Abnormal reverse faulting above a depleting reservoir

Francis Odonne Université Paul Sabatier, Pétrophysique et Tectonique, U.M.R. 5563 C.N.R.S., 38 rue des Trente-six-Ponts,
Isabelle Ménard F-31400 Toulouse, France
Gérard J. Massonnat Elf Exploration Production, Centre Scientifique et Technique Jean Feger, Avenue Larribau,
Jean-Paul Rolando F-64018 Pau Cedex, France

ABSTRACT
Subsurface deformation is observed during pumping of some hydrocarbon fields. Defor- In the Lacq gas field of France, the relation-
mation features include subsidence centered on the field and subsidence-related centripetal ship between subsidence and gas pressure that
horizontal displacements and faulting. Focal mechanisms yield reverse movements on steeply has been observed (Grasso, 1992, 1993) seems
dipping faults. In our sand-silicone analogue model, the reservoir is represented by a latex bal- to differ from many gas fields where reservoir
loon or by undercompacted ground sand. Deflation of the reservoir results in formation of pressure linearly decreases with time. Instead,
steeply dipping reverse faults bounding a downward-opened cone. The cone moves downward for 20 years, the slope of the depletion has
to follow the reservoir contraction. Faults along the cone are straight beneath a thick reservoir decreased weakly with time (Fig. 2). This may
cover and tend to curve upwards with decreasing cover. Our results, similar to natural struc- be attributed to an increase in rock intrinsic per-
tures observed around magma chambers, allow us to reinterpret Paul Segall’s numerical model meability that is unlikely because permeability
of poroelastic stresses caused by changes in the distribution of pore fluids and draw a new pat- generally decreases during gas recovery or to a
tern of active faults. volume increase of the reservoir by widening of
connected volume due to faulting (Rolando et
INTRODUCTION recovery commenced, and reached 1 m in 1925 al. 1997).
In many hydrocarbon fields, subsurface (Pratt and Johnson, 1926). In 1918, the down- Active faulting has been observed from dam-
deformation is observed during oil or gas recov- faulted block was becoming submerged beneath aged wells in Wilmington oil field (Kovach,
ery. Subsidence is the most widely developed sea level, attesting to depletion of the underlying 1974) and in Buena Vista Hills oil field, Califor-
feature due to hydrocarbon extraction and mining reservoir. Two major faults developed, one on nia, where fault dip has been determined to be
(King and Smith, 1954). Generally, subsidence is each side of the field, their strikes parallel to the about 25° (Koch, 1933). There, displacement
centered over the field and associated with cen- long axis of the subsidence bowl. rates have been calculated to be about 4 cm/yr.
tripetal horizontal displacements and faulting At Wilmington oil field, extraction com- These extreme movements have been attributed
(Koch, 1933; Yerkes and Castle, 1970; Volant and menced in 1936 and by 1966, cumulative subsi- to fluid withdrawal (Yerkes and Castle, 1970;
Grasso, 1994). In oil fields, a fraction of the dence had reached 9 m (Yerkes and Castle, Segall, 1989).
movements can be recovered by repressurization 1970). Leveling surveys have determined that the
(Yerkes and Castle, 1970), proving that they are subsidence bowl was centered on the producing SEISMICITY AND SOURCE
related to oil recovery. In some places, seismicity area and extended beyond it (Fig. 1). MECHANISMS
has been recorded during extraction (Segall, Horizontal displacements above mining areas The relationship between earthquakes and
1989; Grasso, 1992) and, in most cases, it van- (King and Smith, 1954) and gas or oil fields (Lee fluid extraction in oil fields is clearly established
ishes after it. Wetmiller (1986) and Feignier and and Shen, 1969) are found to accompany subsi- (Segall, 1989). In some fields, earthquakes oc-
Grasso (1990) recorded focal mechanisms dence. At the Wilmington oil field, centripetally di- curred immediately after production com-
formed during hydrocarbon exploitation that de- rected horizontal displacements were 3.66 m from menced, as in Rocky Mountain House, Alberta
scribe reverse movements on steep faults, dips of 1937 to 1966 (Fig. 1). Horizontal displacement (Wetmiller, 1986), and Goose Creek (Pratt and
60°. This contrasts with general observations of reached a maximum halfway along the flanks of Johnson, 1926). In other places, seismicity com-
reverse faults which, due to the current state of the subsidence bowl, and decreased progressively menced a few years after production. This is the
stress in the crust, have dips usually less than 30°. to zero at both the center and peripheries of the case in the Lacq gas field, where the first signifi-
This paper uses the results of analogue ex- bowl (Fig. 1). Because displacement vectors are cant earthquakes were recorded in 1969, 12 years
periments to clarify the geometry and arrange- oriented radially toward the center of the subsi- after production began (Guyoton et al., 1992).
