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Constitutive modeling of the viscoelastic

mechanical response of foam rubber-like materials
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Cite this: RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 33105

Hui Guo,a Wenjun Hu,b Weiguo Guo*a and Ruilu Zoua

Received 18th February 2015
Accepted 26th March 2015
DOI: 10.1039/c5ra03116h
www.rsc.org/advances
The viscoelastic mechanical behavior of foam rubber-like materials under large deformation is studied using
thermodynamic methods. Because the strain energy function can be additively split into deformation
energy and volume energy, the deformation of materials is decomposed into volumetric deformation
and isochoric deformation. A nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive model for large deformation of foam
rubber-like materials is established in this paper. The nonlinear viscoelastic mechanical responses of
foam rubber-like materials under several common loading conditions are calculated by the new
proposed constitutive model.

models have been proposed to describe foam rubber-like

1. Introduction
Due to their unique microstructure morphology, foam rubber-
like materials have many excellent properties, such as high
elasticity, shock resistance, wear resistance, impact resis-
tance, insulating properties and physiological inertness. They
have been widely used in areas such as aerospace, trans-
portation, petrochemical industry and construction
industry.1–3 Because of the complexity of the mechanical
properties and microstructures of the materials, the structural
design and analysis of foam rubber-like materials is increas-
ingly dependent on numerical methods; however, whether or
not the numerical method is accurate mainly depends on the
constitutive model used. Therefore, constitutive modeling of
foam rubber-like materials has drawn great attention from
researchers.4,5
At present, the mechanical properties of rubber-like mate-
rials have been studied to a degree in the literature, and some
theoretical models for describing the mechanical behavior of
the materials were proposed.6,7 These models can be catego-
rized into two major types. The rst type is the continuum
elastic body model based on the phenomenological method.
The representative works can be found in the literature by
Ogden, Gent and Yeoh.8–10 The second type is the dynamic
model based on the statistical thermodynamic method.
Typical models are proposed by Simo, Govindjee and Lion.11–13
Almost all of these models are established by the assumption
of incompressibility of solid rubber-like materials.14–16
However, to the best knowledge of the authors, few viscoelastic
a
School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China.
E-mail: weiguo@nwpu.edu.cn; ghlwtg@126.com
b
Institute of Structure Mechanics, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang,
621900, China
materials.
The viscoelastic mechanical behavior of foam rubber-like
materials was studied by theoretical analysis in this paper.
Based on the additive splitting of the strain energy function into
deformation energy and volume energy, the nonlinear visco-
elastic constitutive model for large deformation of foam rubber-
like materials was established using a thermodynamic method.
The viscoelastic mechanical responses of foam rubber-like
materials under several common loading conditions were
calculated using the constitutive model.
2. Basic theory
In recent years, with the large-scale development and utiliza-
tion of polymer materials, the mechanical properties of many
new polymer materials belong neither to the category of elastic
theory, nor viscous theory. It is well known that elastic theory is
mainly suitable for solids, which have the ability to store
energy, but not to dissipate it; viscous theory is mainly suitable
for uids, which have the ability to dissipate energy, but not to
store it. The mechanical properties of foam rubber-like mate-
rials exceed the research scope of the above two theories. These
materials can both store and dissipate energy. The basic char-
acteristics of the material's mechanical response are man-
ifested as instantaneous elastic, creep and relaxation. The
stress response of these materials depends not only on the
current state of stress, but also on the past history of stress. The
stress state of the materials depends on the specic time or
rate.17
The viscoelastic mechanical behavior of foam rubber-like
materials under large deformation exhibits nonlinear char-
acteristics. The deformation of the materials does not abide
by the assumption of small deformation; therefore, the
coordinate of each particle within the material in the

