ANCIENT CHINA

The Beginning

After 10,000 BC people in China lived by hunting and gathering plants. Then,
about 5,000 BC, the Chinese began farming. From about 5,000 BC rice was
cultivated in southern China and millet was grown in the north. By 5,000 BC
dogs and pigs were domesticated. By 3,000 BC sheep and (in the south)
cattle were domesticated. Finally horses were introduced into China between
3,000 and 2,300 BC.

Meanwhile by 5,000 BC Chinese farmers had learned to make pottery. They

also made lacquer (a kind of varnish made from the sap of the Chinese
lacquer tree). The early Chinese farmers also made baskets and wove cloth
(before sheep were domesticated hemp was woven). The Chinese also made
ritual objects from jade such as knives, axes and rings. The wheel was
invented in China about 2,500 BC.

A More Advanced Society in China

By 2,000 BC the Chinese had learned to make bronze. They probably started
by making copper in pottery kilns then experimented by adding tin, so creating
bronze. At first bronze was only used for weapons. (It was probably too
expensive for other things).

Warfare was becoming more common in China. Walls of earth, which was
rammed till it was hard, surrounded some settlements. Warfare probably
became more common because these early societies were becoming richer.
As wealth grew so did the temptation to attack your neighbors and steal their
goods. By 2000 BC there was also a growing gulf between the classes.
People were buried with their goods and some people were buried with far
more than others.

By 2000 BC human sacrifice was practiced in China. The bodies of the victims
were buried under the foundations of buildings. By 2,000 BC fortune telling
was carried out by heating bones till they cracked then interpreting the cracks.
Meanwhile between about 2,000 and 1,750 BC the semi-legendary Xia ruled
parts of China.

THE SHANG DYNASTY IN CHINA

The Shang were polytheists (they worshiped many gods). The most important
god was called Di. Furthermore during the Shang dynasty in China the
practice of ancestor worship began. Ancestor worship is the belief that the
dead can intervene in the affairs of the living. Offerings were made to them to
keep them happy. Ancestor worship became part of Chinese culture for
thousands of years.

Silk was probably first made in China during the Shang era. It was made by
1300 BC. During the Shang era bronze was more widely used. Previously it
was only used to make weapons. After 1700 BC bronze vessels were made.
However tools such as sickles, ploughs and spades were usually made of
wood and stone.

The Shang built the first real cities in China. The first capital at Zhengdou had
walls more than 6 kilometers long. (Later the capital was moved to Anyang).
The Shang also built palaces and temples.

During the Shang era slavery was common in China. Prisoners of war were
made into slaves. Human sacrifice was still practiced. When a Shang emperor
died his servants and slaves either committed suicide or were killed to
accompany him into the afterlife. Because of the need to capture slaves
warfare was common in China. After 1200 BC chariots pulled by 2 or 4 horses
were used in Chinese warfare.

However the Shang were overthrown by their neighbors the Zhou about 1022
BC. So began the Zhou dynasty.

THE ZHOU DYNASTY IN CHINA

Zhou Society

The dynasty ruled China from about C. 1022 BC to 221 BC. The first part of
the Zhou era from C. 1022 BC to 771 BC is called the Western Zhou (because
the rulers had their capital in the west of China). The second part of the era,
from 770 to 476 BC is called the Spring and Autumn period. The last part of
the era from 476 to 221 BC is called the Warring States period.

In Ancient China because transport and communications were very slow it

was difficult for a ruler to control a wide area. The Zhou kings solved this
problem by creating a feudal state. They gave their followers land. In return
the followers provided chariots and soldiers in time of war. Soon the follower's
positions became hereditary. Below them were officials who worked as
generals and administrators. At the bottom of society were the peasants who
provided the food supply.