ment of brittle deformation features associated dence, the center is subjected to compression In the Rocky Mountain House seismic zone,
with depleting oil reservoirs. Our model is a while the periphery is subjected to radial extension the seismic activity is in a flat thin zone below,
sand-silicone box in which reservoir depletion is (Kovach, 1974; Segall and Fitzgerald, 1998). and/or possibly within the reservoir (Wetmiller,
obtained either by deflation of a balloon or by de-
pletion of an isolated volume of undercompacted
material. Experiments show that most of the Figure 1. Surface displace-
faults that form during depletion are steeply dip- ments at Wilmington oil
ping reverse faults. Such abnormal fault geome- field near Long Beach, Cali-
try is discussed in the light of Segall’s numerical fornia. Vertical downward
displacements are shown
model (1989) of state of stress obtained around a
between 1928 and 1966;
contracting volume. subsidence bowl is cen-
tered over producing area.
MOVEMENTS AND FAULTING Horizontal displacements
RELATED TO THE RECOVERY OF are shown between 1937
and 1970; cen- tripetally di-
HYDROCARBONS rected displacements are
In the Goose Creek oil field, subsidence com- maximum halfway along flanks of subsidence bowl and decrease progressively to zero at both
menced in 1918, one year after the hydrocarbon its center and periphery (redrawn from Yerkes and Castle, 1970).

Geology; February 1999; v. 27; no. 2; p. 111–114; 7 figures. 111


Figure 2. Evolution of depletion vs. time in
Lacq field between 1957 and 1963. Pressure
drop is about 600 bar. Unlike many gas fields
where depletion linearly increases with time,
increasing depletion is slowing down in Lacq.
This indicates either porosity increase, which
is very unlikely, because pore fluid extraction
is supposed to result in a volumetric contrac-
tion of the reservoir, or widening of connected
volume with active faulting that connects in-
creasing volume.
1986). In Lacq, distribution of the seismicity
coincides with the extension of the gas field, most
of the hypocenters being located at the top,
inside, or below the reservoir. At the beginning of
activity, from 1969 to 1982, earthquakes were
concentrated inside the reservoir or close to it
(Grasso and Wittlinger, 1990). Since 1982, a de-
crease in reservoir pressure accompanied deeper
shocks that tended to localize into planar fault
zones with high dip values (Volant and Grasso,
1994). Projection of the hypocenters on a vertical
north-south cross section (Fig. 3) forms a diffuse
zone that mimics the local dome structure of the
reservoir (Grasso and Wittlinger, 1990).
In all cases where focal mechanisms were
calculated, horizontal compressive stresses were
found. This was the case in Gasli, Uzbekistan,
where major earthquakes, M ≥ 5.9, have been
suggested to be triggered by fluid extraction
(Eyidogan et al., 1985). At the Wilmington oil
field, Kovach (1974) showed that earthquakes
produced contraction in the center of the subsi-
dence bowl and extension at its periphery. Near
the Rocky Mountain House seismic zone, a com-
posite focal mechanism constructed out of 59
events evidences a thrust mechanism acting along
steep nodal planes (Wetmiller, 1986). Feignier
and Grasso (1990) showed that the compressive
axes in the Lacq gas field are oriented toward the
center of the reservoir. Reverse movements are
recorded on steeply dipping faults in the southern
side of the gisement, while in the northern flank
the diffuse seismicity is attributed to reverse layer-
over-layer slip (Grasso and Feignier, 1990).
ANALOGUE EXPERIMENTS
Process
The question of how both normal and reverse
faults may develop in the same field and create the
pattern of vertical displacements of Figure 1 is
112
addressed through analogue experiments. The
analogue model is made of dry sand from
Fontainebleau (Paris basin, France). This nonco-
hesive material has a coefficient of friction, η, of
0.60 (Krantz, 1991), very close to that considered
to represent the brittle behavior of the upper crust
(Hubbert, 1951; Byerleee, 1978; Mandl, 1988).