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reference conguration and in the current conguration rg  r[W_ + TJ

must be considered. X is the coordinate of a typical particle in
the reference conguration and refers to a given set of
Cartesian coordinate system; x is the coordinate of a typical
particle in the current conguration. The whole deformation
history of a typical particle can be described as the following
equation:18
x(s) ¼ x(X, s) (0 < s < t)
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_ + TJ]
_ + Sij3 i̇ j  Qi,j ¼ 0 (8)
where r is mass density, r is the heating function per unit mass,
W is the Helmholtz potential per unit mass, T is the absolute
temperature, J is the entropy per unit mass, and Qi is the
Cartesian components of the measured heat ow vector per unit
area. Under the assumption that the two equations are in
isothermal condition, simultaneous eqn (7) and (8) leads to
(1)
rW_ + Sijuij $ 0 (9)

where t is the current time, and s is the time variable. The

deformation gradient F is dened as where Sij is the component of Cauchy stress tensor in the
current conguration, and uij is the velocity gradient of material
F ¼ vx/vX (2) deformation, written as follows:


1 vxi ðX ; sÞ vxj ðX ; sÞ
The deformation gradient F is used to describe the variable uij ¼ þ (10)
quantity of material shape. The large deformation of the 2 vs vs
materials can be described by the le Cauchy-Green tensor B or
right Cauchy-Green tensor C The Helmholtz potential W can be expressed as the func-
tional of deformation history by time-dependent effects of
B ¼ F$FT C ¼ FT$F (3) the material mechanical properties and can be written as
follows21
Green strain tensor E can be expressed as
t
w ¼ c ðEðt  sÞ; EðtÞÞ (11)
E ¼ 1/2(C – I) (4) S¼0

where I is the unit tensor, and E represents the deformation

measure relative to the reference conguration. The three Assuming that eqn (11) is a continuous functional of strain
principal invariants of the le Cauchy-Green tensor B can be history, the strain tensor E and its rst-order time derivative is
written as continuous. Since the Helmholtz potential W is the time
derivative form in eqn (9), the Frechet differential of the
t
I1 ¼ tr(B) I2 ¼ 1/2[I12  tr(B2)] I3 ¼ det(B). (5) Helmholtz free energy functional c ðEðt  sÞ; EðtÞÞ is given by
S¼0
The relationship between the principal invariants and the t   t  
principal stretches of B can be expressed as c Eðt  sÞ þ dEðt  sÞ; EðtÞ ¼ c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ
S¼0 S¼0
t  
I1 ¼ l 1 þ l 2 þ l 3
2 2 2
þ d c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ|dEðt  sÞ
I2 ¼ l 1 2 l 2 2 þ l 2 2 l 3 2 þ l 1 2 l 3 2 (6) S¼0
I3 ¼ l 1 2 l 2 2 l 3 2 þ okdEðt  sÞk
(12)
Local entropy inequality of the materials can be expressed  t 
where d c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ|dEðt  sÞ is linear, based on dE(t 
as19,20 S¼0
s). From eqn (11), the time derivative of the Helmholtz free
rTJ_  rr + Qi,i  Qi  (Ti/T) $ 0 (7)
energy functional can be expressed as
Local energy equilibrium equation of the materials can be
expressed as19,20 Inserting eqn (12) into eqn (13) gives

   
t   t  
v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ
W_ ¼ _ þ _  sÞ
S¼0 S¼0
EðtÞ Eðt
vEðtÞ vEðt  sÞ
 
t   t   t   (13)
v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ c Eðt  sÞ þ dEðt  sÞ; EðtÞ  c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ
¼
S¼0 _ þ
EðtÞ lim S¼0 S¼0
vEðtÞ dEðt  sÞ/0 dt
dt/0

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    " #
t   vW_ aðI1  3Þ þ bðI2  3Þ ð t t  s

