FLOOD VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

OF SITIO KAMATISAN BRGY. DALIG

ANTIPOLO CITY

An Undergraduate Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of Engineering

University of Rizal System

Antipolo City Campus

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

in Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Jenny Grace S. Cortez

Marjie M. Marinay
Maria Liezel M. Oberes
 Month 2021
Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

This chapter includes the introduction, background of the study, statement of the

problem, theoretical framework, conceptual framework, objectives and assumptions of

the study, scope and limitation, significance of the study, and definition of terms.

Introduction

Flooding is a prevalent hydrological hazard that impacts different countries to

varying extents. It is considered one of the most significant and pervasive natural

disasters due to the disastrous consequences it has on lives and property in affected

areas. Flooding is typically caused by intense precipitation over a short period of time or

by normal rain over a longer period of time, but research indicates that anthropogenic

activities such as land use or land cover changes, channel modifications, deforestation,

and urbanization all have an impact on the occurrence of this hazard. (Brebante, 2017)

In 2019, Cabrera and Soo Lee reported that the limited capacity of river systems,

human populations in low-lying locations, and rapid increase of human settlements

without upgrading drainage facilities are all major contributors to flooding. As a result,

statistics show that urban flooding is becoming more prevalent in recent years. And

because flooding concerns have expanded dramatically, the need for efficient modeling

arises to assist in the prevention of the worst effects of flood disasters.

In terms of urbanization, the province of Rizal as one of the members of Region

IV-A CALABARZON, is classified as a highly urbanized area based on the report of

CALABARZON Regional Development Council (CRDC, 2016). It has the highest

percentage of urban population (93.6%) in the entire region, with an average annual

population growth rate (AAPGR) of 2.58% between 2010 and 2015. “Among the cities

and municipalities in the region, the largest in terms of population size is the City of

Antipolo with 887,399 persons.” (Philippine Statistics Authority [PSA], 2021, para. 8).

According to Ouma and Tateishi (2014), there is a direct association between

urbanization and hydrological characteristics such as decreased infiltration, increased

runoff, frequency, and flood height. In addition to population growth and the continued

buildup of valuable assets, climate change is anticipated to increase the frequency and

magnitude of floods in the future, exacerbating the existing flood risk in urban areas.

This scenario means that urbanized areas, in particular, have a disproportionately

significant flood risk due to their high population density, diverse economic activities,

and numerous infrastructure and property assets, all of which interfere with natural

infiltration processes.

Given the facts presented above, the overall goal of this research was to identify

the primary source of flooding in Sitio Kamatisan Brgy. Dalig Antipolo City as it is

identified in the Flooding Incident Report from 2020 until October 2021 of the City

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (CDRRMC) of Antipolo City as one

of the most flood-prone areas in the municipality. This report reveals that 81 flooding

incidents happened within the mentioned time periods, with 10 of these flooding

reported cases transpiring on Brgy. Dalig.

Background of the Study

GENERAL

According to Nunez (2019), flooding appears to be the second most prevalent

natural calamity in the world behind wildfires. When water overflows or soaks normally

dry terrain, it produces a flood. This incidence occurs in a number of ways. The most
significant source of flooding is riverine flooding. It occurs when rivers or streams

overrun their banks and spill onto the floodplain.

Minor flooding on a regular basis impedes human existence and makes living

conditions less predictable. As a result, a common strategy to flood control has been to

utilize structural measures, such as the construction of more levees and dams, to

promote stability and predictability. (K. et al., 2018)

According to Kreibich, H. et al. (2017), identifying the important factors of

changes in risk is critical for effective adaptation as flood impacts increase in many

regions of the world. As a result, vulnerability reduction is crucial for successful

adaptation. As per Sairam, N. et al. (2019), dynamic risk assessments that account for

variations in vulnerability are required for efficient climate-based adaptation in flood risk

management. Considering flood loss estimation models are necessary for quantifying

risk, it is significant that these models account for differences in susceptibility, including

private precaution.

A flood is defined as an overflow of a large volume of water beyond its normal

limitations, particularly over dry ground. Fluvial floods, Pluvial floods, flash floods, and

coastal flooding are the four most common types of floods. Each sort of flood occurs in

a distinctive manner and has its own characteristics.

The first type of flood is a Fluvial flood, often known as a river flood, which

occurs when the water level in a river, lake, or stream rises and overflows onto the

banks, beaches, and adjacent land. The next type of flood is a Pluvial flood, or surface

water flood, which happens when heavy rain generates a flood that is not produced by
an overflowing water body. It can happen anywhere, urban or rural, and even in places

where there are no bodies of water. Flash floods are caused by heavy rainfall or the

rapid discharge of water in a short period of time. They occur within minutes to hours of

a heavy rain event and produce raging torrents of water moving at great speeds.

Coastal flooding refers to the inundation of land areas along the coast by seawater.

Coastal flooding is commonly caused by high tides, tsunamis, and storm surge.

Runoff on the other hand, is the draining or flowing off of rainwater from a

catchment area through a surface channel. As a result, it represents the catchment's

output in a given unit of time. In the process of urbanization, large amounts of

agricultural or other rural land are converted into impervious land and the land-use

change totally alters natural hydrological processes. Several pieces of research

investigated the effects of urbanization-induced land-use changes on runoff. And it

shows that the rapid expansion of urban impervious areas increased surface runoff

yield, peak discharge, runoff ratio, reduced runoff response time, and changed

hydrological regimes. It also changed the long-term groundwater recharge and water

balance. (Hu, Fan, Zhang, 2020)

According to Takemoto (2011), it is one of the main responsibilities of city

authorities in flood-prone areas to manage floods with the goals of people’s safety and

well-being and environmental protection. To deal with flood risks, prevention and

precaution measures must be taken to avoid catastrophic events. The preliminary

environmental impact assessment of floods is an important tool for the development of

civil defense plans because it is used to assess, predict and prevent further economic
and social losses caused by floods. It should be pointed out that preventive or

precautionary measures should be based on risk management policies, and most

importantly, should be included in civil defense recommendations and actions to deal

with floods. (Alcoforado, 2018).