In the first group of experiments the volume
contraction of the reservoir was modeled by the
deflation of a latex balloon. The balloon was mod-
erately inflated when placed within the experi-
ment, and it was connected to the model surface
by a small pipe, deflation took place through the
pipe. In the second group of experiments, reser-
voir contraction was modeled by the pressure de-
crease in an airtight space isolated from the rest of
the model by a silicone layer (Weijermars and
Schmeling, 1986). The center of this volume was
made of undercompacted ground sand powder,
connected to the surface by a pipe. Its depletion
was obtained by vacuum pumping. In both exper-
iments, balloon and powder volume, the reservoir
was covered with dry sand, 6 to 15 cm in thick-
ness depending on the experiment.
Subsidence, Centripetal Displacements, and
Abnormal Faulting
In analogue experiments, subsidence is ob-
served at the surface of the model as soon as the
reservoir is deflated and continues developing for
several minutes after deflation. Later, vertical
sections are cut in the models. They show that the
width of the subsided area corresponds to that of
the depleted volume. The surface gently dips at
the limit of the subsided area, steepens toward the
center, then flattens in the middle (Fig. 4, A and
B). Centripetal displacements are measured us-
ing the reference grid that was drawn on the
model before depletion (Fig. 5). Because the bor-
ders of the experimental set are fixed, the area be-
tween the contracted center and the borders is
stretched, and horizontal contraction at the center
of the model due to subsidence cannot be attrib-
uted to an external compression. The surface of
each experiment therefore consists of three con-
centric areas: a contracted center, an extended
ring, and a fixed periphery.
Figure 3. Final hypocenter
positions of 227 relocated
events on vertical north-south
cross section in Lacq gas
field, France.White circles are
projections of hypocenters.
Black circles are hypocenter
projections of December 1982
crisis events. Shaded area is
roof of gas reservoir. Dashed
line is envelope of main
seismic area (redrawn from
Grasso and Wittlinger, 1990).
Relationship between earth-
quakes and gas extraction in
Lacq field is clearly estab-
lished in space and time.
Faults evidenced from the vertical sections of
all experiments have high dips, close to 60°, and
reversely offset layers (Fig. 4, A and B). They
may be composed of double faults instead of sin-
gle ones (Fig. 4). In every case, they branch at the
boundary of the reservoir and delimit a cone-
shaped volume with an upward-directed apex.
Relationships between fault shape and cover
thickness have been investigated. After equiva-
lent depletions of models with 7, 10, and 14 cm
of sand cover, sections are compared. All the
experiments show the same cone-shaped volume
displaced downward by the depleted reservoir.
The main difference is in the shape of the faults
that bound the cone. With a thin cover, 7 and 10
cm, the steep-dipping faults cut the surface of the
model. These faults have curved shapes with dip
values close to 30° at top and increasing to about
70° at depth. In experiments with 14 cm of sand
cover, faults are steeply dipping. However these
faults have straight profiles and never cut the sur-
face of the model (Fig. 6). Whether faults develop
a curved or straight profile appears to depend on
their ability to cut the top surface of the models.
DISCUSSION
Faults that form during depletion in analogue
models are steeply dipping reverse faults, and
have straight to curved shapes depending on the
thickness of the cover. They delimit a cone point-
ing upward having a basal area that extends to the
boundaries of the reservoir. This cone-shaped
fault zone seems to be well adapted to follow the
downward displacement related to reservoir
contraction. Similar fault geometries have been
described in relation to pressure decrease and
collapse of magmatic chambers (Bailey et al.,
1924, cited in Anderson, 1936). Similarly, focal
mechanisms around magma chambers also show
reverse displacements on steep and cone-shaped
faults (Ekström, 1994).
Steep reverse faulting has already been mod-
eled in two-dimensional analogue experiments
submitted to vertical displacement above a base-
ment step (Sanford, 1959), and they give similar
results. The main results are: (1) formation of
steep and curved reverse faults; (2) a curvature of
GEOLOGY, February 1999
Figure 4. Vertical sections in two analogue models where depletion of reservoir is represented (A) by deflation of balloon; and (B) by pumping air
from undercompacted ground sand volume. Reservoir is isolated from sand cover by silicone layer. Steep reverse faults form during depletion.
Surface subsidence maximum is at field center.