The peasants had to spend some of their time working on the Lord's land.
Usually land was divided into 9 sections. Individual families worked eight
sections. Everybody had to work on the ninth section but the crops from it
went to the lord. After 600 BC coins were used in China and some peasants
paid their Lord taxes rather than work on his land. Under the Shang there
were many slaves in China but under the Zhou there were few of them.

There were some important technological changes during the Zhou period.
The most important was the invention of iron. It was used for weapons as
early as 650 BC. By about 500 BC iron was used for all kinds of tools. By
about 400 BC Chinese farmers used iron plows drawn by oxen.

About 300 BC the Chinese invented the horse collar. Previously horses were
attached to vehicles by straps around their necks. The horse could not pull a
heavy load because the strap would tighten around its neck! The horse collar
allowed horses to pull much heavier loads.

During the Zhou dynasty the Chinese invented kites. Tea was first mentioned
in China during the Zhou dynasty (although it may have been drunk much
earlier). The umbrella was invented in China in the 4th century AD. Covered in
oiled paper it sheltered the user from both sun and rain.

Warfare also changed in China. Previously war was dominated by chariots.

However after 600 BC cavalry began to replace chariots. Furthermore rulers
began to raise large armies of infantry. Peasants were conscripted to provide
them. About 500 BC a general called Sunzi wrote a book called the Art of
War, which was the world's first military manual. About 400 BC the crossbow
was invented in China.

Although warfare was frequent during the Zhou era trade and commerce
flourished and Chinese cities grew larger. Furthermore agriculture was greatly
improved by iron tools and by irrigation, which became more common. As a
result of more efficient agriculture the population of China grew rapidly in the
Zhou period.

During the Zhou era parts of the Great Wall of China were built. There was not
a single wall, at first, but different states built their own walls to keep out
barbarians. Later they were joined together. In 486 BC work began on digging
the Grand Canal. At first only one section was built but the canal was
extended by later dynasties.

Zhou Philosophy

Human sacrifice ended during the Zhou era but divination continued. At that
time the Chinese concept of Heaven emerged. Heaven was a kind of
universal force. Heaven chose the emperor to rule but it was a moral force. If
the king or emperor were evil heaven would send natural disasters as a
warning. If the emperor failed to heed the warnings heaven would withdraw its
mandate. Social and political order would break down and there would be a
revolution. Heaven would choose somebody else to rule.

Kong-Fuzi

During the Zhou period in China there was a class of officials who advised
kings and rulers on the right way to behave and also how to carry out rituals.
The most important of these was Kong-Fuzi (known in the West as
Confucius). During his lifetime the old feudal social and political order was
breaking down. Appalled by this state of affairs Kong-Fuzi tried to restore
ancient principles.

Kong-Fuzi taught that everybody should accept their role in life and duties
towards others. Rulers had a duty to be benevolent while subjects should be
respectful and obedient. Children should honor their parents and everybody
should honor their ancestors. Kong-Fuzi also believed that rulers should set a
good example for their people.

Most of all Kong-Fuzi taught consideration for others. At the heart of his
teaching was 'ren' which is usually translated goodness or benevolence.
Kong-Fuzi said 'do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself'.
Kong-Fuzi also taught the importance of courtesy and moderation in all things.
Kong-Fuzi also taught that women should submit to their father when young,
to their husband when married and to their son if widowed. Women in China
were taught values such as humility, submissiveness and industry.

Kong-Fuzi never wrote any books but after his death his followers collected
his sayings and wrote them all down. In the centuries after his death his
philosophy became dominant in China and profoundly influenced its culture
for more than 2,000 years.
One disciple of Kong-Fuzi was Mengzi (372-289 BC), known in the west as
Mencius. He stressed the goodness of human nature. He also emphasized
the rulers duty to look after the well being of his subjects. Mengzi was
opposed by Xuni (298-238 BC). He believed human nature tended to be evil
and must be restrained.

