Health Education

and Community
Pharmacy
With Important
Questions and Answers

By: For Students

 SYLLABU,S

1. CONCEPT OF HEALTH

2.NUTRITION & HEALTH

3.DEMOGRAPIfY & FAMILY PLANNING

4.FIRST AID

5.EN\IRONMENT & HEALTH

6. FT]NDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
MICROBIOLOGY

7. COMMT]NICABLE DISEASES

8. NON.COMMI]NICABLE DISEASES

9.EPIDEMIOLOGY
 CHAPTER.l
CONCEPT OFITEALTI{

Q.l Define Eealth. Write its various dimensions of Health.

Health is defined as a state ofcomplete physical, mental & social well being &
[9{![
absence ofdiseases.

Dimenslons of health

1. Physical health: It is the nomal functioning & gowth of all parts of the body For
exarnple- good complexion, clean skin, sweet breath, souitd sleep etc.

2, Mental hcalth: It is the ability ofan individual to adjust with the surrounding world &
society such that he lives harmoniously with others'

3. Social health: It is the ability ofan individual to adjust with society.

4. Spiritual health: It refers to that part of individual which reaches out and strives for

Q.2 Discuss the various determinants ofthe health.

Ans: The various determinants ofthe health are:

1. EEIgliq- The health of an individual depends on the heredity to a certarl tevel 3s

-- ifr-g"nrti" -ut"rial camot be changed or altered' Diseases like diabetes &'%r&rry
retardation are hereditary.
-2. Environment- Changes in environment like water, air, climate etc has effect on
the human being. The environment is of two tnes-
a)rnternarenvironmenr--",H;:,:ff
ir1r"J.".I?1?"T**
hannonious fu nctioning.
b) Erterlatlly!rclm9!! is the physical, biological &
psychological components to which an individual is exposed'

_3. Life-stvle- It includes culture, behavior & also habits like smoking, alcoholism etc.
- oiGffi. leart diseases, cancer, diabetes €tc also related to the life style'
4. Socio economic conditions- This includes income, education, occupation,
-iutrition etc.
a) Income- Rich peoples have a capacity to seek better medical care' So they are
-he;lthy. But the rich people are inactive & sedentary' So they are prone for heart
diseases, obesity etc.
- b) Education- Educated peoples knows the importance ofa cleal environment &
- goJ fr"atn-E erefore education plays very important role in maintaining the health
& society.

H-r Lisq{
 Nutrition- Good nutrition is essenfial for normal growth & also for resistance
--c)
against irfection.
-d)' Occupation- EmDloment Drovides income so employed peoples
-
- good healtlL because tiey can afford me.dical but
"*"'.
"-opy can:rot.
unemployed
5-5ggl$-servigg- The aim of health & family welfare servic€s is to treat diseases,
prevent illness & promotion ofhealth. Health services like safe water supply &
immunization prevent a variety ofhealth diseases.

-Of-Write a note on lndicators of health.

/ in"r compare the
health status ofotre community with other.

Charscteristlcs of lndicators
An ideal health indicator should be valid, reliable, sensitive & specific

Tvoes of indicators

The important indicators ofhealth are-

1. Mortaliff indicators
2. Morbidif indicators
3. Disability rates
4. Nutritional status indicators
5. Eealth care delivery indicators
MuMs biNEsB
6. Environmental indicators
.|
Social & mental health indicators

8. utilizition rates
9. Socio- economic indicators

Q.4 How can the disease be prevented?

Ans: The disease can be prevented at three levels-

1. Primarv nrevention- This action is taken before the onset ofdisease. This
inten'ention is taken at the prepathogenesis phase ofthe disease. The interventions are
health promotion & specific protection.

2, Secondarv Dreyention- It is the action taken at the early stage ofdisease to halt the
progress ofdisease & prevents complications. The modes of intewention are early
diagnosis & treatments.

3. Tertiarv prevention- It is the measure taken after the disease has advanced beyond
the early stages. The mode ofiuten'ention is disability limitation & rehabilitation. These
measures minimize the suffering & help the patient to adjust with the derangement of
health.
 CHAPTER-2
xurnr-ii6ffiEar,rn
Q IDefine Nutrition. Classify food aDd its functioN.
!lg[!@- Nutrition is defined as the scieace of food & its relationship to health.
Nutrients are specific dietary constituetrts such as proteins, vitamins & minerals. Food
must contain adequate amounts ofal1 these nutrients in order to maintain health.
Functions of food
F It provides energy for mechanical work.
! It maintains growth, repair & reproduction.
! It provides resistance against infections & diseases.
> It maintains the functions ofbodv tissues.
Classification of food t\,sfw\e-
t l. Accordirg to source
)' Vegeiable food for ex- Rice, Wheat etc
) Animal foods for ex- Meat, egg, fish etc.
2. According to functions
F Body builders for ex- meat, mil! fish etc.
F Bnergy yielders for ex- cereals, sugars etc.
! Protectives for ex- vegetables, fruits etc.
3, According to chemical nature
) Proteins
iF lx,il**,". > [*W
Vitamins
)
Minerals
Q.2 Deline Protein. List there functioL Name the types of amino acld.

Ans:_Protein is high moleculat weight polypeptides containing alpha amino acids joined
together by peptide linkage.
Function:
l. They provide structural ftame work for celli and tissues.
2. Maintence of osmatic pressure.
3. Synthesis ofantibodies, plasma proteins and hemoglobin.
4. Proteins can be catabolized to release energy.

* *Wry
,1 5. Act as enzymes and hormon res'
Oor,,.ez
TYPES OF AMINO - f"'NLfl'o
ACIDS3

l. Essential or Indispensabte Amino acids: These are those which carmot be

syDthesized by the body. So they must be supplied in adequate amount through diet
.eg.valine, leucine, and methionine.

2. Non +ssential Amino Acids: These are those which can be synthesized by the body
and hence ofthe di
Q.3 write a trote on balance dieq -b "l-p^.eA
Ans: Balanced diet is defined which contains adequaty' amounts of
as a food
carbobydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals & which profide energy & maintains -
goodhearth. FJaBu fl\e*)'"
Composltion ofbalanced diet \ f . j1
The composition ofbalanced diet for an average Lrdian is as follows- .e \ t- q\
) Cereals - 400gms .t, 31 \ o
i> ffiu"g"o,",
, . i;Jil3*'
fr$aty vggclaorEl
(*$-": ':;:-t"\ K.,
_ I UUsIIls ^^ . .,-. '
othervegerables zsfnsf '-{W-vlqW'g{ >- 0
> Roots & rubeB - 75ems I .0 I - \'n \^
\.,. > Milk - 2o-ogm; tJl y:' - ( (v
) Fats
Fats&oils
& oils - lSgis
3sgms ]I \*qt
\,/?*\ . A(
')",
) Meat & fish - \ Ofq, -
> Ess
) Fruits
30gms
ilffi.
:oilrs
\/ f,**"u '-Qf-
'|^[,m. F
-
3,*t
Q.4 Define & classify vitamins with their function, deliciency diseases & thelr
symptoms.

Vitamins- These are the organic compounds which are required in very small amounts &
are essential for various biochemical reactions. The body cannot synthesize vitamins so
they must be provided by food.

Classification of vitamlns

1. Fat roluble vit mins- Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E & Vitamin K.

2. Water soluble vitamins- Vitamin B complex & Vitamin C.

Vitamin A

@ - Present in carrot, green vegetable, papaya, mangoes & diary products like
milh butter.
Functions
> It is nec€ssary for the production ofretinal pigrnents.
F It is essential for maintaining the integrity of epithelial cells.
) It is anti-infective.
> It protects against cancer like lung cancer.

Deficlencv- It leads to Night Blindness, Xeropthalmia and Keratomalacia.

 Requirement: 5000 I.U. dailv

Source: - Found in animal f;ts & fish liver oil & also produced
on exposure ofskin to
tM rays ofsunlight.

Functions:

F It is necessary for bone & teeth formation.

) It is also necessary for normal growth.
> In the kidney it ircreases the reabsorption ofphosphates.
gg!!glg!E!- It produces Rickets in children
& osteomalacia in adults.
RequirementF t000 I.U Dail".

VITAMINE
It belongs.to a gr_ oup of compounds called tocopherols. Alph4
Beta, gamma and delta
tocopherols are known.

Functions
1. It is necessa5/ for reproduction and its deficiency
leads to sterility.
2, It is necessary for muscle metabolism
3. By an antioxidant effect, it protects vitamin A from
deshuction.
4. lt prevents hemolysis by protecting unsaturated fatty acids oferythrocle
membrane.
SoErqe: - Soya bean oil, wheat germ oil and rice genn oil.
Deficiencv: - Deficiency of vitamin E produces aiortion
and sterility in
animals.

