Chapter 6:

Energy Transduction Pathways

6.1 Electron carrier molecules – redox

reactions
6.2 Cellular respiration
6.3 Photosynthesis
Objectives:
• Identify three electron carrier molecules
• Define the characteristics of reduction and oxidation
molecules

• Identify cellular processes involving electron carrier

systems
• Identify stages of cellular respiration
• Explain the mechanism involved in ATP production

• Define photosynthesis
• Identify stages of photosynthesis
• Explain the mechanism of photosynthesis
• Compare the photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Figure 9.2

Light
energy

ECOSYSTEM

Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
CO2 + H2O Organic
+ O2
molecules
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria

ATP powers
ATP
most cellular work

Heat
energy
 6.1 Electron carrier molecules – redox reactions

Introduction: Forms of Energy

• These forms of energy are important to life:
- Chemical - radiant (examples: heat, light)
- Mechanical - electrical
• Energy can be transformed from one form to another.
• Chemical energy is the energy contained in the chemical bonds of molecules.
Eg. starch
• Radiant energy travels in waves and is sometimes called electromagnetic
energy. Eg. visible light.
• Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy.
• Energy that is stored is called potential energy.
 Laws of Thermodynamics

• 1st law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

– Energy can be converted from one form to another.
The sum of the energy before the conversion is
equal to the sum of the energy after the conversion.

• 2nd law: Some usable energy dissipates during

transformations and is lost.
– During changes from one form of energy to another,
some usable energy dissipates, usually as heat. The
amount of usable energy therefore decreases.
 Figure 1.5
Sunlight

Leaves absorb
light energy from Leaves take in
the sun. carbon dioxide
CO2 from the air
and release
oxygen.

O2

Cycling
of
chemical
nutrients

Leaves fall to Water and Animals eat

the ground and minerals in leaves and fruit
are decomposed the soil are from the tree.
by organisms taken up by
that return the tree
minerals to the through
soil. its roots.
 Energy is required to form bonds.
Atoms or molecules + Energy Larger molecule

The energy that was used

Energy Energy to form the bonds is now
stored in this molecule.
 Energy is released when bonds
are broken.
The energy is now released.
It may be in a form such as
heat or light or it may be
transferred to another
molecule.

Energy Energy
 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
NH2
Base (adenine) C N
N C
CH
HC C N
O- O- O- N

O P O- P O P O CH2 O

O O O C C
H H
C
C CH
OH OH
3 phosphate groups
Ribose
 ATP (Simplified Drawing)

3 phosphate groups

A Base (adenine)

Sugar (ribose)
Figure 8.8
Adenine

Phosphate groups
Ribose

(a) The structure of ATP

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Energy

Inorganic
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
phosphate

(b) The hydrolysis of ATP

 ATP is Recycled
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is an energy-
containing molecule used to supply the cell with
energy. The energy used to produce ATP comes
from glucose or other high-energy compounds.
• ATP is continuously produced and consumed
• ADP + Pi + Energy → ATP + H2O
(Note: Pi = phosphate group)
ATP

Energy
Energy
(from glucose or
other high-energy
compounds) ADP + Pi
 Energy

The energy in ATP can be

ATP ADP + Pi
used to formATP
bonds in other
molecules.

Energy
 Energy

The energy in ATP can be

ATP ADP + Pi
used to formATP
bonds in other
molecules.

Energy
 Electron Carriers

• Electron carriers function in photosynthesis

and cellular respiration. Three major
electron carriers are listed below.
• Respiration:
– NAD+
– FAD
• Photosynthesis:
– NADP+
Electron
Figure 8.6
(a) Exergonic reaction: energy released, spontaneous

Reactants

Amount of
energy
released

Free energy
(G  0)
Energy
Products

Progress of the reaction

(b) Endergonic reaction: energy required, nonspontaneous

Products

Amount of
energy
required
Free energy

(G  0)
Energy
Reactants

Progress of the reaction

 Examples

• ATP ➔ ADP + P
– Oxidation, release energy
• ADP + P ➔ ATP
– Reduction, stores energy
• NAD + H ➔ NADH
• FADH ➔ FAD + H
• 2H2 + O2 ➔ 2H2 O
Example of Redox Equations
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)

NAD+ + 2H → NADH + H+

• NAD+ functions in cellular respiration by carrying two

electrons. With two electrons, it becomes NADH.
• NAD+ oxidizes its substrate by removing two hydrogen
atoms. One of the hydrogen atoms bonds to the NAD+.
The electron from the other hydrogen atom remains
with the NADH molecule but the proton (H+) is
released.
• NAD+ + 2H → NADH + H+
• NADH can donate two electrons (one of them is a
hydrogen atom) to another molecule.
 NAD+ + 2H → NADH + H+

NADH + H+
Energy
Energy +
+ 2H
2H
NAD+
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

• FAD is reduced to FADH2. It can transfer

two electrons to another molecule.
• FAD + 2H → FADH2
 FAD + 2H → FADH2

FADH2
Energy
Energy +
+ 2H
2H
FAD
 NADP+ + 2H → NADPH + H+

NADPH + H+
Energy
Energy +
+ 2H
2H
NADP+
 Phosphorylation
• ATP is synthesized from ADP + Pi. The
process of synthesizing ATP is called
phosphorylation.
• Two kinds of phosphorylation
– Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
– Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
A high-energy molecule (substrate) is used to
transfer a phosphate group to ADP to form
ATP.