STUDY AREA

In this research, the area within the vicinity of Sitio Kamatisan Brgy. Dalig (14°

34' North, 121° 11' East) is chosen as the study area. It is one of 16 barangays in

Antipolo City and is considered the smallest barangay in the second district. Brgy. Dalig

is bounded by 2 Barangays in Antipolo City and 2 Municipalities in the Province of Rizal.

It occupies a land area of 406.48 hectares that comprises about 1.05% of Antipolo

territory with a population density of approximately 12,579 inhabitants per square

kilometer. And according to the 2020 Census, the area's population was 58,598 people,

accounting for 6.6 percent of the city's total population.

According to the Flooding Incident Report from 2020 until October 2021 of the

City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (CDRRMC) of Antipolo City,

Brgy. Dalig is one of the most flood-prone areas in the municipality. It reveals that 81

flooding incidents happened within the mentioned time periods, with 10 of these flooding

reported cases transpiring on Brgy. Dalig.

 In terms of Land Use, the Antipolo General Land Use and Zoning Map shows

that Barangay Dalig is primarily located in Residential Zones, Socialized Housing

Zones, and a portion of it on the southeast boundary is designated as a Production

Forest Zone. Within the barangay, there are significant minor parts of the Commercial

Zone, Tourism Zone, Light Industrial Zone, and Institutional Zone. A mining zone is also

designated on the next barangay, which is around 300 meters away from the southeast
boundary, as well as a commercial zone within the northern boundary.( Limqueco and

Santiago 2016)

With regards to Soil type, the morphological approach of soil classification, often

known as the 7th Approximation of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

reported that Barangay Dalig has an Antipolo Clay soil classification. This soil series is

a member of extremely fine montmorillonite clay that is moderately deep to deep and

poorly drained soils found on nearly level to gently sloping narrow mini-plains of the

alluvial landscape. This series was created mainly from the alluvium derived from

weathered tuffaceous materials and perhaps from deposited biochemically weathered

products of limestone, basalt, andesite, and conglomerate from the adjacent hills and

mountains fringing the area. “The horizon is gray, ranging from dark gray to extremely

dark gray and measuring no more than 40 cm. thick. This soil is typically used for

irrigated paddy rice cultivation as well as urban development.” (Limqueco and Santiago

2016)

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2016) reported that

estimates of runoff potential are used to create hydrologic soil types. When soils are not

sheltered by vegetation, are totally moist, and receive precipitation from long-duration

storms, they are classified into one of four types based on the rate of water infiltration.

The first categorization falls under Group A and is made up of soils that have a

high infiltration rate (low runoff potential) when totally wet. It is primarily composed of

deep, well-drained to excessively drained sands or gravelly sands with a high rate of
water transfer. Group B soils, on the other hand, have a moderate infiltration rate when

totally wet. These are primarily moderately deep or deep, moderately well-drained or

well-drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse texture and a moderate

rate of water transfer. Another classification is Group C soils, which have a slow

infiltration rate when totally wet. These mostly consist of soils with a layer that impedes

the downward transport of water or soils with a moderately fine or fine texture. These

soils have a slow water transport rate. Finally, Group D soils have a very slow infiltration

rate (high runoff potential) when totally wet. These mostly include clays with a high

shrink-swell potential, soils with a high water table, soils with a claypan or clay layer at

or near the surface, and shallow soils over largely impervious material. These soils have

an extremely slow water transmission rate.

If soil is classified as having a dual hydrologic group (A/D, B/D, or C/D), the first

letter represents drained areas while the second letter denotes undrained areas. Only

the soils that are in their natural state are in group D are assigned to dual classes.

NRCS-USDA SOIL CLASSIFICATION

A- SAND, LOAMY SAND

 Antipolo City is mostly a folded area with regards to its topography. Its

mountainous and rugged terrain is the result of thousands of years of diastrophic folding

processes. Barangay Dalig is part of the Guadalupe Rock Formation. It is a newer rock

formation. This formation overlies the Kinabuan Formation (a geological formation made

primarily of altered spilitic basalt flows with intercalated and extensively indurated

sandstone, shale, and chertz layers, with thick strata of massive conglomerate, silty

mudstone, and tuffaceous sandstone). (Limqueco and Santiago 2016)

1. River System

lllllllllll waiting pa sa city hall.

A catchment area or catchment basin refers to the intake area of an aquifer, to

an area tributary to a water body surface, to the drainage area of a sewer, or to a

gathering area for rainwater to be stored in a reservoir. And according to the Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Manual on Flood Control Planning, the

catchment area or basin boundary is delineated as a perpendicular curve (polygon) to

the contour lines, using the most recent edition of a topographic map with a scale of

1:50,000 prepared by the National Mapping and Resource Information Administration

(NAMRIA). The catchment area is then calculated using the following methods: a

planimeter, triangulation, cross-section millimeter paper, and AutoCAD / GIS software.

 Another parameter concerning the study area is Climatology. According to

Balasubramanian (2017), Climatology is a discipline of Earth and Atmospheric

Sciences. It is the science of analyzing a region's average atmospheric conditions over

a substantial amount of time. The fundamental purpose of Climatology is to investigate

the unique properties of the atmosphere in governing global climate, the genesis, types

of climates, causes and processes influencing climatic changes, elements of weather,

and the impact of climate on humans or vice versa.

The City of Antipolo experiences a tropical rainy climate with hot summers. Its

climate belongs to Type I which is characterized by two pronounced seasons which are

dry from December to May, and wet from June to November. Maximum precipitation

extends from June to September. The temperature regime in the study area does not

exhibit great variability, it merely fluctuates between 22.0° C and 33.0° C.

Figure #.
 Climatology Map of the Philippines

HYDROLOGY

Water occurs on the earth in all its three states, viz, liquid, solid and gaseous,

and in various degrees of motion. And a convenient starting point to describe the

hydrologic cycle is in the oceans. Water in the oceans evaporates due to the heat

energy provided by solar radiation. The water vapor moves upward and forms clouds.

While much of the clouds condense and fall back to the ocean as rain, a part of the

clouds is driven to the land areas by the wind.