VTTAMINK

The major forms of vitamin K are vitamin K; and

K2

Functions: - Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis

of cloning factors esp€cially
{rothrombin. Its deficiency decreasls prot}rombin cont"nt oiil'*a.
- Vitamin Kl is present in liver, spinach, green
#:
Vitamin K2 is synthesized by intestinal baiteria. -
leafl vegetables and cow,s milk
- Increased bleeding due to defective clotting
Fi$qy:
Requirement: - 0.03mg per kg Daily.
mechanism.

WATER SOUBLE VITAMINS

rne water sotuble vrtamrns whtch_belong to the group
of vitamin B complex are
thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid,_ pyriaoxine, p'antottrenlc
aJJ ionositof, Uiotin,
methionine, folic acid and cyanocobaiamin.
THIAMIIIE (Vitamin 81, Aneurine)
lggryq: Peas, beans, oatuneal, pea ruts, vegetables and ftuits.
Deficiencv: Deficiency of thiamine produces
1. Beriberi a symptom complex with characteristic neuropathy.
2. Wemicke's encephalopathy characterized by confusion, Ophthlmoplegia,
oystagmus, tremors, and mental retardation.

Requirement: 2mg. daily increases with intake ofmore carbohy&ates.

RIBOFLAVIN (Vitamin B2)

SEgg: Milk, eggs, liver, kidney, green leafr vegetables, meat and fish.

@gy: Deficiency of riboflavin produces angular stomatitis. It is prevalent in

malnourished children ald it is used as an index for malnutrition. Other deficiency

symptoms are:

I. Delayed wound healing 2. Irnpaired neuromotor function.

BglEggen!: 2 to 3 mg. daily.

NIACIN (Nicotinic Acid. Vitamin 83)

@: Liver, kidney, meat, poultry, fish, legumes and ground nut.

pgl!g!949y: Deficiency of niacin produces pellagra. This disease is characterized by three

D's diarrhea dermatitis and dementia- In addition, glossitis and stomatitis may also occur.

Pcllagra occurs in malnourished individuals who live on a diet containing maize or

jowar. Pellagra can be prevented by avoiding maize andjowar and by taking a mixed diet

containing milk and or meat.

BgggjqS!: The daily requirement of niacin is S&ng.

PYRIDO) NE (Vitamin B6)

Sources: Milk, liver, meat, egg yolk, fish, whole grain cereals, legumes and vegetables.

Deficlency: Irritability, abdominal distention, loss ofbody weight and anemia in children.

Ia adults, the deficiency produc€s lesion ofskin and mouth, peripheral neudtis and

mental changes. Of these diseases peripheral neuritis is the most important deficiency

diseases.

Requirement 2mg. per day for adults. During pregnancy and lactation, the requirement
is 2.5mg,per day.

FOLIC ACID
$ry: Rich in vegetarian food like cabbagg spinach and all green leaf, vegetables.
Non vegetarian food contains less folic acid.

Deliciency: The deficiency of folic acid leads to defective maturation ofred blood cells.

This leads to megaloblastic anemia. This type ofanemia is characterized by the release of

abnomnlly large sized red blood cells

But these RBCs have sufficient hemoglobin

I
Requirement: 100 to 300 micrograms daily. L. 3
*n ld.."f
CYANOCOBALAMIN(ViIamin B12)

Sources: Non-vegetarian foods like meat, beef, liver kidney, oysters, eggs and milk.
Very little is present in vegetarian food like leguminous plants.

Deficiency: Deficiency of cyanocobalamin leads to megaloblastic anemia very similar to

the deficiency offolic acid. Both cyanocobalamin and folic acid are required for the
development ofred blood ce1ls.

Requirement: The daily requirement is lto 1,5 micro grams per day.

Q. 5 Write note on Ascorbic Acid (vitamin C).

Source- Citrus, fruits, tomatoes and green vegetables. Alma and guava fruits are very
rich sources of vitamin C.
 Deficiency: Deficiency ofvitamin C produces scurvy.'[he synptoms of scurvy are
weakness, fatigue, pain injoins.and muscles. Also there is bleeding of gums and
loosening ofteeth.
Requlrement: 40 to 60 mg. daily

06 Deline Mineral. Write its function and its classification.

..
Ans: Human body contains more than 50 chemical elements. These minerals are obtained
mainly through food I![inerals make up l/20th ofbody weight.
Iv1-;a,1qyaf{ Ocur-{'r}r 'r-,^g^;-L e} p..
e eA
Functions of minerals:
.- 1. They are the constituents ofbone and teeth and required for their growth e.g. calcium
qnd phosphorus.
r'Z They are necessary for growth.
_3-They stimulate digestive secretions.
.4-. llhey maintain tone and frmction of muscles- eg, Sodium and calcium.
J They maintain €l€cholyte balance in body fluids.
eg. - Sodium potassium and chloride

Classification of minerals
I . Major minerals: Calciunr, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
2, TraGe elementswith known firnction: Iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc and
Copper.
3. Trace elemetrts with no known function: lead, mercury, barium and
alurrinum.

Q.7 Write the function, sources, deficiency of calcium in human body.

Ans: It fonns 1.5 to 2 per cent ofbody tveight. An average adult body contains 1200
grams of calcium. Of this 98 per cent is present in bones.
Functions:
l. It is necessary for growth ofbones and teeth.
2. It is required for the clotting ofblood.
3. It regulates the contraclion ofmuscles.
4. It is required for cardiac action and milk production.
5. It forms a component of several en4nnes.
Sources:
1. Milk and milk products like cheese, curd and butter milk. They are the best natural
sources of calcium-
2. Green lea$ vegetables like spinach.
3. Millets like ragi.
Deficiency: Deficiency of calcium leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
Also it leads to delayed blood clotting.
Requirement: 400 to 500 mg per day.
I tr" d"V
 Q.8 Write the function, sourceq deficiency oflodine ln human body.

Ans: Iodine is an essential micronutrient. The totar

body content ofiodine is about 50mg.
the blood level is about 8-12 micro gm.mVdl.

Function of Iodine:
a) It is. required for the synthesis ofThyroid Hormones.
D) rodme amount required for growth and development.

Sources: The best source oflodine is sea food. Eg.

Sea, fish, sea salt & cod_liver oil.

Deficlency: Goiter and Fllpothyroidism.

r Retarded physical growth and mental development

Requlremenh l50mg/day.

Q.9 Write the function, sources, deliciency of Iron in human body.

Ans: kon is very important nutrieot. The_adult

human body contains 3 to 4grn ofkon.
Hemoglobin ofblood 50 to T0percent offon i"p.e."ot.-

Function:
l. It is neces-sary for the synthesis of Hemoglobin.
f"..Brain developmenr and miscle activity.
J. Il Tq:r*
3. Iron
regulates body temperature.

Source: Iron is present in liver, meat, kidney, fish, green

vegetables, jaggery and Date

Deficiency: Deficiency oflron leads to Anemia.

Requirement: 15 to 30mg per day.

Q,9 Write a note on malnutrition. Explain the proteln deficiency disease.

-.'or(PE,ltr)
A-ns: The de{iciency ofany of the essential
constituents of food leads to malnutrition.This
ln turn leads to specific diseases.-Two important
diseases ui" caus"d due to protein
energy malnutrition (pEM) in children. Ttey
aie:
o Kwashiorkar
e Marasmus.

o Kwashiorkar: This form. ofpEM occurs mostly in the

second year oflife. It is
due to weaning ofthe child from brea.t t"
ai"i l.* in protein.so rhe essentiai
"
feature is a deficiency ofprotein with adequate
energy intake.\

I
I

L
I
lI

Features:
o The child is not very thin. Therc is generalized edema.
o The skin changes may vary from pipentation, thickening and cracks to
ulceration.
o Hair Colour will be changed to reddish or gray.
o Diarrhoea is common.
Prevention:
o Education ofmothers about nutrition.
. Supplementation ofdiet provide in nutrition centers.
. Encouraging the use oflocally available diet. Ex. Nuts and seeds.

Marasmus: The incidence of marasmus is high when compared to kwashiorkor. It occurs

in the second six months ofLife. It occurs due to a diet very low in both protein and
calories.
Features:
. The child is very thin.
o Head is very large for the body.
o There are no oedema and hair changes.
. Weight ofthe child is reduced below 60 per cent.
Prevention:
o Family planning to restrict the number of children.
r knmunisationofchildren.
o Encouraging breast feeding,

CIIAPTER-3
DEMOGRAPIIY AND FAMILY PLANNING

Q.l. What is Demography? lVrite I Short note on various stages of Demographic

/ cyclc
Ans: Demogra.phy may be defined as the scientific study of all aspects of population
progress, welfare, death in a family, birth, age etc. It also includes the studies ofstandard
of living.
Demographic cycle: It has flve stages mainly.
1. trirst stage' It is also called as high stationary stage. It is characterized by high
birth rate & high death rate which cancels each other.
2. Seconrl stage--It is also called as early expanding stage. Here there is a decrease
in death rate & the birth rate remains the same, therefore the population expands.
3 . Third stage- It is also called as low stationary stage. There is low birth rate &
low death rate so population becomes stationary.
4. Fourth stage- It is the declining stage. Here the population begins to declines as
the birth rate is lower than death rate.
5. Fifth stage -Population begins to decline as birth rate is lower than death rate.
East Ewopean countries like Germany & Hungary are now in this stage.
 Q.2 Deline fertility, Write the yarious factor which regulate fertility.
Ans-Fertility is the actual bearing ofchildren, Some demographers prefer the word
Natality in place of fertility. Facundity is the capacity to have children.
Factors ofFertility: The following are important factors which regulate fertility.