v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ ¼ exp  E_KL ds

W_ ¼
S¼0 _
EðtÞ _
vE KL id þ cðI1  3ÞðI2  3Þ 0 q
vEðtÞ 8

   ð t  
t dEðt  sÞ >
> a1 ðI1  3Þ þ b1 ðI2  3Þ ts _  
þd c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ (14) >
> þ c1 ðI1  3ÞðI2  3Þ exp  E KL ds q1 ¼ 1  102 s
dt >
< 0 q1
S¼0
¼
>
>
ð t  
>
> a2 ðI1  3Þ þ b2 ðI2  3Þ ts _  
Inserting the time derivative W_ of the Helmholtz free energy >
: þ c ðI  3ÞðI  3Þ exp  E KL ds q2 ¼ 106  104 s
2 1 2 0 q2
functional into inequality (9) then yields
  (20)
t  
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v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ where q1 is the relaxation factor of the materials at low strain
Sij uij  r
S¼0 _
EðtÞ
vEðtÞ rate, and q2 is the relaxation factor of the materials at high
   strain rate. Based on the deformation mechanism analysis of
t dEðt  sÞ
 rd c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ $0 (15) the materials under load, it can be deduced that the squeezing
S¼0 dt
properties of foam rubber-like materials mainly depend on the
level of material porosity. The derivative form of the Helmholtz
The kinematic relation is given by the time differential of eqn free energy functional for volumetric deformation is given by
(4) and using eqn (10): the inuence law of the material porosity on the stress–strain
relationship.
_ ¼ uijF$FT
E(t) (16)  _ 
vW h  1=2 i2  
¼ d 1 þ 1  nf 1  nf ES ½JðtÞ  1ln½JðtÞ
Inserting eqn (16) into inequality (15) then yields _
vE KL vd
  (21)
2 t   3
6 v c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ 7 where nf is the material porosity, ES is Young's modulus of the
6Sij  r S¼0
F $F T 7
4 vEðtÞ 5uij rubber matrix material, d is a constant that reects the pore
structure of foam rubber-like materials, and J(t) is the deter-
   minant of the deformation gradient tensor F. The nonlinear
t dEðt  sÞ
 rd c Eðt  sÞ; EðtÞ $0 (17) viscoelastic constitutive model independent of the coordinate
S¼0 dt
system of foam rubber-like materials under large deformation
can be obtained by inserting eqn (20) and (21) into eqn (19)
In order to satisfy inequality (17), the coefficient of uij is  _   _  
vW vW
equal to zero for a given material deformation history, and sij ¼ pdij þ rF ðtÞ þ F T ðtÞ (22)
vE_KL id vE_KL vd
using eqn (11) and (14), leads to

vW_ T
Sij ¼ rF ðtÞ F ðtÞ (18)
vE_
3. Numerical example
The hydrostatic pressure p is added to eqn (18). The To illustrate the application of the new model developed in the
nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive equation for large deforma- preceding section, a parametric study of sample cases is con-
tion of foam rubber-like materials is nally obtained as ducted here for three-dimensional rubber foams, whose
modeling motivated the present study. Under triaxial loading
vW_ T conditions, the elongation ratio of rubber foams in the loading
sij ¼ pdij þ rFðtÞ F ðtÞ (19) direction can be denoted as l1, l2, l3. The material is assumed
vE_
to be homogeneous and isotropic. The deformation of sample
cases under triaxial loading can be dened as the following
Because the strain energy function can be additively split form
into deformation energy and volume energy,22,23 the defor- 8
mation of materials is decomposed into volumetric deforma- < x1 ¼ l1 X1
x ¼ l2 X2 (23)
tion and isochoric deformation in this paper. Volumetric : 2
x3 ¼ l3 X3
deformation mainly depends on the microstructure
morphology of the foam; isochoric deformation is mainly
determined by the mechanical properties of the rubber.23,24 The deformation gradient F(t) is given by the differential of
The derivative form of the Helmholtz free energy functional eqn (23) and using eqn (2):
for the isochoric deformation part is given by the assumption 2 3
l1 0 0
of incompressibility of solid rubber-like materials.5,22 In this F ðtÞ ¼ 4 0 l2 05 (24)
case, I3 ¼ 1. 0 0 l3

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Green strain tensor E is given by inserting eqn (24) into The viscoelastic mechanical responses of foam rubber-like
eqn (4): materials in several common loading conditions can be calcu-
2 2 3 lated by the above stress expressions.
1 4 l1  1 0 0
EðX ; sÞ ¼ 0 l2 2  1 0 5 (25)
2
0 0 l3 2 1
3.1. Viscoelastic mechanical responses with uniaxial loading
By substituting eqn (24) and (25) into eqn (19), the principal By substituting eqn (22) into eqn (27), the stress of foam rubber-
stress components of sample cases under triaxial loading is like materials under uniaxial compression deformation can be
nally obtained as expressed as
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vW_ vW_ s11 ðtÞ ¼ l2 r
aðI1  3Þ þ bðI2  3Þ
K1 ðtÞ
s11 ðtÞ ¼ p þ l1 2 r s22 ðtÞ ¼ p þ l2 2 r þcðI1  3ÞðI2  3Þ
_
vE 11 vE_22
(26)