The hydrologic or water cycle is a natural set of continuous and dynamic

processes that transfer, circulate, and store water masses in the form of liquid, vapor, or

solid within the earth system. It describes the process by which the Earth's water

(oceanic, cryospheric, and continental moisture) evaporates into and travels through the

atmosphere, condenses to create clouds, returns to the earth's surface as precipitation,

runs off to the seas as streamflow, and eventually evaporates again. This cycle

regulates the circulation and moisture content of the atmosphere, biosphere

(transpiration), cryosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere. (Djebou and Singh, 2015)

In line with the understanding of Hydrologic Cycle and other areas concerning

water is Water Resources Engineering. It is a branch of engineering that deals with

solving problems relating to securing water for people, based on a scientific

understanding of hydrologic and hydraulic processes. This comprises analyzing,

mitigating, and protecting against excess or runoff water, as well as providing enough

water for a sustainable ecosystem.

 The rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) relationship is one of the most

commonly used tools in water resources engineering, either for planning, designing, and

operating of water resource projects, or for various engineering projects against floods.

Several statistical analyses are generated using the Normal, Log-Normal, Gumbel,

Pearson III, and Log-Pearson III.

Normal density, Normal distribution. Also called Gaussian Distribution, is one

of a few distributions used to simulate severe occurrences. It corresponds to the normal

density function f(x), with the mean m and standard deviation s as parameters.

Log-normal distribution. A special case of the Log-Pearson type III distribution

(when the skew coefficient is equal to zero); used in the frequency analysis of floods

and other extreme events.

Gumbel distribution. A statistical distribution of extreme values for flood

frequency analysis.

Pearson Type III. A probability model is used to calculate the rainfall intensity at

different rainfall durations and return periods to form the historical IDF curves for each

station.

Log-Pearson type III distribution. A probability distribution is used in the frequency

analysis of floods and other extreme occurrences, including mean m logarithms of event

magnitudes, standard deviation (s), and skew coefficient parameters (G).

Estimation of Point Rainfall is another widely used approach in hydrology. In this

method, a catchment region must be identified at the start of the calculation. A

catchment area also known as a watershed, or river basin, is a land area where rainfall

runoff enters streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It is a land feature that can be
identified by drawing a line along the highest elevation between two areas (usualidges)

on the map. In a given watershed, point rainfall analysis is used to determine: (a) the

amount of rainfall; and (b) the spatial or areal distribution of said rainfall.

To determine the point rainfall, a network of rainfall measurements can be

converted to spatial or areal estimates using any of the following techniques:

1. Arithmetic Mean. This technique uses the arithmetic mean of all points or area

measurements considered in the analysis to calculate areal rainfall

2. Isohyetal Analysis. A graphic technique involving drawing an estimated line of

equal rainfall in an area based on point measurements. In order to estimate the

areal precipitation value, the quantity and extent of the generated rainfall areas of

coverage are compared to the area in question.

3. Thiessen Polygon. Another graphical technique that calculates station weights

based on the relative area of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon

network. Each weight is multiplied by the observed value of the station, and then

these values are added to obtain the areal average precipitation.

In addition to that, there are also different types or techniques for spatial

distribution of rainfall in Hydrology. Charles, Degre, and Ly (2012) noted that a variety

of interpolation algorithms for reproducing the spatial continuity of rainfall fields based

on rain gauge measurements have been published in the literature. These methods can

be divided into two categories: deterministic methods and geostatistical methods. The

Thiessen polygon (THI) and Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), which are based on the

location of the measuring stations and recorded values, are the most commonly used
deterministic spatial interpolation methods for quantifying rainfall. In general, the

forecasted regionalized value is based on the weighted average of the observed

regionalized values.

1. "The Thiessen polygon (THI) technique assumes that the predicted values can

take on the observed values of the nearest station." (Charles et al., 2012; Nalder

et al., 1998). It necessitates the establishment of a Thiessen polygon network.

These polygons are built by segments that connect close stations to other related

stations. The surface of each polygon is computed and utilized to balance the

rain quantity at the polygon's center station. Every time a station is added or

removed from the network, the polygon must be updated (Charles et al., 2012;

Chow 1964)

2. The Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method is based on inverse distance

functions, in which the weights are defined by the distance's opposite and

normalized so that their sum equals one. As the distance increases, the weights

drop. This approach is more complicated than the previous ones because the

power of the inverse distance function must be chosen before interpolation can

be conducted(Charles et al., 2012; Dirks et al., 1998)

3. The Polynomial Interpolation (PI) method involves fitting a global equation to

the research area of interest with either an algebraic or trigonometric polynomial

function (Charles et al., 2012; Tabios et al., 1985). The least-squares and

Lagrange techniques can be used to express the polynomial equation in the form

of an equation.
 4. The Spline Interpolation method is based on a mathematical model for surface

estimation that fits a minimum-curvature surface through the input points. The

method fits a mathematical function to a specified number of the nearest input

points while passing through the sample points. This method is not suitable if

there are considerable changes in the surface within a short distance, as it has

the potential to overshoot the anticipated values (Charles et al., 2012; Ruelland

et al., 2008).

5. The Moving Window Regression (MWR) approach is a general linear

regression that is used only when a relationship between the primary and

secondary variables is observed (Charles et al., 2012; Lloyd, 2005). For

example, when using the MWR method to calculate rainfall, rainfall is the primary

variable while elevation is the second variable. The rainfall estimation is based

on a modeled relationship between rainfall and elevation data near the estimation

location.

Geostatistical methods, the second category of spatial interpolation methods for

quantifying rainfall, are a subject that connects mathematics and earth sciences. Kriging

is a type of geostatistical technique that is used to interpolate the value of a random

field. . Kriging is based on statistical models that include autocorrelation. The statistical

correlations between measured points are referred to as autocorrelation. Geostatistical

approaches can not only provide a prediction surface, but they may also provide some

metrics of the certainty and accuracy of the predictions.

Correspondingly, there are different Rainfall Distribution methodologies that are

commonly employed in flood studies. Design storm hyetographs are synthetic temporal rainfall

patterns used as input for flood modeling studies, drainage design, and hydrodynamic modeling.