L Age at marriage: Early rrarriage is long established custom in India. The

disadvantages of early marriage are:
a) Population Growth due to increased child birth
b) Adverse effect on the health of women
2. Duratlon of Married llfe: Maximum child birth occurs in the fust 15 years of married
life.
3. Spaclng of Children: Spacing between births reduces fertility rate.
4. Education: Educated women give birth to lesser number ofchildren when compare to
illiterates.
5. Economic Status: Fertility decreases with an increase in per capita income. Economic
development is the best contraceptive.
6. Caste and Religion: Muslim show higher fertility than Hindu. Among Hindus,
fertility is high in lower caste.
7. Nutrition: It has an indirect effect. Well fed societies sbow lower fertility rate.
8. tr'amily Planning: It lowers the fertility rate.

Q.3 what ls the role of pharmacist ln famity planning?

Ans: The pharmacist comes across a number ofpeople. The illiterates or the less
educated peoples are unaware of the benefits of iamily plaruring; therefore the pharmacist
plays a very important role in the family planning & removing any fears about ?amily
planning.
The pharmacist can promote family planning by:
}.
Displaying family planning poiters in fospitai & drug store
}
Advising peoples about family planning & spacing oichildren's
By distributing pamphlets which give ainformation about family planning
I)
To explain about the various oral contraceptives & the others techniques of
family planning
)
Grride peoples to hospital & family planning centers for vasectomy & tubectomy
>, He should motivate the peoples towards thJfamily planning
)
He should remove the fear & misconcepts about fiamily plailing from the mind
ofpeoples

Q.4 Define farnily planning & explain various methods of family planning.
Definition: Family Plaming means to plan & limit the size of the family in accordance
with the social, economic and health conditions, so as to ensure that theiamily is happy
both physically & mentally.
 Methods of family planning
L Temporary Method
o Natural Method.
a) Sexual abstinence method
b) Coitus intemrptus
c) Safe period method
d) Basal body temperature method
e) Cervical mucus method
f) Prolonged lactation method
g) Yaginal washing method
. Sprcing Method
r) Barrier contraceptiv€s (Mechatrical Methods)
) Condom
F Diaphragn
)Intrauterine devices
b) Chemical methods
) Foam tablets
) Contraceptive pills & jellies
) Soluble tablets
F Oral contraceptives
II. Permanent Methods (Sterilisation Method)
a) Vasectomy (MALE STERILISATION): tn this method, a piece of vas deferens of
about I cm length is removed after clamping. The ends are ligaa€d ard then folded back
on themselves and sutued .Now the cut ends face away from each other.
Advice rfter vasectomy
I . The patient should be told that he is uot sterile immediately after operation .He is
sterile only after 30 ejaculations.
2. He must use contraceptives till aspermia is established.
3. He must avoid cycling or lifting heavy weights for 15 da1s.
COMPLICATIONS Otr' VASECTOMY:
l. Operative complications like hematoma and infections.
2. Sperm granuloma accompanied by pain and swelling.
3. Spontaneous recanalisation.
4. Psychological disturbances like loss ofsexual vigor, impotence, fatigue.

b) Tubectomy @emale $terilization)! It is done by two procedures:

MINILAPROTOMY: It is a modification of abdominal tubectomy.It is a very simple
procedure done under local anaesthesia.It requires a very small abdominal incision of 2.5
to 3 cm in length .It is a safe, efficient and easy procedure with less complication.

Laproscopy: It is done through abdominal approach with a specialized instrument called

"laproscope". The abdomen is inflated with gas (carton dioxide, nitrous oxide or
air).Then the instrument is introduced into the abdominal cavity tovisualise the fallopian
tubes. The hrbes are occluded with fallop rings (or clips).
Advantages of laparoscopy are short operating time, shorter stay in the hospital, and a
small scar, rarely puncture oflarge blood vessels and other complications may occur.
d) Medical termination of pregnancy
 CHAPTER.4
FIRST AII)

Delinition: The aim ofthe first aid to presewe life, promote recovery and prevent injury
until medical aid i. sfutained. The responsibilities offirst aider end as soon as medioal aid
is available. But he must be prepared for fiirther assistance to the doctor ifrequired.
Scope of first aid:
o Diagnosis
. Treatment
o Disposal

Q.1 Write the first aid treatment of Shock?

Shock is condition which occurs due to loss in circulating blood volume.
First Aid:
I. Reassurance of the patient.
2. The patient is laid down with raised legs ifthere vomiting.
3. Ifthere is interference with breathing the patient is placed in the thrce
quarter prone position.
4. Cloth around the neck and chest are loosened.
5 . The patient is covered with blanket.
6. Crowding should be avoided for proper ventilation and supply of air.
7. Any drink hot or cold should be avoided.
8. Associated injury should be treated.
9, Nothing is given by mouth and something should be not allowed
10. Take him to the hospital or expert help is summoned.

Q.2 Write the first aid treatment of Snake bite

Ans: They are the salivary glands ofthe snake- In case ofsnake bite there are usually two
puncture wounds with or without Scratches,
Sing and Symptoms: There is a violent burning pain at the site ofthe bite other
symptoms are swelling, bleakness, giddiness and twitching.
First Aid:
1. Tourniquet: A toumiquet is applied proximal to the site ofbite. It should not be too
light so as to obstruct lymphatic flow. The toumiquet must be loosened every ten minutes
for 30 seconds.
2. llearlnq: The site ofbite must be cleaned with a cotton or cloth and must be covered
with a sterile cloth.
3. Local lncision: Super- facial incisions ofnot more than 5-- in depth are made at the
site ofthe bite. The blood is squeeTed out ftom the site ofbite. tater it is zucked by
mouth or suction pump.
4. Assurance: It is necessary to assure the patient and give him conlidence.
5. No Sleep: The patient is not allowed to sleep. He may be given coffee or tea. We
should not be given alcohol because at stimulates metabolism and increases circulation.

Medical Treatment: The medical treafinent consists of giving specific Anti- venoms

cLA-Yld- 4,np*-c- .v^ea.puj .

 Q.3 Wrlte the first rid treatment of Wounds
Ans: Wounds are four types:
l. Abrasions: Which are made by rubbhg or scraping.
2. Incised Wourd: They are sharp cuts that tend tb bieea.
3. Lacerated Wound: They are irregular wounds associated with
tissue damage.
4 ?uncturc-'Wound: Caused by dagger or knife. They are deep wounds.
The Iirst aid teatnent involves the following steps. rhe first aider
should wash his
hands before dealing with the wound.

Q 4. \Yrite the first aid trertment of Fractures.

Ans.tr'irst aid treatment of fracfures:
r- Fracture of clavicle: 1 .The upper arm of the injured
side is bandaged to the side of the
chest.
2. Thr upp-er limb ofthe injured side is supported by a triangular sling.
3' Pulse is felt on the injured side, to make sure there is no inierference with circulation.
4. Facture ofscapula: A firm triangular sling. A board bandage
around the upper ann.
5' tr'racture of humerus: It is a serious fracGe .It may lead to"iqlury
to biood vessels in
the elbow It is treated by padding the arm and supporting in a triingular
sling.
4, Fncture neck of radius: A triangular sling.
5. Fracture of radius and ulna: well-padded splint with a triangle
sling to support the
Iimb.
6. tr'racture of thr pelvis: The legs should be bound together
.the patient should be
moved in a stretcher, Speedy evacuation to hospital is iecessary.

Q 5. Write t[e first aid treatnent of Burns.