Figure 5. Surface of analogue model in which
depletion is modeled by deflation of balloon
(see Fig. 4A). Deformation of grid shows cen-
tripetal horizontal displacements while center
and boundaries of model remain undeformed.
the fault trace away from the uplifted block; (3) a
curvature of faults decreasing with increasing
thickness of the sand layer; and (4) horizontal
displacements toward the lower side of the step.
Numerical modeling of this experiment gives
curved shaped principal stress trajectories. Cal-
culations of Prucha et al. (1965) also agree with
these results: σ1 steeply dips at depth where the
void created by the depletion imposes a down-
ward displacement due to gravity. As a result of
the subsiding structure, sand is attracted to the
center of the subsided area, as shown by cen-
tripetal displacements at surface. Unlike at depth,
an oblique orientation of σ1 is no longer possible
close to the surface of the model. Because the
GEOLOGY, February 1999
Figure 6. During depletion, cone-shaped faults form.They are centered over reservoir and show
reverse up-dip direction of slip. (A, B): Cover thicknesses are 7 cm and 10 cm, respectively; faults
cut surface and show curved shape because fault dips reduce from 70° at depth to 30° at top, as
faults join surface; (C) : Cover thickness is 14 cm; faults that bound cone do not cut surface and
keep their straight and steep shape.
sand follows the Mohr-Coulomb criterion for that form above and below the reservoir; (2) nor-
failure with a coefficient of friction η close to mal faults that are located on the flank of the
0.60 (Krantz, 1991), fault surfaces are oriented field; and (3) general subsidence of the produc-
about 30° to σ1 in the models. This is why fault tion area and centripetal horizontal displace-
traces are curved, with steep dips imposed by ments (Fig. 7A, redrawn from the Fig. 4 of
downward displacements at depth and, when Segall, 1989). We propose a new line drawing of
they cut the surface of the model, low dips im- this figure that gives a best fit between the results
posed by centripetal displacement and horizontal of analogue experiments, field observations, and
orientation of σ1 at top. numerical models (Fig. 7B). In the upper part of
Segall (1989) proposed a numerical model in the section, few changes are indicated, while at
which the pore-fluid extraction results in a volu- depth, we propose to choose the steepest nodal
metric contraction of the reservoir rocks and trig- plane as being the active one above the reservoir.
gers earthquake formation. This model has been Calculated focal mechanisms give two equivalent
applied to the Lacq gas field of southwestern planes, but cannot determine which is the actual
France (Segall et al., 1994). The results give sim- one. We simply propose to choose the steeply
ulated focal mechanims that are consistent with dipping plane instead of the shallowly dipping
most of the observations made in oil and gas plane which is, however, more classic for reverse
fields during fluid extraction: (1) reverse faults faults (Anderson, 1951).
113
Figure 7. A: Schematic Krantz, R. W., 1991, Measurements of friction coeffi-
cross section redrawn cients and cohesion for faulting and fault reacti-
from Segall (1989) sum- vation in laboratory models using sand and sand
marizing surface defor- mixtures: Tectonophysics, v. 188, p. 203–207.
mation, faulting, and sim- Lee, K. L., and Shen, C. K., 1969, Horizontal move-
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS events, induced stress and deformation: Pure and
Publication 89, v. 1, p. 55–66.
We thank Elf Exploration Production for their as- Applied Geophysics, v. 134, p. 428–449.
Wetmiller, R. J., 1986, Earthquakes near Rocky Moun-
sistance and permission to publish. We also thank J. L. Grasso, J. R., and Wittlinger, G., 1990, Ten years of seis-
tains House, Alberta and their relationship to gas
Bouchez, who significantly improved the manuscript, mic monitoring over a gas field: Seismological
production facilities: Canadian Journal of Earth
and C. Cavaré-Hester for assistance with figure prepa- Society of America Bulletin, v. 80, p. 450-473.
Sciences, v. 23, pp. 172–181.
ration. We benefited from constructive reviews by Guyoton, F., Grasso, J. R., and Volant, P., 1992, Interre-
Weijermars, R., and Schmeling, H., 1986, Scaling of
Paul Segall and Peter N. Southgate. lation between induced seismic instabilities and
newtonian and non-newtonian fluid dynamics
complex geological setting: Geophysical Re-
without inertia for quantitative modelling of rock
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114 Printed in U.S.A. GEOLOGY, February 1999