The alternating block method is a method to make the rainfall temporal distribution (design

hyetograph) using the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve. After dividing the

rainfall duration T (h) by the ∆t time-interval, the rainfall intensities for the rainfall durations ∆t,

2∆t, 3∆t, . . . are estimated from the rainfall IDF curve. By calculating the product of the rainfall

intensity and the duration for each rainfall duration, the cumulative rainfall distribution can be

derived. The rainfall intensity data can then be obtained as the difference between the successive

cumulative rainfall depths. After locating the rainfall peak at the center, the next largest rainfall

intensity is located alternately to the right and left of the rainfall peak in turn. (Na and Yoo 2018)

In practice, the Philippines adopts the alternating block (AB) method to derive

hyetographs using PAGASA-synthesized rainfall intensity-duration-frequency (RIDF)

curves. Alternating Block (AB) (One Rainfall Station Method) is a simple procedure of

generating synthetic storm patterns and is heavily dependent on Rainfall-Intensity-

Duration-Frequency (RIDF) curves. RIDF curves are derived from statistical analysis of

rainfall events, either on annual maxima series or partial duration series, over a period

of time and used to capture important characteristics of point rainfall for shorter

durations. (Duka et al., 2017)

Rainfall over a watershed that reaches the ground will follow one of four potential

paths. Some will be intercepted by vegetation and evaporate into the atmosphere.
Some will fall onto the ground surface and evaporate. Some will infiltrate into the soil.

Some will run directly off the ground surface. Depending on total storm rainfall and a

variety of other factors, a portion of the water will find its way to the stream system. Of

the portion that makes its way to the stream system, there are four types of flow that

may occur singly or in combination throughout the watershed. (National Engineering

Handbook)

Hydrographs or some elements of them, such as peak rates, are used in the

planning and design of water control structures. They are also used to show the

hydrologic effects of existing or proposed watershed projects and land use changes.

One classification of hydrographs is the Unit hydrograph, it is a discharge hydrograph

resulting from 1 inch of direct runoff distributed uniformly over the watershed resulting

from a rainfall of a specified duration. . The unit hydrograph procedure assumes that

discharge at any time is proportional to the volume of runoff and that time factors

affecting hydrograph shape are constant.The unit hydrograph can be constructed for

any location on a regularly shaped watershed, once the values of qp and Tp are

defined.

The global climate is changing now and will continue to change in the future

decades and centuries. Following current research, rising temperatures caused by

climate change will result in an increase in rainfall intensity. According to Hettiarachchi

et al. (2017), climate change is creating more frequent intense rainfall events and an

increased danger of flooding in built-up areas.

 The hydrologic cycle, often called the water cycle, is one of the main components

of the planetary system regulating human, animal, and plant life. This cycle also forms

the foundation of other cycles, such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. Therefore,

the stability of the water cycle is critical for the sustainability of biological populations

and ecosystems. Empirical observations allude that the stability of the hydrologic cycle

is being threatened by climate change.

Based on the persistent abnormalities observed, the conclusion that all the

components of the water cycle are affected somehow by climate change is formed. The

amount of the changes, however, varies significantly over time and space, depending

on the hydrologic component. The influence of climate change on different levels of the

hydrologic cycle is significant in regions experiencing more climate change. The

changes can be investigated by focusing on the major components of the water budget,

which are precipitation, infiltration (including groundwater flux and base-flow), runoff,

and evapotranspiration. However, the magnitude of the disturbances generated by

climate change varies based on the component studied, the time, and the place.(Djebou

and Singh, 2015)

HYDRAULICS

Hydraulic Engineering is one of the general branches of Water Resource

Engineering. It is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, primarily water. This

branch of engineering is closely related to the design of bridges, dams, channels,

canals, drainages, levees, weirs, gates, dikes, and sanitary environmental engineering.
 The numerical models are very useful in hydraulic engineering for it is concerned

in governing the fluid flow of various phenomena such as surface flow, subsurface flow,

and coupled flows. Through this, various research has been conducted in the area of

hydraulics and hydrology for the modeling of flood events at floodplains. Numerical

methods are processes that combine finite differences and finite volume approximations

that are used to compute the discrete solution of hydraulic equations.

Various equations are utilized in numerical modeling for the unidirectional surface

flow model. Shallow water equations, also known as Saint Venant equations, are one of

the simplified sets of equations used in hydrological flow research. These equations are

derived from the continuity and momentum equations. The continuity, also called the

mass conservation equation, is discretized using finite volume approximations.

Furthermore, a sub-grid bathymetry technique can be used to shorten

computation time. This approach is limited to the continuity equation and necessitates

the use of fine topography features as well as a computational grid in order to simulate

fluid flow. The computational grid cells will provide enough data for the coarser

numerical approach to account for the fine bathymetry through mass conservation.

In addition to numerical modeling, the hydraulic model in this study is also

concerned with the dimensionality of surface flow. In urban settings, hydrodynamic

models were extensively utilized for flood risk management. Hydrodynamic models are

effective instruments for managing urban stormwater. Numerical simulations of urban

floods are useful for scientifically planning and building urban drainage systems, as well

as developing effective urban flood disaster control and management measures.

 Although many models have been established for river and coastal flooding, urban

flooding models have yet to be effectively developed; this is due to the complicated flow

mechanisms that occur in urban areas when inundation occurs. Both 1D and 2D modeling

have limitations wherein 1D is only preeminent in modeling river channel flows with the

unidirectional flow, while 2D is best for floodplain flood routes. In the instances where the

study needs to model a channel but lies in a wide floodplain or the channel, cross-section is

not easily defined, coupled 1D-2D modeling is applied. The 2D area is connected to the 1d

model using lateral structures which should ideally follow the high ground separating the

river from the flood plain. (Fan et al., 2017)

The boundary conditions in 1D and 2D flood modeling are similar. Two (2) boundary

conditions are required for 1D river modeling: (1) flow hydrograph and (2) normal depth

channel slope or stage hydrograph. A flow hydrograph, which is described as a graph that

displays the relationship between the rate of flow (discharge) and time, is set in the

channel's upstream station. While in the downstream station, stage hydrograph which

shows the water level or tide level with a specific datum at a given time is set if the location

of the cross-section of the channel is connected to large bodies of water such as bay or

sea; otherwise, normal depth or slope of the channel is utilized. While the 2D Section of

Coupled 1D-2D is also similar to 2D modeling, it is necessary to establish the mesh

boundary using the 2D flow Area and BC lines tool which are drawn around the

perimeter of the flow areas. The boundary conditions assigned to the flow areas are the

normal depth. (XXXX 2022)

The term flow regime is another parameter that is frequently found in hydraulic

studies. According to Berhanu et al., (2015), flow regimes have historically played an

important role in the ecological sciences in understanding river flow variability, planning
conservation efforts for freshwater ecosystems, investigating the influence of streamflow

on living communities and ecological processes, providing an inventory of hydrologic

types for water resource management, and hydrologic regionalization.