Ans.Ilirst .id trsatmetrt of burN:
L Put out the lire: The first step is to extinguish buming clothing and to cool the bum.
The victim should notrun aroun4 siace it encourages thJ flame tJ spread
rapidly .He
must lie down to smother the flames. He nust be Gapped in a blanket
or rug. IVater can
be poured over him both to cool the skin and to extinguish th"
clothr. I"e wat", should be
used.
2' shock: The patient shourd be kept lying down and reassured. If the patient
comprains
of thint, he may be grven fluids. SuitaUe oral fluid is two pints of water
containini a
teaspoonfrl each of salt and sodium bicarbonate. This may replace salt loss.
orat tiuias
should not be given if the patient is unconscious.
3. Maintenarce of airway: person tapped in a buming building may
the face aad a respirated complicationdue to
develop oederna of
fimes. M-aintenanJe of'airway li the

zaaaaaaqqqqqqqqqqqqq222222zxxxtrxx<:<:<:<xx<xdirst priority in
these cases and these
patients must be removed to the hospital without delav.
4. Prevention of infection: The frst aider should avoid touching
the bum or he should
wash his hands.
5. Dressing the burn: Lotions' ointonents or antibiotic creams
should not be applied
.Burnt clothing should not be removed and blisters should not be broken.
The iurnt area
 may be covered vrith a prepared dry sterile &essing, clean lint or freshly laundered linen,
Firm bandages may be applied except in case of blisters- where ,Light bandage is applied
Q 6. \Mrite the lirst aid treatment of Heart attack ( yf,/
iliir t"""t-.otorhearr atrack: ( Wee"d; 4 1-" * d
"ia is no pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation must be commenced
1. Ifthere immediately,
2, Nothing should be given by mouth.
3. Unconscious patient with pulse and hffithing should be placed in recovery position.
Airway must be maintained"
4. Conscious patient must be placed sitting at 45 degrees and should not be laid flat. kgs
should not be raised since it may inuease venous retum and thus strain the heart.
5. Clothes must be loosened and the patient reassured.
6. Movements must be limited as much as possible.
7. Medical help must be surnmoned immediately.

Chapter-s
ENVIRONMENT AND IIEALTH

Ql. Write the sources of water?

Ans .The major sources ofwater are:
, Rain water: Rain water is pure initially, it receives impurities fiom the abnosphere
-such as dust, shoot, suspended matter, and mierobes, gas normally it is not pathogenic.
Rain water, ifproperly collected and store{ is a safe water.it is soft as it contained no
mineral salts in it, It is suitable for cooking, washing and bathing.it is soft and liable to
corrode lead pipes and thereby cause lead poisoning.

_ 2) Surface Water: Rain water on reaching the ground, or the melted snow from hills
begins to flow as aliver, canal,.g@, p$pr pgund and is called surface water .since it
may travel a long distance, it contained suspended materials .it is oollected in large
reservoirs or settling tanks. Subsequently water is filtered and sterilized further by
chlorination or other methods to make it suitable for drinking.

--.,3) Rivers! Upland surface water runs on the slide ofhills, slopes and valleys and is taken
off water supply before it forrns big stream s and rivers .An upland water is safe
as
because it is pure rain water which has travelled a short distance.it needs purifrcation by
filhation and sterilization by chlorination or by running through a bed of fine sand before
final storage.

r#ater: Wells and springs are impodant sourc€s of ground water .an ideal
_4) Ground
- well should be tapped ir a good soil and should be tapped in a good soil and should be at
least 200 ft. Away from possible contamination source .no washing ofcloths, utensils,
and bathing of persons be allowed near a well. Well water may be treated with a solution
of I part of freshly prepared lime to'4 parts of water or bleaching powder, or potassium
permanganate solution.
 Seawater: Distilled sea water is used for drinking purposes. For aeration of the
-O
distilled water it may be passed through a long column ofwood charcoal, subsequentty it
is tasty and can be used for drinking purpose.

Q2. Write the short note on water pollutior.

Ans.
Water pollution : water is said to be Polluted if it is contaminated with
l. Dissolved gases like HzS, COz, NHI and Nz.
2. Dissolved minerals like sodium, calcium and magnesium salts.
3. Suspended impurities like clay, sand and mud.
4. Micro-organisms and organic matter.
Sources of pollufion: water may be polluted by:
l. Sewage containing organic matter and pathogenic agents.
2. Industrial and trade waste (containing chemicals).
3. Agricultural pollutants (containing fertilizers and pesticides).
4. Physical pollutants (ike heat and radioactive materials).
Hazards of pollution:
1. Chemical Eazards: Due to direct effect on humans or indfuectly due to contamination
ofaquatic life used as food (fish).
2. Biological Hazards: Water bome diseases like bacterial, viral and protozoal diseases.
Prevention of pollution:
1. Education and legislation to prevent the release ofpollutants into water sources.
2. Conventional and special water heatulent or purification.

Water pollution law: watet prevention and control ofpollution act was passed in
l974.The act is a comprehensive piece of legislation.it provide legal deterrent action
against water pollution it perrnits the constitution of l.Central water bofid 2.state water
board 3joint water board. These boards have powers to control water pollution-

Q3, Discuss various steps involved in water purilication?

Ans,
Purilication ofwater: Impure water may be purified by one ofthe following methods:
A) Natural
l) Pounding or storage
2) Oxidation and settlement.
B) Artificial
l) Physical: a) Distillation b) Boiling
2) Chemical: b) Precipitation b) Disinfection or sterilization.
3) Filtration: a) Slow sand filtration b) Rapid mechanical filtrations c) Domestic

Natural Methods of storing 'n'ater helps in seftling down of suspended particles. Use of a
co-agulant like alumirums sulphate (ALLM) in the concentration of 13-50 mg/lit. Is
suggested most ofthe suspended and colloidal matter settles down in the process
Oxidation with potassiun per magnate at a concentration of5 parts per million are
advisable.
 Artilicial methods ofdistination are used in chemical laboratories. Boiling removes
solid materials like chaft gases, organic matter ar{microbes' .It is adaptdas a
precautionary measure in the presence of an epidemic ofurater_$ome diseases.

Following chemicals are used for disinfecting water in the concentrations indicat€d
glong with.
-z l) r'Jt;m 13-50 mgnit
,) Copper sulphate 0.1 to 0.25 ppm
-",3)
Calcium oxide 80 mlit
4) Chlorine 0.5 ppm as bleaching powder
5) Bromine 3.6 mg/lit
6) Iodine 2 ppm
7) Potassium permanganate 5ppm.
Use.of filtrations removes suspended matter, the oy4 cysts spores and bacteria .Slow
sand- filters use layer ofbricks, broken stones, pebbles, toarsi
and. fine sand. The process
offiltrations,is slow -it may take about 3 days ior new bed offilter to be active .Rapid
mechanical filters may be ofpressure or gravity type .they are quick and filter
about 450_
600lit/24 hrs.

Q 4. Write a note on chlorination. /

Ans.
crrLoRrNATIoN: It is the addition of chlorine to frltered water for fl'ther purification.
It is the cheapest and most reliable methods ofpurification. chlorination is a iupplement
and oot a substitute for sand filtration

Advantages:
1. It kills pathogenic bacteria.
2. It oxidizes iron, manganese and H2S.
3. It destroys taste and odour producing constituents.
4. It deshoys algae and similar organisms.
5. It aids coagulation.

MECIIANISM OF ACTION: When chlorine is added to water, hydrochloric and

hypochlorous acids are formed . Hcl is neutralized by the attalinity ofwater.
Hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ion ar:d hypochloriteion.
HzO +Cl: ---------- HCL+HOCL
HOCL -------------- H+OCL

The disinfectant action ofchlorine is mainly due to hypochlorous acid and to

a small
extent due to hypochlorite iron.

Principal of chlorination:
1. Clearance of turbidity
2. Chlorhe demand
3. Break point
4. Residual chlorine
5. Contact period.
 Method ofchlorination: u-suany is done with chlorine gas .for this equipment
cafled
Peterson's chloroformed is used. chlorine gas is the beit choice sioce i[is cheap, quick
in
action, efficient and easy to use. sometime chlorination is done with chloraminl
ana
perchloron
Q5, Write a note on septic tank
Ans.
USE OF SEPTIC TANK: Septic tank is a water-tight masonry tank into which
household sewage is admitted for treatment. Excreta and liquid wastes
from individual
houses, groups ofhouses or institutions can be let into it.

DESIGN FEATURES: The design of a septic tank is as follows:

l. It may contain or 2 chambers depending on requirement.
1

?:
MITq :"p.":ity is 500 gallons length is twicjthe breadth. Depth is 5 to 7 feet.
Liquid depth is 4 feet. Air space between cover and levei of liquid must be I feet.

lnlot-- Osllsl
(E ltlran0

LiguU
d.plh {

3. Bottom should b".toppirg@ of solids.

4. Inlet and outlet pipes must be submerged.
5. Cover must be made ofconcrete and it must have a manhole.

Q,6 Write a note on Sewage and its treatment.

Ans:
Sewage: It is a waste forms a community containing solid and liquid
excreta. It is derived
from houses, street and industries. It contains 99.902 water and 0. t % solids.
Method of Sewage Treatment: It is involves two steps:
* Primary Treatrnent.
.1. Secondary Treatment.
r Primary Treatment:
.1. Srlsgdng; Sewage is passed through a
metal screen. Il temoves laxge
objects like pieces ofwood, Garbage and dead animals.
.i. Grit Chamber: Then, the Sewage passed through Grit Chamber such as
sand and gravel.
* Prlmary Sedimentation: Latter, the swage through a targe primary
sedimentation tant. Organic matter sattel down and it is c-aUia Stuige.
. Secondary Tr€atment:
 The sewage from the primary sedimentation tank contahs organic matter
and living organisns. It is treated by either:
* Trickling filter method
* By activated Sludge process.