Legalism

Not everyone agreed with Kong-Fuzi that rulers should rule by example.
Legalists believed that rulers should be strict. The ruler's word should be law.
Legalists believed that rulers should be fair but firm and unwavering. One of
the Chinese states, Qin, followed legalist teaching. The Qin rulers at first
shared power with hereditary nobles but they changed the system so that the
parts of their realm were governed by officials appointed by the ruler.

They also organised families into groups of 5 or 10 people. The members of

each group were made responsible for each other's behavior. Legalists
believed that since people are naturally evil punishments should be severe.
The people must be made afraid of breaking the law. They also distrusted
merchants and believed that only people who owned or worked on the land
were trustworthy.

Taoism

Taoism began in China during the Zhou era. Taoists believe in the Tao, which
means the way. The Tao is an indescribable force behind nature and all living
things. Taoists believe in Wuwei or non-action, which means going with the
natural flow or way of things like a stick being carried along on a stream.
Taoism also teaches humility and compassion. Taoists worship many different
gods.

Ancient Chinese Beliefs

The Zhou period is sometimes called China's formative period because so

much of Chinese philosophy developed at that time. The Chinese form of
divination called I Ching was probably developed during the early part of the
Zhou era. The idea of Yin and Yang also appeared during the Zhou dynasty.
The ancient Chinese believed that all matter is made of 2 opposite and
complimentary principles. Yin is feminine, soft, gentle, dark, receptive, yielding
and wet. Yang is masculine, bright, hard, hot, active, dry and aggressive.
Everything is a mixture of these 2 opposites. The ancient Chinese also
believed there were 5 elements, wood, fire, earth, metal and water. During the
Zhou period the Chinese art of acupuncture was invented.

The End of the Zhou Dynasty

In 771 the Rong, a people from the west, invaded and the Zhou moved their
capital to Luoyang. Afterwards the power of the Zhou kings declined. The
Zhou state broke up into separate states (although it was still nominally a
single state with a Zhou king at its head). The nobles under the Zhou king
effectively became independent rulers. The different states went to war and
the stronger ones conquered the weaker till there were only a few left. Finally
one state, the Qin, conquered its rivals and its ruler became emperor of
China. So began the Qin dynasty.

THE QIN DYNASTY IN CHINA

The first Qin emperor was determined to unite China. He called himself Qin
Shuangdi and insisted on being called the emperor of China. He introduced
standard weights and measures and even insisted that axles should be a
standard width!

There were, at that time, some local variations in Chinese writing. The
emperor insisted that all educated people must use one standard version.
Some Chinese scholars opposed the emperor and quoted from old books to
do so. Qin Shuangdi burned many of the books in China to stop them. He
ordered that all books except those on useful subjects such as divination,
medicine and agriculture should be burned. Any scholars who opposed him
were branded and sent to work as laborers on the Great Wall.

However the emperor also had 460 scholars buried alive. (Being sent to work
on the Great Wall was often a death sentence anyway as many men died of
exhaustion and exposure).

The Qin emperors also continued their legalist policies. They banned private
ownership of weapons and they ordered many aristocratic families to move to
the capital, Xianyang (where they could be easily controlled). China was
divided into 34 areas called commanderies. A civilian governor ruled each but
each also had a general in charge of the soldiers in the region. (The Qin
emperors were keen to keep civil and military power in separate hands!). All
officials were appointed by the emperor and were answerable to him.
The Qin emperors also built roads and irrigation canals. Parts of the Great
Wall of China already existed but the first Qin emperor had them joined
together. The ordinary people were forced to work on his projects. Qin rule
was harsh and cruel punishments were common. When Qin Shuangdi died he
was buried in a tomb with over 7,000 terracotta warriors. This 'army' was
discovered in 1974.

Not surprisingly the cruel punishments introduced by the Qin emperors

together with he heavy taxes and forced labor caused much resentment. In
northern China a rebellion broke out led by 2 peasants, Chen Sheng and Wu
Yang. Later a second rebellion began further south led by Ixang Yu. The
northern rebellion was defeated but the southern one succeeded. The last Qin
emperor was executed. However Xiang Yu quarreled with his lieutenant Liu
Bang. A civil war began which ended when Xiang Yu was killed and Liu Bang
became the first Han emperor.

THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA

The Zhou dynasty was China's formative period when its philosophies
emerged. During the Han dynasty Chinese civilization crystallized. During this
era China was one of the most brilliant civilizations in the world. Han
inventions include the watermill and the chain pump (this pump was worked
by feet and helped to irrigate the rice fields).

The first Han emperor was called Gaozi. He was more humane that the Qin
emperors and he abolished many of their savage punishments. He kept some
of the legalist policies of his predecessors but he also adopted some
Confucian policies. His successors came to favor Confucianism more and
more. In 165 BC the emperor decreed that anyone wishing to become an
official must sit an exam, which would test his knowledge of Confucian
teaching. In 124 BC another emperor founded an imperial academy where
candidates studied Confucian classics (The Book of Changes, The Book of
Rites, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, and the Spring and
Autumn Annals). If they passed their exams they were given posts as officials.
China came to be governed by a civil service trained in Confucian thought.

Like the Qin the Han emperors distrusted merchants and taxed them heavily.
In 119 BC the emperor made the manufacture of salt, iron and alcohol state
monopolies (previously they were the most profitable industries).

Under the Han agriculture continued to improve partly due to an increasing

number of irrigation schemes, partly due to the increasing use of buffaloes to
pull plows and partly due to crop rotation which was introduced into China
about 100 BC.

The population of China continued to grow and a census in 2 AD showed it

was 57 million. During the Han era large amounts of silk were exported to the
west. It passed through many hands to the Roman Empire. In return
merchants brought gems, glass and vines to China. The ships rudder was
invented in China in the first century AD.

About 100 AD a man named Cai Lun invented paper (previously people had
written on silk or bamboo). Meanwhile Buddhism first reached China in the 1st
century AD but it took a long time to be accepted. During the Han era Feng
Shui was developed. Elements of the craft existed before then but it was
during this period that Feng Shui became a coherent philosophy.

The Fall of the Han Dynasty

After 168 AD the Han dynasty declined. Internal fighting weakened it. (When
an emperor died there was usually a struggle to see who would replace him).
The dynasty was also undermined by natural disasters and popular
discontent. Two rebellions began in 84 AD, the Yellow Turbans rebellion and
the Five Pecks of Grain rebellion. Both of these were crushed but the generals
sent to defeat them began to act independently of the emperor. They started
to fight each other. In 189 AD one general captured the capital, Luoyang and
killed 2,000 eunuchs. After that the emperor became a puppet ruler. Generals
had the real power. However the last Han emperor was removed in 220 AD.
Afterwards China split into 3 parts each ruled by a general.

THE ERA OF DIVISION IN CHINA

After the fall of the Han dynasty China split into 3 kingdoms. The Wei kingdom
in the north, the Shu kingdom in the west and the Wu kingdom in the south. In
263 AD the Wei kingdom conquered the Shu kingdom. In 280 the Wul
kingdom was also conquered and China was briefly reunited. However peace
was short lived.

In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD a people called the Xiongnu raided northern
China. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries the Chinese emperors allowed them to
settle inside China's borders, hoping they could be assimilated. The emperors
employed the Xiongnu as soldiers. However in 304 the Xiongnu turned on
their masters. They took the city of Luoyang in 311 and then took Changan in
316. Eventually they overran northern China. The north of the country then
split into rival kingdoms, all with non-Chinese rulers. This period is called the
16 kingdoms.

Many Chinese fled from the north to the south of the country. However
Chinese civilization did not disappear from the north. The Xiongnu were only a
small minority of the population. Most of the people were Chinese and they
carried on as they had for centuries. In the south Chinese emperors continued
to rule but they were unable to capture the north.