High-energy molecule ADP

The energy released will be used to bond

the phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP.
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
A high-energy molecule (substrate) is used to
transfer a phosphate group to ADP to form
ATP.

High-energy molecule ADP

An enzyme is needed.
Enzyme
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Enzyme specificity - have an active site.

Enzyme

ES complex
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

Low-energy molecule ATP

The energy has been transferred from the high-
energy molecule to ADP to produce ATP.

Enzyme can reuse again

 1 Substrates enter active site.
2 Substrates are held
in active site by weak
interactions.

Substrates
Enzyme-substrate
complex
3 Active site can
lower EA and speed
up a reaction.

6 Active
site is
available
for two new
substrate
molecules.
Enzyme

Products are
5 4 Substrates are
released.
converted to
products.
Products
Figure 8.12

A B

C D
Transition state

A B
Free energy

EA
C D

Reactants
A B
G  O
C D

Products

Progress of the reaction

 Figure 8.13

Course of
reaction EA
without without
enzyme enzyme EA with
enzyme
is lower
Free energy

Reactants

Course of G is unaffected
reaction by enzyme
with enzyme

Products

Progress of the reaction

 Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
• Chemiosmotic phosphorylation is used by the
mitochondrion to produce ATP. The energy
needed to initially pump H+ ions into the
intermembrane space comes from glucose. The
entire process is called cellular respiration

• The chloroplast also produces ATP by

chemiosmotic phosphorylation. The energy
needed to produce ATP comes from sunlight
(photosynthesis).
 ENERGY TRANSDUCTION
PATHWAYS
• Cellular Respiration
– C6H12 O6 + 6O2 ➔6H2O + 6CO2 + 38 ATP

• Photosynthesis
– 6H2O + 6CO2 + light ➔ C6H12 O6 + 6O2
 6.2 Cellular respiration

• Overview;
– Glucose to Carbon dioxide + Water +Energy
– C6H12O6 + O2 ➔ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP
(the 36-38 ATP per glucose is an outdated value.
The current estimate is 32 ATP)
– Glucose is highly reduced; contains energy
– Oxygen receives the electrons to form energy
• 4 separate reactions
– Glycolysis, Transition Reaction, Krebs
Cycle, Electron Transport, Chemiosmosis
• Requires Oxygen
Figure 9.UN03

becomes oxidized

becomes reduced
 Mitochondrion Structure
• This drawing shows a mitochondrion cut
lengthwise to reveal its internal membrane.
Intermembrane Space

Cristae Matrix
Three main parts to cellular respiration:
• Glycolysis
• Pyruvate oxidation (transition reaction)
• Kreb’s cycle
• Electron Transport
 Steps in Respiration
• Electron Donors
– Organic Compounds (Glucose preferred)
• Electron Carriers
– NAD to NADH
– FAD to FADH
• Electron Acceptors-Terminal
– O2 to H2O
• Phosphorylation Reactions
– ADP to ATP
• Chemiosmosis Reactions
28
 Glycolysis - 10 steps
• Glucose is Phosphorylated to form Fructose
1,6-diphosphate
• Split to form 2 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
• Final Products are:
– 2 Pyruvic Acid (C3H4O3)
• Compare to original glucose - C6H12O6
– 2 NADH
– 2 ATP (4 produced, 2 used)
Figure 9.8

Energy Investment Phase

Glucose

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP used

Energy Payoff Phase

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed

2 NAD+ + 4 e− + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+

2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Net
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
4 ATP formed − 2 ATP used 2 ATP
2 NAD+ + 4 e− + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+
 Glycolysis
• Oxidation of glucose to pyruvate in
the cytoplasm
• Produces net 2 ATP
 Fermentation
• Occurs in the absence of oxygen
• Keeps Glycolysis going
• Examples: Lactic Acid Fermentation and
Alcohol Fermentation
 Fermentation Products
• Alcohol and Carbon Dioxide
– Yeast mostly
• Lactic Acid
– Humans, muscles without oxygen
– Bacteria (Lactobacillus-yogurt)
• Butyric Acid
– Clostridium-gangrene
• Propionic Acid
– Swiss Cheese
Fermentation in Yeast
Fermentation in Muscle
Anaerobic Pathways’ Energy Yield (efficiency):
•Kilocalorie (kcal) = 1,000 calories (cal)
* To determine efficiency, compare total energy available
in glucose with the amount of energy contained in the
ATP produced by the anaerobic pathways.
•
- Total oxidation of glucose releases 686 kcal.
- Forming ATP stores about 12 kcal.
- Glycolysis makes two ATP’s = 24 kcal
- 24 divided by 686 = only 3.5 % efficiency