Q 7. Name the Various diseases spread by Housefly and Mosqulto.

Ans:
Housefly: These are the commonest ofall insects living to man. They transmit a number
of diseases like Diardloe4 dysentery, cholra etc.

Fig. 23. Ufa cydc of hou!. [Y

Life cycle of houselly:
Th€ four stages involves in the life cycle ofhousefly are: Egg, Larv4 pupa and adult.
Egg: The female lays 120 to l50egg. at one sitting. The eggs are 1mm. 1ong. They are
white in colour. The eggs Hatch in I 8t to 24 hours.
Larva: The larvae are white, segrnented and footless. They are I to 2mm in length at
birth.
Pupa: Dark brown in Colour, The pupa stage lasts for 3 to 6 days.
Adult: It develops from the pupa. A fly lives for 15-20 days.

Mosquito:
Life cycle of Mosquito: The four stages involved in the life cycle of Mosquito.
Egg: Eggs are laid on the surface of water. 100 to 250 egg at a time.
Lava: It is free swimming.it feeds Bactria and vegetables matter.
Pupa: It is the resting stage. It lasts for I to 2 days and does not feed.
Adult: When the development is completed, the skin ofthe pupa splits and an adult
mosquito Em€rges.
 Pig. 22-
Control of mosquito: It can be controlled by following rneasures:
* Larvae: Larvae can be controlled by maintaining a clean environment. It can be
controiled by usilg chemical larvicids like paris green, Abate.
* Adult Mosquito: They can be controlled by spraying DDT.
.l' Mosquito Bite: By using mosquito nets, screens and mosquito repellents.

-,--Q 8. What are the Arthropod-borne disease?

Ans: The following are a few Arthropods and the disease transmitted by them:
Mosquito: Malaria and filaria.
Housefly: Cholera, dianhea, Typhoid.
Sandfly: Kala- azar, sandfly fever.
Rat flea: Bubonic Plague.
Itch Mit: Scabies.

;Q4 Explain in brietly about Hardness of water and its t}?e

lAns:
Hardness of Water: It is defined as the soap destroying pow€r of water. Water is hard, if
soap does not form Ialher easily.
* Tlpes ofHardness:
o Temporary hardness: It is due to the presence of Cartonates of calcium and
Magnesium.
o Permanent Hardness: It is also called as nfu-carbonate hardness. It is due to the
presence of sulphate, chloride and nitrates of calcium and magnesium.

CIIAPTER-6
FT'}IDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OT }trCROBIOLOGY

Q 1. Write the principal involved in Gram staining & write its importance
Princiole:
Gram Staining was devised by Christian Gram. It is based on the principle that the Gram
positive bacteria retains the primary dye after being washed with acetone and are stained
dark blue or purple *'hile the gram negative bacteria are decolorized by acetone or
alcohol & when a counter stain is used these bacteria are stained pink.
Procedure: - It involves tbe following sreps
l. Primary staining with methyt violer
2. Iodine application
3. Decolourization with an organic solvent like ethanol or acetone
4. Counter staininE with safkine or neutal red
ImDortrnce
This technique differentiate the bacteria into two broad groups, namely-
a) Gram Positive bacteria eg. Staphylo Coccus Aureus
b) Gram Negative bacteria eg. Neisseria gonorrhoea

Q 2. Descrlbe the morphologr of bacterla.

Ans.
Structure of bacteria: A bacteria contains an outer cell envelope which consists of:
l.Outer cell wall 2.[:rner cloplasmic membrane -cytoplasm is present inside the cell
envelope .In the cytoplasm, there are inclusions such as ribosomes, granules, vacuoles
and DNA.The bacterial cell as a whole may be enclosed in a capsules. Some bacteria may
have flagellae which are used for locomotion and fimbriae which are used for adhesion
.The flagellae and frmbriae are appendages which protrude from the ce1l surface.

Q 3. Explain the different method of Isolation of Bacteria.

Ans. ISOLATION OF BACTERIA: A number of methods are available for the
isolation ofbacteria The following are a few important methods:

Fi& 37. Surf.cc plating of b.ct ria

SURFACE PLATING OF BACTERIA
l.Surface plating: It is also called as streak culture methods .The specimen to be
culhred is taken in a platinum loop.one loopful ofthe specimen is transfened on to the
surface ofa well dried plate .then it is spread over a small area at the periphery. The
inoculum is then distributed thinly over the plate. This is done by streaking with the loop
in a series ofparallel lines in different segments ofthe plate. The ioop should be flamed
and cooled between different sets of streaks .After incubathg the plate, it can be seen that
grouth is confluent at the original site of inoculation. But it becomes progressively
ihinner.in the final series of streaks; well separated individual colonies ofbacteria can be
obtained.
2. Enrlchment and selective media: bacteria can be isolated by growing in enrichment
or selective media.in these media, substances which inhibit the grouth ofunwanted
bacteria is added.so there is a groMh of only the bacteria which is wanted.
3. Aerobic and anaerobic conditions: Aerobic ard anaerobic bacteria can be separated
by cultivation under aetobic or anaerobic conditions.
 4: Isolation by differerce in temperature: Thermophyllic bacteria grow at 60 oc .some
bactgria
{ke !.gen8rtidis grow af22 oc.ty incutation at ttiferent t mperature, bacteria
can bo selectively isolated.
S.Separation of vegetative atrd spore forming bacteria: vegetative bacteria are killed at
80 oc .But spore forming bacteria like tetanus bacilli survive it this temperature .so by
heating at 80 oc vegetative bacteria can be eliminated and spore forming bacteria canie
isolated.
6' Sepration of motile and non-motile bacteria: This can be achieved by using craig,s
tube or a U tube, In the U tube, th€ organisms are introduced in one limb and tG motile
organism can be isolated at the other limb.
7. Anlmal inoculation: pathogenic bacteria can be isolated by inoculation into
appropriate anirnals.
8. Filtratiol: bacteria ofdifferent sizes may be sepaiated by using selective filters.
9. Micromanipulation: by means of micromanipulation, single blcterium
can be
separated and culhred.

Q 4. Classify Fungl
Ans: constitute the largest group ofThallophyta.They do not contain chlorophyll
^fungi
thercfore they cannot manufacture theh own food hence act as parasites for gettin! their
food. They are unicellular or multicellular micro-organisms.
Classilication: It is based on sexual spore formatioi. According to this, fimgi are
classified as:
1. Lower fungi:- They are phycomycetes.they have non_sepate hypha they
may form
asexual or sexual spores. Asexual spores are called sporangiospo."a.S"*r.l apo.".
zygospores and others.
*"
2. Hlgher fungi: They have septate hyphae.eg.Ascomycetes.

MORPHOLOCY CLASSIFICATIO OF FT]NGI:

It is classified into four classes:
l. Yeast
2. Yeast like fungi
3. Moulds
4, Dimorphic fungi,

CHAPTER.T
COMMI]NICABLE AND NON COMMTJNICABLE DISEASES

Q.l Classify disease with suitable example.

Ans: Diseases are classified into:
A. Communicable Diseases
B. Non communicale Diseases
A. Communicable Diseases: These are the diseases which are transmitted fiom one
person to another either directly or indirectly.
They are furthei classified as:
1. Respiratory Diseases
 Chicken pox, Measles, Diphtheria, Tuberculosis.

z' ,.4.-Ex.
later;tlnd lnfections :

Ex: Polio, Hepatitis, Cholera, Typhoid.

Arthropod,Hft lnfections z $o1t-o-
- -.k Ex :Plague, Malaria.
t*g* fnfections I bbv'z)
<45urface
Ex: Rabis,Tatanus, Leprosy.
'y', Sexually Tmnsmitted diseases:
Ex: Aids, Syphilis, Gonorrhea.

NON-COMMIINICABLE DISf,ASES: These are not transferred ftom one person to

another but caused due to other factpr like smoking, alcohol and life sryle. For ex.
Cancer, Diabetes, Blindness etc., hn"f +.1 O"i..lf-"-,
Q.2 Explain the modes of tranimission of communicable diseases.
Ans: The infection can be transmitted to that host either by:
I' Direct Transmlsslon.
D 2. hdirect Transmission
It includes, touching, kissing or sexual kansmission with
D5Jhrl*";H:lsmission'
1. Direct Contact: This infection spreads ftom skin to skin/Skin to mucosa
:z.Ittopletlafection: This occurs while coughing sneezing or talking. The infectors
agent is sprayed as droplets ofsaliva or other secretions.
Ex: Respiratory diseases
-.' S. Conict *il
soil: Certain infections like tetanus are conffcted &om soil.
4. fnoculation to skin or mucosa: This kind oftransmission is through the
,--contami9nated needles & syringes which may contain the organism.
For Ex. Aids.
2, Indirect Transmlsslon:
1. Vehicle Borne: This kind ofhansmission occurs through water & fluids
* (t^_/ are contaminated by the causative agents. Ex: Typhoid, Cholera, Polio.
'which
\7 F Z. V*tor Borne: These kinds oftransmission occur through insects like flies&
. mosquitoes which are called vector.
3. Air Borne Infection: This kind oftransmission occur through the air when the
contaminated person is coughed or sneezed into the air
E* Tirberculosis.
4. Fomite Borne: These kinds oftransmt .ton o""* 15ro,rgh articles like clothes, towel,
pencil, books etc.
For E:r: Diphtheria & Typhoid
5. Finger Borne: Tlris kind of transmission occurs due to contaminated Hands & fingers.
For Ex: Dysentery Hepatitis

Q.3 Write the causative organism for the following diseases.