vW_ l r2k aðI1  3Þ þ bðI2  3Þ
K2 ðtÞ
s33 ðtÞ ¼ p þ l3 r
2
þcðI1  3ÞðI2  3Þ
vE_33
  h  1=2 i2
þ d l2  l2k r 1 þ 1  nf
The stress expressions in several common experiments can     
be derived from eqn (26).  1  nf ES l2kþ1  1 ln l2kþ1 (31)
Based on the compressibility of rubber foams, the principal
where
stretches of the material under uniaxial compression and ðt t  s
dl
tension can be expressed as l1 ¼ l, l2 ¼ l3 ¼ lk, where k is a K1 ðtÞ ¼ 2l exp  ds
material constant. Considering the boundary conditions of 0 q ds
sample cases, the stress expressions under uniaxial compres- ðt t  s
dl2k
sion and tension is given by eqn (27): K2 ðtÞ ¼ exp  ds
0 q ds
vW_ vW_ and where a, b, c are material constants related to strain rate,
s11 ðtÞ ¼ l2 r  l2k r (27)
vE_11 vE_22 and d is a constant that reects the pore structure of the
materials. Le Cauchy-Green tensor B is given by
2 2 3
The principal stretches of the material under pure shear l 0 0
deformation can be expressed as l1 ¼ lk, l2 ¼ 1, B ¼ F $F T ¼ 4 0 l2k 0 5 (32)
l3 ¼ lk. Considering the boundary conditions of sample 0 0 l2k
cases, the stress expressions under pure shear is given by
eqn (28):
The three principal invariants of B is given by
vW_ 1 vW_
s11 ðtÞ ¼ l r 2k
 2k r I1 ¼ trðBÞ
¼ l2 þ 2l2k
vE_11 l vE_33 I2 ¼ 1=2 I1  trðB2 Þ ¼ 2l2kþ2 þ l4k
2
(33)
(28)
vW_ 1 vW_ I3 ¼ detðBÞ ¼ l4kþ2
s22 ðtÞ ¼ r  2k r
_
vE 22 l vE_33
Inserting eqn (33) into eqn (31) then yields
The principal stretches of the material under simple shear
 2   
a l þ 2l2k  3 þ b 2l2kþ2 þ l4k  3
deformation can be expressed as l1 ¼ lk, l2 ¼ lk, l3 ¼ 1. s11 ðtÞ ¼ l2 r  2   K1 ðtÞ
þc l þ 2l2k  3 2l2kþ2 þ l4k  3
Considering the boundary conditions of sample cases, the
stress expressions under simple shear is given by eqn (29):
 2   
a l þ 2l2k  3 þ b 2l2kþ2 þ l4k  3
l2k r  2   K2 ðtÞ
vW_ 1 vW_ vW_ þ c l þ 2l2k  3 2l2kþ2 þ l4k  3
s12 ðtÞ ¼ l2k r þ 2k r  2r (29)
_
vE 11 l _
vE 22 vE_33
  h  1=2 i2
þ d l2  l2k r 1 þ 1  nf
The principal stretches of the material under equi-biaxial     
tension deformation can be expressed as l1 ¼ l, l2 ¼ l, l3 ¼  1  nf ES l2kþ1  1 ln l2kþ1 (34)
lk. Considering the boundary conditions of sample cases, the
stress expressions under equi-biaxial tension is given by eqn
The nonlinear viscoelastic mechanical behavior of the
(30):
materials under uniaxial loading is described by eqn (34). From
vW_ 1 vW_ eqn (34), using integration by parts leads to
s11 ðtÞ ¼ s22 ðtÞ ¼ l2 r  2 2k r  (30)
_
vE 11 ll vE_33