Laminar flow. A viscous fluid flows in parallel layers in a smooth and organized

manner. Each layer moves at a consistent speed in relation to neighboring layers. The

only interactions between layers are molecular and heat diffusion, as well as molecular

momentum transfer.

Turbulent flow. The opposite of laminar flow, characterized by the unpredictably

random motion of fluid particles, mixing between nearby layers, and a preference for

higher velocities and energy head losses.

Steady flow. A flow that does not alter in rate or discharge throughout time.

Unsteady or dynamic flow is the reverse. The velocity and flow rate of a steady uniform

flow is constant, and the velocity vector does not fluctuate in magnitude or direction.

When the flow rate remains constant, the flow is steady and nonuniform, but the velocity

fluctuates as the other hydraulic features change (area, slope).

Unsteady flow (or dynamic flow). A flow with a rate of discharge that changes

over time, as opposed to a steady flow.

Uniform flow. When the parameters of the flow (depth, width, velocity, and

discharge) do not alter along the channel or conduit, it is said to be uniform. The flow is

variable or nonuniform when one of the characteristics changes.

Nonuniform flow. The direct opposite of uniform flow; is a flow having varying

depth, width, discharge, or velocity. The flow is varied, either gradually or abruptly, if

any feature changes. In the neighborhood of the transition between subcritical and
supercritical flows, such as at the junction of mild and steep bottom slopes, flow is

gradually varied.

The Manning equation also affects the result of surface run-off since it is

commonly used to calculate discharges and flow velocities, evaluate the effects of

friction in the momentum equation, and solve for depth of flow using the Newton–

Raphson method. The Runoff, Extran, and Transport Blocks of the Stormwater

Management Model (SWMM) use the Manning equation to model surface runoff and

estimate the friction slope, Sf, respectively. Manning roughness coefficient will affect the

surface runoff in the sense that it will retards the flow, increase the potential for

infiltration, and decreases erosion.

According to the JICA Manual, various river engineering works are employed to

provide flood protection and mitigate flood damages along river reaches, either

separately or in combination. These are listed below.

(1) River Improvement

River improvement involves widening, dredging/excavation, and dike

construction to increase the flow capacity of an existing river channel. Widening the
channel is one of the appropriate measures to achieve a large flow capacity. However,
due to land acquisition issues in urbanized areas, an implementation may be
problematic. As a result, measures to limit peak discharge in the urbanized area's upper
reaches are deemed necessary.

(2) Dam

A dam is a water control and/or conservation structure built over a river in a

mountainous location. The peak flood discharge is decreased and kept in the reservoir

before being discharged downstream, reducing the peak discharge. The dam should be

built in a location that will allow for the storage of a big amount of water. The

geographical and geological constraints of the location, however, limit the size of such a

space.

(3) Retarding Basin

The function of a retarding basin is similar to that of a dam. In most cases, a

retarding basin is built in the middle reach to minimize flood output in downstream

reaches.

(4) Floodway

The purpose of a floodway is to divert flood water from an existing river to the sea, a

lake, or another major river by excavating a new man-made waterway, in order to avoid

a radical widening of the current river or to reduce the length of the rehabilitation project.
Theoretical Framework

In the course of this study, the following fundamental Equation and principles will

serve as guides for the researchers in collecting and analyzing data.

The 2D Saint-Venant equations, also called shallow-water equations, will be

used to evaluate the flow of surface runoff caused by net rainfall intensity. The surface

flow is governed by these equations.

In dynamic flow modeling, the Saint-Venant equations are used to calculate flow

properties where U represents depth-averaged flow velocities in the x-direction and V

for depth-averaged flow velocities in the y-direction, h is the height of flow, Sx & Sy are

bed slopes, t is for time, g denotes gravitational acceleration, Sfx & Sfy are friction slope

or energy gradient of the x and y components, p is for rainfall inputs, and i is for

infiltration losses.
 The depth averaging technique is used to generate 2D Saint Venant equations

from the mass conservation (continuity) and momentum equations.

where i(t) is the net rainfall intensity, SO for slope of inclined plane, L and W for length

and width, V and h are the mean velocity and depth of flow, g acceleration due to

gravity, and Sf the friction slope. For the general case, the inflow is ie(t) = i(t) – ƒ(t)

where i(t) is the precipitation intensity and ƒ(t) infiltration losses. The problem is fully

defined if the initial conditions and boundary conditions are known. (Musy et al., 2014)

The first equation regards mass conservation while the second regards

momentum. The continuity equation is expressed in dS/dt = Inflow rate - Outflow rate

and is based on the concept of mass conservation. While the momentum equation is

based on the concept of momentum conservation and implies that such various forces

in motion are in equilibrium.

A finite volume approach is used to minimize the error of the mass conservation

equation. The fine grid elements are represented as parameters that reflect various

integrals over volumes and face regions. As a result, fluid mass transport accounts for

the fine-scale topography in every discrete cell.

 FLOOD
VULNERABI
LITY
ASSESSMEN
T
PHYSICAL NUMERICAL
MODELLING MODELLING
Discha
HYDRA rge as HYDRO
ULIC Input LOGIC
MODEL Flow MODEL
Data
DIMENSIONA FLOW
LITY REGIME
2- SPATIA TEMPO
DIMENSI L RAL
ONAL NON-
UNIFO STEAD UNSTE
UNIFO
RM Y ADY
RM
FLOW STATE STATE
FLOW
Figure #.
Theoretical Framework of the Study

Estimating flood susceptibility necessitates Physical and Numerical modeling. In

numerical modeling, the Hydrologic Model's calculated discharge will be used as Input

Flow Data for the Hydraulic Model. The numerical model varies from the analytical

model since its result is simply based on hypotheses and previous research while

numerical modeling employs a numerical method approach. The majority of current

models are run on a computer and can be categorized as computer programs. Physical

modeling, on the other hand, disregards parts of the prototype’s features, resulting in

detail inaccuracy known as the scale effect, which makes this model less dependable.