Then in the late 4th century the Torba, a Turkish people from central Asia,
started taking over northern China. By 386 they had conquered it all. The
Torba then adopted the Chinese way of life. They adopted Chinese costume
and Chinese writing and many of them married Chinese people. Their rulers
learned to speak Chinese. Slowly they people were assimilated. However a
civil war began in northern China in 524. After a decade of fighting the north
split into 2 parts, east and west. They were reunited in 577. In that year the
Chinese invented matches. Then in 581 a general seized the throne and
quickly conquered the south.

In 589 he began the short-lived Sui dynasty. There were only 2 Sui emperors,
Wendi and Yang. The 2 Sui emperors attempted to invade Korea 4 times.
Each time they failed. They also undertook expensive public works such as
rebuilding cities and extending China's Great Canal. The Great Canal was
extended in 605-609 using forced labor so that it connected north and south
China. After Yang's death China split into warring states again.

Changes in Society in China

The disorder in China and weakness of emperors meant the aristocracy

gained more wealth and power. At the same time many of the peasants were
reduced to serfdom. (Serfs were halfway between slaves and free men). Often
they were forced to turn to the lords for protection and the price was serfdom.

During the Era of Division Buddhism grew in China and many temples and
monasteries were built. The Chinese upper class became more sympathetic
to Buddhism and the rulers of the north of China made it their official religion.
Taoism also developed during this period. Many Taoist scriptures were written
at that time. In 618 after several years of war the different parts of China were
reunited by the Tang dynasty

THE TANG DYNASTY IN CHINA

The Tang dynasty that lasted from 618 to 907 was one of China's greatest
eras. During this period China was probably the most advanced civilization in
the world. Under the Tang emperors the arts flourished. Chinese poetry and
lacquer making blossomed. Perhaps the greatest poet was Li-Bo (701-762).

The Tang emperors extended their ruler over central Asia and foreign
influences seeped into China. As well as Buddhists there were Muslims in the
capital Changan. There were also Christians.

Trade and commerce also flourished under the Tang. Gunpowder was
probably invented in China around the year 900 AD. At first it was used for
rockets, grenades and bombs that were placed against the wooden gates of
enemy cities. Printing with wooden blocks was also invented in China during
the Tang era. The earliest printed book is the Diamond Sutra, printed in 868
AD.

Although the first Tang emperor, Gaonzu (618-626) was enthroned in 618 it
took him another 6 years of fighting before he brought all of China under his
control. When he did China entered a period of peace and stability. One of the
most remarkable Tang emperors was the Empress Wu, the only woman ever
to rule China. She was a concubine of the emperor Gaozong (643-683). (In
those days the emperor had one wife, the empress, but he had many
concubines. One emperor had 6,000 of them!). Wu is said to have murdered
her own baby daughter then accused the reigning empress of being the
murderer. Wu then replaced her as empress. In 660 the emperor suffered a
stroke. After that Wu effectively ruled China.

When Gaozong died in 683 his son Zhongzong succeeded him, but not for
long. Wu forced Zhongzong to abdicate in favor of another son, who was
effectively her puppet. In 690 Wu did away with puppet rulers and took the
throne herself. She ruled China until 705. Then, when she was very old, she
was forced to abdicate. Wu was a very powerful woman and she was utterly
ruthless.

However from the middle of the 8th century the Tang dynasty declined. In 751
the Chinese were defeated by the Arabs at the battle of Talas River.
Afterwards China lost control of central Asia. Then in 755 a general named An
Lushan led a rebellion. It was the beginning of a civil war, which lasted for 8
years. The civil war only ended with help from the Uighurs, a Turkish people.
The fighting caused a great deal of destruction in China. The Tang dynasty
never really recovered.
By the 9th century Buddhism had grown very influential in China. However
monks were exempt from paying taxes and the emperor Wuzong (840-846)
resented this. There was also a shortage of copper in China to make coins.
The Buddhist monks were blamed because they used so much copper to
make bronze statues, bells and chimes. In 845 Wuzong ordered that
monasteries should hand over their land and property like iron and bronze
tools. All monks under the age of 40 were ordered to return to civilian life.
Many temples were destroyed. The order was rescinded in 846 but it was a
severe blow to Buddhism in China.