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8  9
>
> l2  l4k2 ½1  expðt=qÞ >
>
> >
2  2  3>>
>
>
>
>
a l þ 2l  3
2k
>
> 1 t ð >
>
>
< >
=
6
2 6
  7  l2
expð  ðt  sÞ=qÞds
s11 ðtÞ ¼ l r4 þ b 2l 2kþ2
þl 3
4k 7
5> q 0 >
   >> >
>
þ c l2 þ 2l2k  3 2l2kþ2 þ l4k  3 > >
>
> 2k2 ðt >
>
>
>
>
> l >
:þ l expð  ðt  sÞ=qÞds >
2k
;
q 0

  h  1=2 i2     
þ d l2  l2k r 1 þ 1  nf 1  nf ES l2kþ1  1 ln l2kþ1
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(35)

where l ¼ 1 + 311. Introducing the unit step function H(t) to The comparison of the theoretical prediction curve and the
represent constant strain as follows, experimental curve is shown in Fig. 4, and the error analysis is
 shown in Fig. 5.
1 t.0
HðtÞ ¼ (36) As shown in Fig. 4, the theoretical prediction curve by the
0 t\0
compressible viscoelastic model is in good agreement with the
available experimental data under uniaxial compression. In
The constant strain is given by addition, it can be seen from the error analysis chart that the
residual stress error is approximately in the range of 0.02 MPa
311 ¼ 30H(t) (37) < D < 0.02 MPa and is approximately negligible compared with
the corresponding engineering stress amplitude.
Inserting eqn (36) and (37) into eqn (35) then yields

8 " # " #9
>
> ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2 2ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2kþ2 >
>
>
> a þb >
>
>
< þ 2ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2k  3 4k >
=
2
þ ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ  3
s11 ðtÞ ¼ ½1 þ 30 HðtÞ r " #" #
>
> ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2 2ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2kþ2 >
>
>
> >
>
>
: þ c >
;
2k 4k
þ 2ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ  3 þ ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ  3
n
o
2 4k2
 ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ  ð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ ½1  expðt=qÞ

n o h  1=2 i2
þ d ½1 þ 30 HðtÞ2  ½1 þ 30 HðtÞ2k r 1 þ 1  nf

  n o
 1  nf ES ½1 þ 30 HðtÞ2kþ1  1 lnð1 þ 30 HðtÞÞ2kþ1 (38)

The stress relaxation test of sample cases at low strain rate 3.2. Viscoelastic mechanical responses with two-
was carried out restricted to special purpose applications. The dimensional loading
specimens are porous silicon rubber thin sections; the size of
By substituting eqn (22) into eqn (30), the stress of foam rubber-
specimens is 60 mm  12 mm  0.65 mm. The experiments like materials under equi-biaxial tensile deformation can be
were conducted on a stress relaxation testing machine. The expressed as
density of the specimens is r ¼ 0.45  103 kg m3; the porosity
ðt ðt 
t  s
dl2 t  s
dl2k
is nf ¼ 60%; the SEM micrograph of the materials is shown in sðtÞ ¼ rLðtÞ l2 exp  dsl2k2 exp  ds
Fig. 1. The experimental data for eqn (38) is tted; the param- 0 q ds 0 q ds
eter values are given in Table 1, and the tting results are shown h  i
1=2 2      
þ dr 1þ 1nf 1nf ES l2  l2k2 lkþ2  1 ln lkþ2
in Fig. 2 and 3.
The tting curves from Fig. 2 to Fig. 3 show that the quality of (39)
the t is essentially comparable between the two cases. In order
where
to examine the validity of the constitutive model, the mechan-
ical properties of three porous silicon rubber thin sections with LðtÞ ¼ aðI
 1  3Þ þ bðI2 3Þþ cðI1  3ÞðI2  3Þ
different densities (0.56 g cm3, 0.78 g cm3 and 0.90 g cm3) ¼ a 2l2 þ l2k  3 þ b 2l2kþ2 þ l4  3
  
under uniaxial compression are theoretically forecasted by þ c 2l2 þ l2k  3 2l2kþ2 þ l4  3
substitution of the parameter values in Table 1 into eqn (35).