The hydrologic and hydraulic models are some of the major current water models

that are numerically described based on the laws of mass conservation (continuity) and
momentum as governing equations. Hydrologic models are somewhat easier than

hydraulic models to analyze. Although, hydraulic model development uses hydrologic

inputs as boundary conditions and is requires an accurate representation of terrain data.

Hydraulic modeling is the outcome of decades of research into hydraulics'

principles, as well as recent advances in computer technology and software. A hydraulic

model is either a physical or a mathematical representation of the fluid flow.

Computational hydraulics is a discipline of hydraulics that entails developing and

implementing computer methods to solve hydraulic research and design problems.

Hydraulic models must take into consideration dimensionality as well as the flow

regime's spatial and temporal characteristics. Dimensional analysis is a method for

locating dimensionless linkages within physical systems or evaluating the quantities

present in an issue without actually solving it. In this study, a two-dimensional analysis

will be used. Surface water flow in two dimensions is a two-dimensional description of

fluid flow that is typically accounted for either horizontally or vertically.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework outlined below will be used to help researchers in

attaining the goal of the study. The most basic concept of doing this research,

comprises an input, process, and output.

 The input will consist of a set of variables such as Rainfall intensity, Catchment

Parameters, Soil Type or Land-use, Digital Terrain Model, and Streamflow.

The process and output stages of this study will be divided into two distinct

categories - hydraulics and hydrology. This test approach will use the acquired data to
Process:
establish the primary cause of flooding in Sitio Kamatisan,Output:
Brgy. Dalig Antipolo City.
Hydrology:
-Catchment Hydrology:
delineation -Catchment
-Processing parameters
RIDF -effective rainfall
Input: -Rainfall runoff -design
transformation discharge
-Rainfall intensity -Determination of
-Catchment design rainfall Hydraulics:
parameters -Determination of -Flood depths
-Soil type / Land design curation velocity
use discharges direction
-Digital terrain
-Flood extent
model Hydraulics: -Flood
-Streamflow -Flood simulation Inundation maps
-Drainage -Drainage
analysis dimension and
-Flood damage parameters
analysis -Flood mitigation
-Flood schemes
Figure #.
Inundation -flood damage
Conceptual Framework of the Study
Statement of the Problem mapping

Flooding is a typical occurrence in the Philippines, and it has far-reaching

repercussions for both individuals and communities. According to the Philippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA), flooding

is defined as an abnormal progressive rise in the water level of a stream, which may
cause the overflowing of water on its normal confines of the stream with the subsequent

inundation of areas which are not normally submerged, (Ganiron, 2015). And, according

to the City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (CDRRMC) of Antipolo

City, Brgy. Dalig is one of the municipality's most prone locations to flooding. It also

discloses that 81 flooding incidents occurred in 2020 until October 2021, with 10 of

these flooding recorded instances occurring on Brgy. Dalig.

The researchers seek to discover how the flooding in Sitio Kamatisan started and

what elements must be considered in order to provide an urgent solution to the current

issue. "Even if the rain is not extremely intense, if it persists for a few hours, it can

cause floods" (R. Gaviola, personal communication, October 14, 2021). The respondent

further said that Block 1 does not have any established drainage systems, however,

Blocks 2 and 3 have. Furthermore, it is also mentioned by the respondent that the

canals are small, shallow, and lack adequate flow owing to impediments. As a result,

the purpose of this study is to give comprehensive and accurate coping techniques for

flood dangers, as well as to examine how vulnerability scores changed following the

building of the drainage system. To accomplish this, the researchers will use the

Conceptual and Theoretical Framework outlined above.

Objective of the Study

The overall goal of this research was to identify the primary source of flooding in

Sitio Kamatisan Brgy. Dalig Antipolo City. Its specific objectives are as follows:

● Determine the predominant cause of flooding.

● Provide complete and accurate coping strategies for flood hazard.

● Assess how vulnerability scores changed after the construction of the drainage.

● Determine the flood damages.

Hypothesis
 The researchers assumed that:

1. The lack of a proper drainage system in Sitio Kamatisan Block 1 is one of the
causes of flooding within the area.

2. Due to encroachment of informal settlers and other establishments along the

alignment of Dalig River causing constriction resulting in a fluvial flooding in the
area.

Scope and Limitation

This research will be carried out by the Fourth Year Civil Engineering students

from the University of Rizal System Antipolo Campus throughout the academic year

2021-2022.

The study will seek to determine the primary source of flooding in Sitio Kamatisan Brgy.

Dalig, Antipolo City. Consequently, the researchers will coordinate with the Philippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), the

National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA), the Antipolo City

Engineering Office, the City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council
(CDRRMC) of Antipolo, Local Officials of Barangay Dalig, and residents of Sitio

Kamatisan to obtain the necessary data and information for this study.

The study will utilize the 2D floodplain modelling of Hydrologic Engineering Center’s

River Analysis System (HEC RAS) for Inundation analysis. The Calibration of the

model will be based on the result of the UP Dream Study which already has a basinwide

calibration approach. The researchers will also use Curve Expert software to run the

regression analysis and to determine the best fit curve. While the Aeronautical

Reconnaissance Coverage Geographic Information System (ArcGIS) software will be

utilized for catchment delineation and creating maps.

However, the study will not include Hydrologic Model Calibration due to the lack of

streamflow data of Dalig River. Also, this study will not cover Sewerage Analysis,

Construction Methodology including detailed components of the possible proposed

structures, Financial Cost, Economic Cost, Socio- Environmental Assessment, and

Cost- Benefit Analysis.

Significance of the Study

This research would be highly beneficial to the following:

The Community. This study will give them knowledge regarding the predominant cause
of flooding in their area.

Local Government Unit. They can apply the established analysis to increase the
design capacity of the current flood control structures.

University. This research will help the institution accomplish its mission of encouraging
effective research production and extension.