Then in 874 another rebellion began. The rebels captured Gunagzhou

(Canton) and massacred foreigners. They captured the capital Changdan in
880. However the emperor was not entirely defeated. He asked Turkish
people for help. The emperor recaptured the capital in 884. However the
power of the Tang emperors was failing. The last Tang emperor was removed
in 907. The Tang was replaced by the Song dynasty.

THE SONG DYNASTY IN CHINA

After 907 China split into separate states once again. The north of China was
ruled by 5 short-lived dynasties. The northeast was an independent kingdom
ruled by the Qidan Liao dynasty. The south split into 10 kingdoms. In 960
Taizu became emperor of the north. He managed to persuade all but 2 of the
southern states to submit to him. His son Taizong captured the remaining 2
and by 979 China was once again re-united (except for the north-east which
remained independent).

During the Song era China's economy boomed. A new form of early ripening
rice from Vietnam improved agriculture. Irrigation was also extended. The
result was a population boom. Meanwhile trade and commerce prospered and
towns and cities grew much larger. Industries like iron, ceramics, silk, lacquer
and paper making flourished. China was probably the richest country in the
world. Overseas trade also grew. The compass had been used for divination
for centuries but by the 12th century it was being used to navigate ships.

However Song China was surrounded by powerful enemies. The result was a
suspicion and dislike of anything foreign. Buddhism declined in popularity
because it was a foreign religion. Under the Song Confucianism underwent a
revival. Educated people saw it as a way of strengthening Chinese culture.
Scholars wrote commentaries on Confucian classics and a new philosophy
called Neo-Confucianism was worked out which dominated China for
centuries.
The Song emperors created a powerful bureaucracy to rule China. The civil
service was greatly expanded. There were state schools in China where men
could study in order to sit exams for the civil service. Under the Song the
number of schools was greatly increased. China came to be ruled by an elite
of scholar-officials.

North-east China was still independent. It was ruled by the Qidan Liao
dynasty. They also ruled over a people called the Jurchen. However in 1114
the Jurchen turned on their masters and by 1125 they had captured the entire
northeast. They attacked the rest of China. In 1127 they captured the capital,
Kaifeng. The Jurchen overran all of northern China but they were unable to
capture the south.

In 1141 the Chinese emperor made a treaty with them by which they kept the
north and he kept the south. For this reason the Song dynasty is divided into 2
periods, the Northern Song period before China was split in two and the
Southern Song period afterwards. However the Chinese soon absorbed the
Jurchen. They kept the civil service entrance exams and appointed Chinese
men as officials. The Jurchen also began to wear Chinese costume and speak
the Chinese language. After 1191 the Jurchen were allowed to marry the
Chinese and many of them did so. In 1206 the southern Chinese invaded the
north. However the native Chinese in the north had grown used to Jurchen
rule and they did not rise in rebellion. The invasion was defeated.

THE YUAN DYNASTY IN CHINA

However in the early 13th century there was a new threat-the Mongols. Under
their leader Genghis Khan they raided northern China in 1213-14. In 1215
they sacked and burned Beijing. Then they turned their attention west. After
the death of Genghis Khan in 1226 the Mongols invaded northern China and
by 1234 they had conquered it all. However in the south the Song emperors
managed to hold the Mongols at bay for some decades.