Ans:
1. Chicken Pox: It is communicable disease caused by VARICELLA ZOSTER.
2. Measles: It is communicable disease caused by RNA PARAMIXO VIRLL
3. Influenza: It is caused by Influenza Virus.
f'4. nipltneria: ltis caused by Coryne-bacterium Diphtheria.
y'. Wbooping Cough: It is caused by Bordetella pertussis.
,--6. Tuberculosis: It is caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis.
y'. Cholerat It is caused by Vibro Cholera. Vl,_io e),,&*
_8. Thlpoid: It is caused by Salmonella Typhi.
P Malaria: It is caused by plasmodium Viver. -
Tetanus: It is caused by Ctaustridium Tetani.
-10.
,.-.f ]. !ep1gy: lt is caused by Micro bacterium Laprie.
,,-l2. Slphilis: It is caused by Tropenma pallidumi
)3. Aidsz It is caused by IIMirus.
Q.4 W_rite the cause of Diphttreria and its prevention, control alrd treatment
4ry:_ea@ lgt: It is acute infectious disease caused by Coryre-bacterium
diphtheria. lt affects mostly children in the early school years,
SYMPTOMS:
L Fever with -
colour patches appear on tonsil, pharylr &Larynx.
1._914._lrcll_1"_Uly
TRANSMISSION: It is transmitted by:
l. Dropletinfection
2. Formites iike towels, clothes ofthe patient.
Prevention & Control:

Prev,gntipn:_P_reveltion by immunization with D.p.T. it must be given

at 6th lOth & l4,h
month ofa child. A booster dose is given at one & halfyear, ADi is given at year.
5
Control:
l, Notification to health authorities.
2. Isolation ofthe patient at home or hospital.
3. The children should not be send to school at least 2 weeks.
Treatment:
Acute case are treated with diphtheria anti-toxin at dose of 10,000- 50,000
units.
Suitable anti- biotics like penicillin or erythromycin should be given.

'Q.5
Give the Causative Organism, Mode of Transmission, prevention & Control of
Tuberculosis,
Answer;
-du!4!ve or@!q: It is a communicable diseases caused by a bacteria called Myco-
bacterium tuberculosis.
Xransmission:
7 -----Tuberculosis is mainly an air bome infection. It is tansmitted by droplet
infection & droplet nuclei coughing generated.
Iarge number ofdroplets ofalt size. It is
also ffansmitted by.fb:*iesnsuch as-dishes or othir articles used
by tuberculosis patents.
I is also transmitted bv: 4bfl:tu
71. Coming in contact with spuhrm of T.B patients.
.2; ( Aovi*_-F, g)
Dtukn1w-boited milk of an infected cow.
. )rPovefly
o\er-crowding & poor ventilation. ,/
Prevention & Cootrol:
1. Notification to the local heal& authority.
 ,---2. Isolation of the patient. -{g d4
-3 Early detection of cases by: Examination of sputum X-Ra1s of Chest, Mantaux testT
---4. Irnmunization by BCG Vaccine. aaav..-r.lrh-,
---5. Detection ofcases & bacteriologicalpfstool for confirmation.
j*:il#,i"*s,T3,",i'*i:::i:l*l iffi;; nr bF *"
--*'Quarantine for a period of 5days D d-lS <e.,.**,
'-.2.flff,,lth education-

Give the Causative Organism, Mode ofTransmission, Prevention & Control of

1,-Q.6
Tlphoia.
Ans: Causative Orsanism: It is communicable diseases caused by Salmonella T,?hi.
SvmDtoms!
1. Continuous fever for 34 weeks. :EFIE=--TFldse incrEt 6 tE dlB E

fnetativebraaycaraia.'1"*)' Qn''' 1ot'p- t o* F

3. Severe headache ,back pan, l2eLy r . -^L t*$-V
+jfl*.:,"#:o.nse : (-6oiJ<4#'"'^t a?l""rtoY, *,3rr.,*
t

1. Cor,-tu-i*t"d food & water by faeces & urine.

feco - o*4
2. It is also hansmitted by flies.
Prevention & Control:
Early diagnosis by culture ofblood & urine.
-..--2. Notification to health authorities
,3. Isolation ofthe pafient to prevent spread ofinfection.
7. Treat the patient with chloramphenical.
.5. Disinfections of urine & stools.
j: ffffffiJr,Ye
to be idemiried &
"')*v7*; "1, ".,t6l,vo;4
?
A & s
--9.
l:nmunization with TAB Vaccine ( S*ersktifde) \lr-r u^-e_,

' causative organism, Mode of Transmission, Prevention and Control

#.Jrf"H.*e
Causative Orsanism: Malaria is communicable disease caused by 1{hsmodium Vivax.
Transmission: It is transmitted by the bite offernale Anopheles mosquito which acts as a
Vector.
Preventlon & Control:
,-f Eafly diagnosis through examination of blood smears.
-,ZNotification of health authorities.
-.& Good drainage system prevents the stagnation ofwater, where mosquito breeds.
--4. Destruction of mosquito by spraying DDT or kerosene.
J. Prevention of mosquito bite by mosquito repellents or using mosquito nets.
-& Treatrnent with anti- malarial drugs like quinine & chloroquine.
Health e&tcation about proper drainage & related sanitary measures.
J.
gy'q.S W"it" tne clusative organism, Mode of Transmission, prevention and Control
of Tetanus.

Ans: Causative Organism: Tetanus is a disease caused by the Exotoxin of Claustridium

Tetani.
Transmissionl It is transmitted though the soil.
Preyention & Control:
L lmprovement of general hygiene.
2' Active immunization with tetanus toxoid. pregnant women should receive two dose of
TT for first pregnancy & for the sub- sequent deliveries one dose children must receive a
DPT at 6"',l0th & l4o weak and a booster dose at l gih month.
3- For_knmediate protection passive irnmunization with human tetanus knmunoglobin
should be done.
Dose- 1500 IU

--'/ Q.9 Yftite the causative organism, Mode of rransmission, prevention and control
of Hepatitis- B.
/./_+usa4\'e qsantsm:_It is also known as Serum Hepatitis. It is caused by Hepatitis-B
Virus. The hepatitis -B infection is more harmful than hepatitis _A infection.
,
Hepatitis -B infection can lead to liver cancer.
Mode of Transmission: It is transmitted by:
1. Contamimted syringes & needles.
2. Blood tra$fusion.
3. Sexual Contact.
4. By Kissing.
5. Body secretions like saliva & sweaj, JtrwLr /
Prevention & Control:
-1. Active tmmunization with Hepatitis-B Vaccine.

-
:] iffi :i,L:'.;i,'"?X"J.H
4. Health Education.
f';.il;::Ttj,. 1 e* "yr
t"- w .rL
Write the causative organism, Mode of Transmission, prevention and Control
- QlO
Leprosy.
-of
.9qgEd"e-aggqE lXt is chronic infectious disease caused by Myco-bacterium
taapru.e.
gbaracteristics:
.-1. Hypo- pigneented patches
Partial or total loss of coetaneous sensation in the elfected area.
-.2.
f . Thickening of nerves.

,4. Presence offi.fr faglbaclllJjn skin or nasal smears.

Mode of Trans-mission: we)
,,1. Leprosy is mainly transmitted by direct or indiect contact ofan infected person.
-2. Some time it is transmitted by droplet infection through nasal & oral secretions ofthe
,Patient.
J. Fo[nites also can transmit the infection.
Prevention & Control:
 1. Detection ofcases ofleprosy.
-- Isolation of the patient.
-2.
f^. Prevention of contact between the patient and other nonnal person, especially
Children.
.,1.Treatwithpatientwith@#s. D-bW, apa"ni{z ok-
J *t&"ten
Rehabiliation of the patlent with suitable work.o.rje,.
Social
and psychological rehabilitafive is also ne3essary,
_
I
Q-l [rite the causative organisrq Mode of Transmisslon, prevention and Control
of AIDS.

Caust4ve Org?.nism: (Acquired Immuno deficiencv Svndrome)

- lt rs sexualty transmitted disease caused by Virus known as Human Immune
Deficiency Virus. Ai.ts produces break down ofbody's Immune system this leads
to
infections, Neurological disorders and malignancies.