* So, anaerobic pathways only provide enough energy

for very small creatures.
Transition Reaction (Pyruvate oxidation)
• Pyruvic Acid ➔ Acetyl - Co A + CO2 +
NADH
• C2H4O2
 Figure 9.10

MITOCHONDRION
CYTOSOL CO2 Coenzyme A

1 3

NAD+ NADH + H+ Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate

Transport protein
 Vitamins are Coenzymes

Vitamin Coenzyme Name

Niacin NAD+
B2 (riboflavin) FAD
B1 (thiamine) Thiamine
pyrophosphate
Pantothenic acid Coenzyme A (CoA)
B12 Cobamide coenzymes
 Kreb’s Cycle
• Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or
TCA cycle
• Occurs in the mitochondria
• Produces 2 ATP
• Requires oxygen
 Kreb’s Cycle
Acetyl CoA ➔ Carbon Dioxide
– C2H4O2 to CO2
– Energy produced/Acetyl CoA (x2 for
/Glucose)
• 3 NADH
• 1 FADH
• 1 ATP
Figure 9.11
Pyruvate

CO2
NAD+
CoA
NADH
+ H+ Acetyl CoA
CoA

CoA

Citric
acid
cycle 2 CO2

FADH2 3 NAD+

FAD 3 NADH
+ 3 H+
ADP + P i

ATP
 * Five Main Steps:

1. Acety CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to

produce citric acid.
2. Citric Acid releases a CO2molecule to form a five-
carbon compound.
3. The five-carbon compound releases a CO2to form
a four-C compound.
4. The four-C compound is converted into a new 4-C
compound.
5. The new four-C is converted back into
oxaloacetic acid.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

• Occurs in mitochondria
• Produces 28 ATP
 Electron Transport Chain
• NADH oxidized to NAD
• FAD reduced to FADH2
• Cytochromes shuffle electrons finally to O2
• H2O formed and ATP
• 2.5 ATP / 1 NADH
• 1.5 ATP / 1 FADH2
Figure 8.7
G  0 G = 0

(a) An isolated hydroelectric system

(b) An open hydro-

electric system G  0

G  0
G  0
G  0

(c) A multistep open hydroelectric system

 Chemiosmosis
• Production of ATP in Electron Transport
• Electrochemical Gradient Formed between
membranes
• H+ (Protons) generated from NADH
• Electrical Force (+) & pH Force (Acid)
• Gradient formed
• ATPase enzyme that channels H+ from High
to Low concentration
– 2.5 ATP/NADH
– 1.5 ATP/FADH
Pumps within the membrane pump hydrogen ions from the matrix
to the intermembrane space creating a concentration gradient.
H +
H+
Chemiosmotic
Phosphorylation
Matrix H+
H+ Outside
(inside)

H+ H+ H+ Intermembrane Space

H+ H+
Matrix

H+
H+

H+
H+
A high concentration of hydrogen
ions in the intermembrane space Chemiosmotic
creates osmotic pressure. H +
H +
Phosphorylation
Matrix H+
H+ Outside
(inside)

H+ H+ H+ Intermembrane Space

H+ H+
Matrix

H+
H+

H+
H+
Osmotic pressure forces the hydrogen
ions through this protein (ATP
synthase) as they return to the Chemiosmotic
H+
matrix. H+
Phosphorylation
Matrix H+
H+ Outside
(inside)

H+ H+ H+ Intermembrane Space

ADP + Pi H+ H+
Matrix
H+
ATP
H+
H+
ATP synthase produces ATP by phosphorylating ADP. The energy
H+
needed to produce ATP comes from hydrogen ions forcing their way
into the matrix as they pass through
H+ the ATP synthase (due to
 Summary of Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
– Glycolysis
– Transition stage.
– Kreb’s Cycle
– Electron Transport Chain
Anaerobic Respiration
– Pyruvate ➔ Lactic Acid
Alcohol + CO2

Recycle NADH, FADH

32 – 38 ATP / Glucose
 Important Points
• Cellular Respiration yields
approximately 32 ATP
• 02 is an electron acceptor in the electron
transport chain. It picks up two
hydrogen ions and electrons to form
water.
Energy Yield of Aerobic Respiration:–

* One glucose can generate about 32 ATP molecules.

* 32 x 12 kcal divided by 686 kcal = 56 % efficiency.

* About 20 times more efficient than glycolysis alone.

* Note: a car engine is only about 25 % efficient.

 2

10NADH x 2.5 = 25 ATP

2FADH2 x 1.5 = 3 ATP