In 1264 Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis made Beijing his winter capital
(the summer capital was in Mongolia). In 1272 he began calling himself Yuan
or great founder. So began the Yuan dynasty. Kublai invaded southern China
in 1268 and conquered it in a campaign lasting 9 years. In 1275 the Mongols
captured the strategically vital city of Xian yang. That proved to the turning
point. The old Song dynasty finally came to an end in 1279 when the Mongols
won a naval battle.
However Kublai realized it would be more profitable to rule China and tax it
rather than plunder it. He also realized that in order to rule he would need to
win over the Chinese. (According to legend an adviser told him that you can
conquer China on horseback but you cannot rule it on horseback). Kublai
enlisted Chinese officials to help him rule (although the most senior officials
were all Mongols).

Nevertheless the Mongols were never absorbed by the Chinese, unlike

previous invaders. They did not accept Chinese customs. The Chinese
remained second-class citizens. Society was divided into 4 classes. The
Mongols were at the top, and then below them were other non-Chinese
people. Below them were the northern Chinese (who were more accustomed
to foreign rule) then the southern Chinese at the bottom. The Mongols also
extended the Great Canal to their winter capital at Beijing.

The period of Mongol or Yuan ruler was not a happy one for China. The
population of China fell significantly and the country became less prosperous.
In the 1350s rebellions broke out in China and Yuan rule began to break
down. In 1368 the last Yuan emperor fled to Mongolia and the Yuan dynasty
was replaced by the Ming dynasty.

THE MING DYNASTY IN CHINA

The first Ming emperor Hongwu captured Beijing in 1368 but he moved the
capital to Nanjing. It was some time before he ruled all of China. Not till 1387
did he rule all the country. A later emperor, Yang Lo, decided to move the
capital back to Beijing. Between 1406 and 1421 he built the great palace
called the Forbidden City. Outside it was the Imperial City was built for
officials. Outside was the outer city for the ordinary people.

Under the Ming emperors China once again became prosperous and
powerful. (Despite the inevitable famines, which occurred from time to time).
In the 16th century new crops were introduced from the Americas, sweet
potatoes, maize and peanuts. These new foods were very useful because
they would grow where other crops would not. The Ming also rebuilt the Great
Wall.

During their reign industry and trade flourished in China. Vast quantities of
cotton were spun and huge amount of porcelain were made. In the early 15th
century the emperor sent ships on 6 expeditions. They sailed to India, Arabia
and the east coast of Africa. One of them brought back the first giraffe ever
seen in China. However the Ming emperors became increasingly inward
looking and tried to isolate China from the outside world. (Perhaps the period
of Mongol rule increased their distrust of foreigners and their dislike of foreign
influences). The Portuguese reached China by sea in 1514. In 1557 they were
allowed to settle in Macao. However the emperors were determined to limit
contact with Europeans.

The period of prosperity in China ended in the early 17th century. In the 1630s
Ming rule began to break down. China was struck by famine and epidemics.
Rebellions broke out and the government was unable to suppress them. The
rebels took city after city. Finally in 1644 the last Ming emperor committed
suicide. However there were 2 rebel factions and the leaders of both claimed
to be emperor. Neither could restore order.

Meanwhile Northeast of China lived a people called the Manchu's (they gave
their name to Manchuria). In 1618 they began to conquer the Chinese who
lived north of the Great Wall. From 1636 their leader claimed to be the true
emperor of China and took the name Qing. In 1644 a Chinese general
believed the Manchu's or Qing were more likely to restore order in China than
the rebel leaders so he let them through the wall. They quickly defeated the
rebels, in the north, and their leader installed himself as emperor. So began
the Qing dynasty.

THE QING DYNASTY IN CHINA

The Qing or Manchus easily took control of northern China but it took much
longer for them to conquer the south. They did not control all of China until
1660. A rebellion occurred in 1673 but it was eventually crushed. In 1683 the
Qing captured Taiwan (the last stronghold of people loyal to the Ming
dynasty). The Qing commanded all men to shave the front of their heads and
tie the hair at the back into a queue. At first the Qing confiscated much land
from the native Chinese and the two races were segregated. However the
Qing gradually adopted Chinese ways and the Chinese eventually accepted
them (to a certain extent) as a legitimate dynasty.