Students and Instructors. This research can serve as an example during lectures and
discussions regarding Infiltration in Hydraulics.

Future Researchers. This research can serve as a guideline and reference for future
studies.
Definition of Terms

Analytical method. A method that uses theoretical probability distribution functions in

flood frequency analysis. ArcGIS. It is a

geographical information system (GIS) software that allows handling and analyzing

geographic information by visualizing geographical statistics through layer building

maps like climate data or trade flows.

Bathymetry.

Bernard Equation.

Catchment Area. Is the area of land that drains into a stream or a water channel at a

specific point.

Catchment Delineation. Is the method of determining the drainage area of a single

point or a group of points.

Climate Change. The average state of the weather conditions prevailing in a region

over a prolonged period of time is known as climate.

Curation.

Digital Terrain Model. One of two methodologies based on the geographic information

system (GIS) that are used in hydrologic modeling to offer a digital representation of

watershed topographical characteristics. The other form is a digital elevation model.

Effective Rainfall.

Embankment. A ridge of earth, stone, or other material to contain water within certain

limits or a ridge to carry a road or a railroad at a higher level than the surrounding

terrain.

Flood extent.

Floodplain. A floodplain is a flat expanse of land adjacent to a river or stream that is

prone to flooding.

Fluvial Flooding. Also known as riverine floods, it happens when the water level of a

river, lake, or stream increases and overflows onto the banks, coastlines, and adjacent

land.

HEC RAS. Is an integrated system of software. Graphical User Interface, independent

hydraulic analysis components, data storage and administration capabilities, visuals and

reporting tools are all part of the framework.

Hydrograph.

Hyetograph.

IDF. Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves describe the relationship between

rainfall intensity, rainfall duration, and return period (or its inverse, probability of
exceedance). IDF curves are commonly used in the design of hydrologic, hydraulic, and

water resource systems.

Impoundment. To impound is to gather and enclose a liquid, especially water for

irrigation, flood control, water supply, hydropower, or similar purpose. An impoundment

is a natural or man-made pond, lake, reservoir, basin, tank, or similar space used for the

storage, regulation, and control of water.

Infiltration. The passage of water across the surface of the soil and into the soil.

Infiltration capacity. In a given situation, this is the maximum rate at which water will

enter the soil.

Inundation.

Inundation Maps.

Isohyetal Analysis. It is used to estimate the mean precipitation across an area by

drawing lines of equal precipitation. The method uses topographic and other data to

yield reliable estimates. Isohyets are contours of equal precipitation analogous to

contour lines on a topographic map.

Kimijima Equation. It is used to describe the rainfall intensity duration relationship. The

parameters of this equation are determined based on the minimum of Root Mean

Square Error (RMSE) between the IDF relationships produced by the frequency

analysis and that simulated by the Kimijima equation.

Metrological. The science that deals with measurement.

Numerical Model. It uses a numerical method, as opposed to an analytical model.

Peak discharge or Peak Flow. The highest possible immediate, hourly, or other flow to

a treatment plant, pumping station, or other facility. Peak discharge in streamflow

studies corresponds to the maximum water surface elevation during a specific storm

event and at a certain site.

Physical Modelling.

Pluvial Flooding. Or surface water flood, happens when heavy rain causes a flood that

is not caused by an overflowing water body.

Precipitation. The process by which atmospheric moisture falls as rain, snow, hail, or

other kinds of moisture onto a land or water surface.

Rainfall Intensity. Is calculated as the average rainfall rate in-depth units per unit time

for a given rainfall duration and frequency.

Rainfall-runoff.

River. A natural stream of water that drains a large basin and discharges into the

ocean, a lake, or another river.

Sherman Equation.

Soil Type. The classification of soil according to the size of its particles.

Streamflow. Also known as channel runoff, is the movement of water in streams, rivers,

and other channels and is an important component of the water cycle. It is one

component of water runoff from land to water bodies, the other being surface runoff.

Talbot Equation.

Terrain.

Topography. The art or practice of graphic delineation in detail usually on maps or

charts of natural and man-made features of a place or region especially in a way to

show their relative positions and elevation.

Typhoons.
Urbanization. Refers to a vast movement of people from rural to urban areas, as well

as the physical changes that occur as a result of this movement.

Chapter 2

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The researchers utilized an Applied research design in this study.

Applied research is conducted to either determine prospective applications for

basic research findings or to develop new methods or methods of reaching specified

and predetermined objectives. It entails taking into account the available knowledge and

its extension in order to solve specific challenges. (Gulbrandsen and Kyvik, 2010).

The most appropriate research design for this study is applied research design

since it is highly helpful in developing techniques that can be utilized to address a

specific research problem and it also leans on theory to generate practical scientific

knowledge. We can utilize this form of research design to measure certain

characteristics in order to predict community-helping behaviors.

Setting of the Study

This study will be conducted in Sitio Kamatisan Brgy. Dalig, Antipolo City. The

area was located in District 2 of the City, which is identified as a flood-prone area

based on the Flooding Report Incident 2020-2021 of the City Disaster Risk Reduction

and Management Council (CDRRMC).

Antipolo City is the seat of the Rizal province and a first-class city located 25

kilometers east of Manila. The city was named after the Tipolo fruit, which grew

abundantly in the region. And Barangay Dalig is one of Antipolo City's 16 barangays

located in the second district.

According to the 2020 Census, the area's population was 58,598 people,

accounting for 6.6 percent of the city's total population. It occupies a land area of 406.48

hectares that comprises about 1.05% of Antipolo territory with a population density of

approximately 12,579 inhabitants per square kilometer. And according to the 2020

Census, the area's population was 58,598 people, accounting for 6.6 percent of the

city's total population.

