He was annoyed about being

overcharged.

She was finally successful in proving

her theory.

 As the Conducting experiments is fun.

subject or the
object of a
sentence. I don’t enjoy note-taking and report-
writing though.

 After time  after,

adverbials.  before,
 since,
 while,
 when
 whenever.

Since winning the prize, he has gained

world-wide recognition.

They met while holidaying in Greece.

116
13.5 Use of the Translation Student’s personalized examples –
gerund i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 After certain
verbs related to  see,
observation in  sense,
both the active  feel,
and the passive  observe,
voice. In this  hear, etc
case, the action
in question was
observed while The police saw him entering the
in progress. building but they didn’t see him leave.

He was heard shouting insults at the

boss.

► Contrast The police saw him enter the building.

these verbs .
followed by
an infinitive
with or
without to He was heard to shout.
(as listed
above)
where the
action is
completed.

117
Unit 14: Grammar Overview: Emphasis – Inversion; Vocabulary Overview:
Language and Psychology

14.1 Introduction Translation Student’s personalized examples –

i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
If we want to give Seldom have I met such an
additional emphasis interesting person.
to a particular part of
a sentence we can
change the usual
order of subject-verb-
object; this is known
as ‘inversion’. It can
be done in a number
of ways.

118
14.2 So and such Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
 If the pattern, so + So bizarre was his behavior that
adjective + be his wife called the doctor.
+subject + that
clause.

Such was the complexity of the

 In the pattern such problem that even the experts
+ be + noun/noun were baffled.
phrase + that clause.

 Another structure
with inversion: so +
adjective + a/an +
noun + is/was +
he/she/it + that
clause.

 Inversion also
occurs in conditional
sentences.

119
14.3 as Translation Student’s personalized examples –
i.e. his/her opinions, life experience
etc.
We were furious about the noise,
 With as as were our neighbours.

I went into therapy, as did my

husband.

120
14.4 Short Student’s personalized
answers Translation examples –i.e. his/her
opinions, life
experience etc.
I am upset. I am not upset.
 In what are I am feeling upset. I am not feeling upset.
often called
‘short answers’. .

So am I. Neither am I.

He speaks French. He doesn’t speak French.

So does he. Neither does she.

He has finished. He hasn’t finished.

He has been studying. He hasn’t been studying.

So have I. Neither have I.

I was angry. I wasn’t angry.

I was laughing. I wasn’t laughing.

So was he. Neither was he.

She helped. She didn’t help.

Neither did we.

So did we.

They had finished. They hadn’t finished.

They had been studying. They hadn’t been studying.

So had he. Neither had he.

121
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126