Symptoms: /o-{the Lyngt^ a".lg

.-i. Swollen gas6 in neck.i
lla,fr; G*;n wA*^<i_,
Loss
Weight 0
ko^rr"J- i^/t''r!:/
--3. Fever. .oLJ
-,4-
*5. Pwple p* aon stin - Q.'-r1h->oo-,
Mode of Transmission:

, l. Sexual transmitted by Vaginal, anal and oral sex.

2 Contaminated blood transfusion.
-2 C-ontaminated need_les and spinges especially those used by drug addicts.
..4-. Matemal tansmission through placenta.
Prevention & Controls
---t . Screening of blood donos for AIDS. x- ftRf t . ,
--2. S-creening of high risk groups Like -Frostitutes. r^rr I *1"t fh
.- 3. Use ofdisposable syringes. ' f*rplwi*l
- ' ll I

--
-. r*;t #-;tt- iriru;&-*^,
4. Avoidance of many sex partn
A?fut. *)d;-e-

Chapter-8
NON- COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Definition: These are not tra,sferred from one person to another but caused due to other
factor like smoking, alcohol, lifestyle stress and failure to seek medical care.
Foe Ex: Cancer, Diabetes, Blindnaxs, and Cardio-Vascular diseases.

ure the measures

-r-{t.wnrt
Ans:#;I^rt4"HlreventCardio.Vascu]ardiseases?
Cause: Heart diseases are tff
lffiJ Hdl4r*rs-.
l. Reduction of fat intake.
 ..-7. Normal body weight should be mahtained.
...4. Avoid Smoking and alcohol.
f hcrease physical activity.
'
-5:Cortrol of diabetes and hypertensions.
-,f. Improve the life style.
,,2 Regular periodic checkup.

df a, Prevention & control of

H:.,3[:.ffi"*t"auses,
Ans: Stoke is defined

*i- "i;f,
as the disturbance

1"1
of cerebral function, lasting for more than 24
r"
iir*{ffimru* -i:.:'r:::'=
2. The person finds it difficult to speak.
3. He may be paralyzed.
4. Loss ofbalance.
5. Head ache or Coma.
6. He may have unequal pupils.
Cause:
l. Diabetes and hlpertension.
2. Obesity and fat intake.
3. Alcohol and Smoking.
i.4. lrrBs!lto
Lrgestion ol
of Qml
oral conEaceDtlves_
contraceDtiv,
5. cloniGpf blood. i4EXr-- 96^z
Preventidfi & Control:
Preventid{ Controt:
-frrr" i*i*f r
"o,iiot
ornyp.rt"n.ion
.,2. Control of diabetes
y'. Avoid of Fatry food.
--4 Treabnent of acute stroke and follow up.
education.
;LHeatth
Q 3. Write the causativc factors, prevention & Control of Blindness.
4,ns: Blindaess is a non-commrmicable disease. The cause for blindness:
.- .1. Cataract especially in old people.
.-2. Tmchoma rHid).
-1. Malutimion, Vir-A deficiency.
--4-. Injuries &om industries.
---5. Social factors like poverty.
--f In-adequate health services.
--7)eficiently of Vit.-C causes hemorrhage in the eyes. (Loss of blood).
-4. Dehciency of Vit.- B, lead to de-generation ofthe optic-ue."". and!1qpairg vision.
Prevention & Control:
.--1. Blindness can be prwented by having a diet w1j"f,
A +**a*aa-6l* rich in vit-
C*' ^a4
,.,2. Cataract and Elaucoma must be managed by pt-5, hea-ltfl Centre and District
Hospitals.
z-{ Eye examination leads to prevention of eye diseases.
--4. Heaith education about eye care'
,E Rehabilitation ofthe blind by provlding them suitable employment.

Q.4 Write a note on Cancer.

Ans: Cancer is an abnormal & rapid growth of cells & tissues'
Tvpe of Cancer:
Orarcancer, Bsoptrageal Cancer, Lungs Cancer, Brcast Cancer & Liver Cancer'

).Phystc
---3.
lrgents: X-Rays and Ultra Violet rays.
f,
Nuiritionat-Agents: I,ow protein diet associated with Vit-B deficiency can produce
Liver Cancer.
Mechanical Agents: Ckonic irritation, friction or trauma caD cause cancer shanking'
--4. Agents: Hepatitis - B Virus can cause liver Cancer.
--ErBiological
.5:. Occupational exposure to asbestos produces.
4 Chewing oftobacco produces oral Cancer, Smoking producing Lungs
Cancer, hot spicy foods produce esophageal Cancer.
Prevention & Controll
,'- I . Avoiding of tobacco & alcohol.
7-2. Personal-hygiene can decrease the incidence ofCancer. Ex. Cervix Cancer'
l. Conhol of air pollution is an important measure.
iJ
,.4. Establishment ofCancer detection centers for eady diagnosdlie.

Q5. lYrlte a note on ORAL Rehyrlration. (ORS)

.ins: ORS is very essential for the heatment ofCholera and other diarrhoeal diseases lt
prevents dehydraiion and mortality. It based on the observation that glucose given orally
increases the observation of salt and water. It availabie in two tyPes:
a) ORS Bicarbonate:

Ingredients of ORS- Quantity

Bicarbonate
Sodium Chloride 'l 50
Sodium Bicarbonate 7\o
Poiassiuin Chloride l.5s
Glucose 20.0s
Potable Water I Lit.

b) ORS- Citrate:
Ingedients of ORS- Quantity
Cihate
Sodium Citrate
Tri Sodium Citrate )90
 - Al". o+ dzdl*t ,^,*- e,QAJi^;^ 9n,^lr:+
q gryJa-t*- o]
lrata u r (
*irue_.

:::.:-a:e
Po,z-<sium Chloride 1.5g
20.0*
P:::: e \\ ater I Lit.

Chapter-9
EPIDEMIOLOGY:
Q I Drfine and classify Epidemiology.
-{ns:EPIDE\IIOLOGY: It is derived from the Greek words, epi-means among, and
Ce:ic-::::s People and logos mean study. It may be define as the detailed scientific
suci r: t: d:s'ribution and determinants ofdisease or disability in society. In
e.o:c:=::,,:5-cal studies include communicable, non-communicable, and nutritional and
ri:t-r;=:'. ciseases.
)IEfHODS OF EPIDENtrOLOGY: Iour different types of methods (studies) are
foLlr ,1:: ::i epidemiology. They are:
i. Q---::u:r e studies,
:. Da1':r:r:ye studies.
3. -t:ri::a. srudies
Er:r-- t3ntal studies.
-1.

l. Quantitafir'e studies: Basic measurements are:

1. Rate
2. Retio
3. Proportion.

Rate: Deat} rate = Number ofdeaths in one vear x 1000

Mid-Year Population
Ratio: x: ] or x
Y
Proporriont Number ore$ant w;men at certain time X 100
Total no. of women in the village at the same time.

Ilortalill : no:tality is death .the frequency of death and the no. ofpeople who die is a
measure ol :ealth of a community
llrorbidin : i: is defined as any departure or deviation, from a state ofphysiological well-
beirg.
--Inciden.e; I: is defiled as the number ofnew cases ofa specified disease occu.ing in a
dehned miuia:jon during a specified period of time.

--Prevalence: The remr disease prevalence refers to all current cases (old and new). ir a
given popularion at a particular point of time or over a period oftuneiJhe term incidence
refers onr\ :o ne$ cases, but prevalence refers to both new and old cases. prevalence is of
*"rp.l'lei'':Pi11r"T?ggryT::
Q 2. \\'rite a note on mode of transmission?
 Ans. The infectious agents can be transmitted to the host either directly or indirectly ftom
the source.
TRANSMISSION: It can be occur by:
-JIRECT
D l) Direct contact: skin to skin, skin to mucosa fdifferent person.
1;
-n
2) Droplet infection: sprayed as droplets of saliva or secretions,
Coughing, sneezing or talking.
J 3) Contact with soil: lnfection like tetanus.
{ 4) I-noculation to skin or mucosa: AIDS is transmitted through
-., Contaminated needles.
l' 5) Tran placental transmissions: Slphilis and AIDS.
INDIRECT TRANSMISSION: It occurs through:
r'., a) Fluid and food-vehicles bome.
b) Flies-vector bome.
c) Fomites-fomite bome
d) Fingen and hands-Finger bome.
r\, l. Vehicle borne: Transmission occurs through water and food for Ex. -typhoi4 cholera.
2) Vector borne: Transmission occurs through insects like flies and mosquitoes for Ex.
V Mahria.
AI 3) Fomite borne: Transmission occurs through clothes, towel, pencil, books, and toys.
ForEx. Diphtheria
C
I
4) Finger borne: Transmission occurs through contaminated fingers and hands Ex.
dysentery and hepatitis

Q 3. Write a note on incubation period?