During the preliminary site survey, the researchers discovered that Sitio

Kamatisan is separated into three blocks: Block 1, Block 2, and Block 3. Phases 2 and 3

have drainage systems installed, however, Phase 1 has not. It is also observed in the

area that there is an encroachment of informal settlers and other establishments along

the alignment of Dalig River causing constriction resulting in fluvial flooding in the area.
 Figure #.
Location Map of Sitio Kamatisan
 Figure #.
Land Use Map of Sitio Kamatisan
Figure #.
Soil Type Map of Sitio Kamatisan
 Figure #.
Site Development of Sitio Kamatisan (Block 2)

Source: City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (CDRRMO) Antipolo

Figure #.
Elevation Map of Antipolo City
Source: City Planning and Development Office

Figure #.
Zoning Map of Antipolo City
Source: City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (CDRRMO) Antipolo

Figure #.
Landslide and Flood Hazard Map of Antipolo City
Subject of the Study

Various numerical methods and software tools will be used in this study to

measure and create catchment parameters, effective rainfall, design discharge, Flood

depths curation, velocity direction, flood extent, flood inundation maps, as well as

drainage dimension & parameters. The researchers will also perform an inundation

survey in order to develop flood mitigation strategies and flood damage estimates. The

respondent will be chosen using random sampling from the list of homeowners coming

from the neighborhood association.

Sources of Data

To attain the objectives of this study the researchers will use both primary and

secondary data. The primary data will be gathered from the Barangay Officials of Dalig

and the local residents of Sitio Kamatisan. While secondary data will be gathered from

the previous reports of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical

Services Administration (PAGASA), National Mapping and Resource Information

Authority (NAMRIA), Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-

RAS), Antipolo City Engineering Office, and City Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Council (CDRRMC) of Antipolo City.

The secondary data will serve as the reference and guide for the researchers’

progress throughout this study.

Procedure of the Study

Managem
ent and Developm
processin ent of Rainfall Runoff
g of Basin Analysis Analysis
Pertinent model Derivation
- Rainfall-
Data Catchment Runoff
Data of Rainfall
Delineation transformat
Collection Hyetograph
ion using
Determinati
HEC HMS
- Effective
on of
Catchment Rainfall
Parameter -Design
s Discharge
Formulatio
Flood Storm of rivers
n of Flood Hydraulic
Damage Drainage
Mitigation Analysis
Analysis Analysis
Schemes
Drainage Flood
Network Model
Plan and Simulation
Profiles
Flood
Hazard
Mapping

Figure #x. Procedure Diagram

In Conducting the study the following procedure will be considered:

1. Collection of Data

The data will be obtained from the City Engineering Office, City Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Council (CDRRMC) of Antipolo, Philippine Atmospheric,

Geophysical, and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA), and the National

Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA).

2. Preliminary site visit

The researcher will undertake a preliminary site visit to examine and document

the existing state of affairs in the area.

3. Processing of Data

In this phase of the study, the researchers must input the Light Detection and

Ranging (LiDAR) data, Digital Terrain Model (DTM), and Rainfall Intensity Duration and

Frequency (RIDF) data in the required software such as Aeronautical Reconnaissance

Coverage Geographic Information System (ArcGIS) and the Hydrological Engineering

Centre – River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) to meet the objectives of hydraulic

modeling and flood mapping.

After inserting all the data gathered and running the required softwares, the

researchers intend to discover the catchment parameter to anticipate catchment

responses to rainfall, the design discharge for its acceptable risk level, and the effective

rainfall for the surface runoff it creates by using computational hydraulics. The

researchers will also conduct an inundation survey to assess the preferred mitigation

schemes of the homeowners living within the study area.

4. Interpretation of Data

At this phase of this research, the flood extent, flood depth, flood flow direction

and velocity, flood inundation maps, and drainage size and parameters are expected to

be generated. These outcomes will help to identify the flood damages and various flood

mitigation schemes that are suitable for the scenario in the study area.
Statistical Treatment

Data gathered from the aforementioned sources will be subjected to regression

analysis, as it is one of the most regularly used statistical approaches. Regression

analysis is developed to detect a mathematical relationship between two or more

variables affected by random changes and test whether this relationship (whether

hypothesis or calculation) is statistically significant. The objective of regression analysis

is to find the function's parameter values so that the function is most suitable for the

researcher's set of data observations. It needs to establish and explain the connection

between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable.

The empirical formula will be utilized to create rainfall intensity duration frequency

(IDF) curves in this research. The least square method will be used to find the

parameters of the empirical IDF equation. This approximation technique is the standard

method in regression analysis and will be used to estimate the solution of an

overdetermined system, where the overall solution minimizes the sum of squares of the

residuals in the outcomes of each individual equation. The parameters that arise will be

employed to obtain intensity-duration relationships.

The intensity duration frequency formula is an empirical equation that expresses

the relationship between maximum rainfall intensity (as a dependent variable) and other
important parameters, including rainfall frequency and duration (as an independent

variable). In the literature on hydrological applications, there are a few functions that are

frequently utilized. The following are the major forms of the equations used to explain

the rainfall intensity-duration relationship:

(1) TALBOT EQUATION

(2) BERNARD EQUATION

(3) KIMIJIMA EQUATION

(4) SHERMAN EQUATION

Where,

I is the rainfall intensity (mm/hour);

d is the duration (minutes);

a, b and e are the regression parameters determined by the least square method

Equations (1), (2), and (3) will be utilized since these are the most generally used

methods in explaining the rainfall intensity-duration relationship. The Talbot method is

also suitable for analyzing rainfall that occurs within 5 minutes to 2 hours. While the

Bernard Equation is also concerned with other effective rainfall variables such as

duration and return period). The parameters of the Kimijima equation, on the other

hand, are determined by minimizing the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the
IDF relationships generated by frequency analysis and the IDF relationship simulated by

the Kimijima equation. Lastly (4), According to ( Hammed & Adedeji 2013; Sherman

2006), very strong storms have a short duration and have a low probability. Long-lasting

storms tend to be less intense, and extremely long storms that provide a lot of rainfall

are rare. This is why we need to quantify the relationship between intensity, duration,

and frequency. The three important parameters related to rainfall are intensity, duration,

and frequency.

Furthermore, for the Talbot, Sherman, and Kimijima equations, long-term data of

2-year, 5-year, 10-year, 20-year, 30-year, 50-year, and 100-year returns are used to

estimate the value period of the constant parameters a, b, and e. From parameter

estimates of different return periods, the rainfall intensity is converted into short

calendar data with return periods of 2 years, 5 years, 10 years, 20 years, 30 years, 50

years, and 100 years. The researchers preferred to use Curve Expert as a data analysis

software, which is the most convenient and easy to use among other software.