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From eqn (39), using the integration by parts leads to

8 ð 9
> 4 2  l2 t 2 >
>
> l l ½1expðt=qÞ l expððtsÞ=qÞds >
>
>
< q 0 >
=
sðtÞ ¼ rLðtÞ
>
> ð >
>
>
> l2k2 t 2k >
>
:þ l expððt  sÞ=qÞds ;
q 0
h  1=2 i2      
þ dr 1þ 1nf 1nf ES l2 l2k2 lkþ2 1 ln lkþ2
(40)
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where l ¼ 1 + 3.
In the same way, by substituting eqn (22) into eqn (28), the
stress of foam rubber-like materials under pure shear defor-
mation can be expressed as
8 ð 9
> 4k 4k  l2k t 2k >
>
> l l ½1expðt=qÞ l >
>
expððtsÞ=qÞds
>
< q 0 >
=
sðtÞ¼rMðtÞ Fig. 2 Comparison between stress relaxation fitting curve and
>
> 2k ð t >
> experimental results (t ¼ 100 s).
>
>þ l >
>
: l2k expð  ðt  sÞ=qÞds ;
q 0
h  1=2 i2       
þ dr 1 þ 1  nf 1  nf ES l2k  l2k lk  1 ln lk

Fig. 3 Comparison between stress relaxation fitting curve and

experimental results (t ¼ 1000 s).

Fig. 1 SEM micrograph of a foam rubber.

Table 1 The model parameters determined by fitting the experimental

data

a b c d k q1

95.722 7.443 0.0079 3.275 0.658 6.887 Fig. 4 Comparison between theoretical prediction curve and exper-
imental results of materials of various densities.

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M(t) ¼ a(I1  3) + b(I2  3) + c(I1  3)(I2  3) ¼ a(l2k + l2k  2)

+ b(l2k + l2k  2) + c(l2k + l2k  2)2 (41)

The experimental data are tted by eqn (40) and (41), and the
material parameters are obtained as shown in Tables 2 and 3.
All the experimental data used here are derived from Treloar's
classic experiments and the experiments of James et al.25–27
These experimental data have been widely used to validate the
quantitative model of rubber-like materials under different
loading conditions.28–33 The experimental data from James
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et al. are used to t the parameters of the model (Fig. 6 and 7)

the well-known data from Treloar are used to examine the
validity of the constitutive model. For solid rubber-like mate-
rials, take nf ¼ 0. By substitution of the parameter values into
the constitutive equations, the prediction results are obtained
by the present model, shown in Fig. 8 and 9 with other clas-
Fig. 6 Comparison between stress–stretch fitting curve and experi-
sical models. It can be seen from the gures that the present mental results (equi-biaxial extension).
model has better prediction ability in comparison with other
classical models.
Through the analysis and research above, it can be seen that
the new proposed viscoelastic model is suitable to describe the
nonlinear viscoelastic mechanical response of foam rubber-like
materials under large deformation.

Fig. 7 Comparison between stress–stretch fitting curve and experi-

mental results (pure shear).

Fig. 5 Comparison of model prediction errors for each kind of density.

Table 2 The model parameters determined by fitting the experimental

data (equi-biaxial extension)

a b c d k q1

20.526 7.141 1.467 7.073 0.120 9.239

Table 3 The model parameters determined by fitting the experimental

data (pure shear)

a b c d k q1
Fig. 8 Comparison between theoretical prediction curve and exper-
imental results (equi-biaxial extension).
41.627 6.554 1.558 3.457 0.770 7.106

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Qi Cartesian components of the measured heat ow vector

per unit area
Sij Deviator stress components of Cauchy stress tensor in
the current conguration
uij Velocity gradient of material deformation
p Hydrostatic pressure
sij Cauchy stress components
dij Kronecker delta
q Relaxation factor
nf Material porosity
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ES Young's modulus of rubber matrix material

abc Material constants related to strain rate
d A constant which reects pore structure of the materials
k Material constant
H(t) Unit step function

Fig. 9 Comparison between theoretical prediction curve and exper-

imental results (pure shear).

4. Conclusions
Based on the viscoelastic constitutive theory and mathematical
derivation methods, the nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive
model for large deformation of foam rubber-like materials is
nally established as:
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank J. S. Lei and J. L. Tao for fruitful
discussions on developing the constitutive model framework
employed in this paper. The work was funded by the grant from
the National Natural Science Foundation of China.
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vW vW
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