Ans.It is define as the time interval between invasion by an infectious agent and the
appearance ofthe fust sign or symptom ofthe disease .During incubation period, the
infectious agent multiples in the host .The disease manifests only when the disease agent
grows to a suffrcient density (or population).Generally infectious disease is not
communicable during the incubation period. The lenglh of incubation period varies from
one disease to the other.some diseases like cbolera-and za have verv
""* * M>5
incubarion periods (few hours to 2 to 3 days).wLiJL- . -5,,.tft
IMMUNITY AND IMUNISATION
Q 4. Defrne Immunity? Write the classlfrcation of immunity?
Immunity: It is defined as the resistance against an infecting organism. The immune
mechanism ofthe body is capable ofrecognizing, destroying and elimhating infectious
microorganisms. The immune mechanism is due to artibodies produced in the body.
Types of immunity: it may be classilied as -
1) Natural immunity: It is god gifted immunity which exerts r€sistance to disease. It
differs between species, races, individuals and ages.
a) Species: Certain species are immune to some diseases whereas other is not. Ex: man is
susceptible to plague but not fowls.
b) Races: Negros has high resistance to yellow fever whereas white men are susceptible
to it.
c) Individuals: It is well known that some persons are more resistant to cold and skin
infections than others.
 d) -{ge: \Ios: ofthe children between 2-5 years ofage group are susceptible to diphtheria
$.:::aas nost adults are immune to it.
IRED DIMUNIUTY: Natural immunity is not sufficient to protect the body
-2.-{CQf
fi'cr. r:uobial diseases therefore additional immunity is acquired either by the
siiT:.si"r:r ofthe antibody producing cell ofthe body(active immunity )or by introducing
a:i rri:-s iorrned from another person or animal (passive immunity)
1. -{crir e immunity: it is developerl in an individual due to the formation of antibodies
n - o, '---r::loduction ofantigenic substances in the body. it may be naturally acquired or
a:::ic::--;' siimulated.
- -2. \arurall1' acquired sctive immunity: It Is acquired as a result ofnatural
r.i,-,,,"r'pioa]r""a tv putlrog""it .icro -organisms. Ex: small-pox, lt;V,o^\ou-'
3) artifieially acquired activiimmunity: This tlpe of immunity is dcquired
by the
at-:r:--iion of specific vaccines or toxoids. When these antigenic substances are
ul::i;;ed into the body; they stimulate the body to produce antibodies' Thus body
d:', :,cp-< irs own defense against pathogenic microorganisms.
Pxsiveimmunity: this type of ir nunity is produced by inhoduction of already
"-.B)
;c:::e.l an::bodies hio the body of an individual may be developed in another individual
cr -:r species. It is rapidly produced but not long lasting. It is of two types:
=o:her
- l.)\aturall! acquired passive immunity: In this twe of inmunity the antibodies are
- rir,;::,r:d frorlthe mother to the fetus through the placental blood. It imparts immunity
ic ::-ant rbr seven months.ex-chickenpox.
-r) .{rrificiall} produced passive immu ty: It is produced by injecting antibodies
c!-,n:3l1jrg preparations knows as antisera, sera, immune sera.

Q 5. $'rite the note on immunological products?

-{Bs. These are the substances or agenls which are used to produce immunity in an
i:cr', idual .they are mainly used for the prevention of disease s ex-vaccines' They are also
us3d lor ihe fieaffnent ofdiseases eg.antisera and for diagnostic purpose eg. Bacterial
torii:.
Classification of immunological preparations: They are classified as
1) Preparation producing active immunity:
a r Vaccines containing living he.teria eg.B.C'G.Vaccine.
bt lacches containing 9ead
banteria eg; cholera.
:. \'acches containing [illed rickettesia es.t],Dhus vaccine.
J r ..... ."""i"ingTfyfilir*e.' siruttpo*. , (-' JSbbz'l*
C* r
"e.
e, \ accires contairi,ig-tgpjds.g.aipt tt
"
na, )c1)2*4
^ 1"
2) Diagros:ic preparatiofls Corsiaining bacterial toxins used for Schick test and tuberculin
.-
Prepa:a:ions containing antibodies (antitoxin and antiserum) used to produce passive
--3J
Immuni:r'.
 Q 6. Write a note on Immunization schedule?
Ans: Immunisation schedule: immunization schedule for children:

AGE Immunization Bi"+,-,- gLq

0-15 days Oral polio and BCG
6th .$Fry lee-P DPT and oral polio
lOth 't DPT and oral polio
14 th ,, DPT and oral polio
9th ,[r'1r*. tz Measles vaccination
18th u Booster dose ofDPT and Polio
5 years DP and hphoid
t0 th \re-( ' Tetanus and tr.phoid
l5 years Tetanus and tlThoid

Q 7. Write a note on cold chain?

Ans: It is a system of tramport and storage ofvaccines at low temperature from the
manufacture to the poiat ofuse.
Importance of cold chain: Vaccines are sensitive to heat. If they are exposed, to heat,
they will lose their potency. When potency is lost, th€ protective effect is also 1ost. So
n^ frY
&1;tir'"il":lh'ff:L?'rowtemperature'
1) At the state and regional stores: Cold rooms and walk in
4*coolersk - 8'c
are available.
2) At the district stores: Freezers, refrigerators, cold boxes are available
3) At the primary health centre: Refrigerators, Ice, Vaccine carriers are available.
4) At the sub centre: Cold boxes, Vaccine carriers, thermocole boxes are available.

a. W rite anote on Hospitat Acquired infecti,ons ( ftql:*r*l ;-{-drr) /

'---?QAns:Hospital infections: These are infections developihg in hospitalized patiedts which
vr'ere not present at the time of their admission. These infections produce theil symptoms
either during hospital stay or after discharge .these infections may occur during
diagnostic or aeatnent procedures.
Factors predisposlng for hospital infections:
l)rmFaired defense mechanism ofthe patient due to diseases.
2) Contaminated hospital envirorment
Asefsis in hospital irocedures.. l9r+
1)
Types of hospital infections: +
1) Wound infections '
2) Urinary hact infections
3) Respiratory infections
4) Bacteremia and septicemia.
Prevention and control:
1) Diagnosis by bacteriological methods like smear, culnre.
2) 'When outbreak occurs, the source identifred and eliminated.
3) Sterilizations techniques must be tested.
4) lnfection conkol teams established.
 Q 9. Define the following.
DISh FICTION: It is define as the destruction ofall pathogenic organisms or organism
c:a.ble of gtving rise to iafection.
DISI\ FECTANT: Disinfectant is a substance which destroys harmful microbes and thus
p:e'. enrs :he transmission ofdisease.
.{Ddsepric: It is a substance which destroys or ffiibits the growth of microorganisms. It
is -;Lad on living tissues.
Detergent: it is a cleaning agent which acts by lowering the surface tension eg; soap.
D-d"."rt'fttr"rffi
ry=::
Q. 10 Define and classify disinfection.
.{-ns: DISNFECTION: It is define as the destruction of all pathogenic organisms or
r:,n=-i;n capable of giving rise to infection.
Tr p's of disinfection: lt can be-
- Cl::..]:rent disinfection
I r l:--:nal disinfection
I r P:r-,.u::nt disinfection
--C
lassification of disinfectant:
_1) \atural disinfection:
a) .Lir: Air kills microorganisms by drying them.
b) Sualight: The ultraviolet rays of sunlight kill microorganisms.
_2) Ph]-sical disinfectants:
a) lleat: It can be produced by burning, hot air, boiling and steam. Buming can
dJ-::]ci dressings and sYtbs. Hot air can disinfect dressings, swabs and glasswares.
S::::n ca-r destroy microorganism and spores.
t) Radiation: It can be done by lronising radiations and ultraviolet light.
3) Chemical disitrfectants:
- a) Lime: It is used for disinfecting frces and also for white washing.
b) Bleaching powder: It is used for disinfecting @:es, urine, Sputum and water.
c) Potassium permagnate: It is used in the fomr of a weak solution. It disinfects
\':e::'rles and fruits.
,d) Phenol: Pure phenol occurs in the form of crystals. it is used foe disinfecting
faces.
Ds:uecs t'eces.

Q 11, $'rite the procedure for Disinfection of Feccs, Urine, Sputum and Rooms,
,Ans: Procedure for disinfection offeces and urine: feces and urine collected in
im;ti'ious vessels. Equal volume of quick lime and milk of lime is added. Mixed welt
and iei :or 2 hours. Later whole thing is emptied into water closet or buried in the
_erould.
Procedu re for disinfection of sputum: it may be received in paper handkerchiefor
gauze ard desro.led by burning if more amount by boiling. The patient may be asked to
splt-aq a srutum cup filled with 5 percent cresol. When cup is fiied with allowed
stardrs :b: an hou-r. Then the content is emptied.
Procedure for disinfection of Room: Usually through cleaning and airing is enough
tbrougi iunliglt. For disinfection floors and walls are moped oi sprayed with chtorinated
Lime or fonnaldehlde solution.