The Qing created a strong and prosperous state. By 1697 they had conquered
Mongolia and in 1720 Tibet was made a protectorate. The population of China
grew rapidly in the 18th century. This was partly due to new crops introduced
from the Americas. It was partly due to new forms of rice which made it
possible to grow 3 crops a year in some parts of China.

In the 18th century trade and industry boomed in China. The iron industry
prospered and vast quantities of cotton were made. China also made huge
amounts of porcelain. Much of this was exported to Europe. Increasing
amount of tea was exported to Britain. The Chinese imported some iron goods
and wool from Britain but the British had to pay for most of their tea with silver.
After 1750 they were confined to Guangzhou and were not allowed to trade in
any other port. In 1793 they sent Lord McCartney to try and negotiate a trade
treaty with the Chinese emperor. However the emperor made it clear he was
not interested in manufactured goods from Europe and he refused to change
the terms of trade.

However although China was once a very advanced civilization she was now
falling behind Europe in technology. Soon she would be weaker than the
European powers.

Worse the British found it increasingly hard to pay for tea and other goods
with silver. So they exported large amounts of opium to China. Imports of
opium were banned in 1800 and in 1813 smoking opium was made illegal.
However the British soon joined forced with Chinese smugglers. The British
ships anchored off the coast and Chinese boats took tea out to them. They
brought British goods back to the shore. Increasingly the British resorted to
exchanging opium for tea. Soon there were many opium addicts in China.

The Opium Wars

The Opium Wars were a shameful episode in British history. The Chinese
government took action to combat this menace. In 1839 an official called Lin
Zexu was sent to Guangzhou to stop the opium smuggling. He commanded
the British to hand over their stores of opium. Reluctantly they obeyed.
However the British government sent a fleet to blockade Guangzhou and the
ports of Ningbo and Tanjin. In 1841 a Chinese official negotiated a treaty. He
agreed to give the British Hong Kong and pay what it cost the British to send a
fleet to China. However neither side was satisfied with this treaty and the war
resumed.

The British sent a second fleet and occupied several ports. This time the
Chinese were forced to pay a much larger amount of money. They were also
forced to open 5 ports to British merchants (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou,
Ningbo and Shanghai). British citizens were to answer only to the British
authorities if they committed any crime while they were in China. Chinese
tariffs on British goods were to be only 5%. Soon afterwards the Chinese were
forced to sign similar treaties with other European countries. Unfortunately the
Chinese had fallen behind in military technology and they were no match for
the European forces.
The first Opium War of 1840-42 was followed by a second conflict. Neither
side was satisfied with the treaty of 1842. The Chinese naturally resented the
treaty. The British accused Chinese officials of 'dragging their feet' and
obstructing trade. Conflict came to a head in 1856 when the Chinese boarded
a ship called The Arrow. In 1858 the British sent another fleet to China and
the Chinese were forced to sign another treaty. Ten more ports were opened
to trade and foreigners were to be allowed to travel around China.

In 1859 British officials returned to ratify the treaty but they were prevented
from entering China. However in 1860 the British sent another expedition.
This time the British burned the emperor's summer palace. China was forced
to open ports in the north to trade and to pay a large sum of money to Britain.

The Decline of the Qing Dynasty

By the late 18th century the Qing dynasty was in decline. This was partly due
to a rise in the population. The population of China began to outstrip its
resources and the peasants grew poorer. As a result rebellions broke out. In
the years 1796-1804 the White Lotus sect led a rebellion. Although that
rebellion was eventually crushed it was followed by another rebellion in 1813
led by the Eight Trigrams sect. This rebellion cost 70,000 lives before it was
defeated.

However by far the most serious rebellion was the Taipeng rebellion of 1850-
1864, which is estimated to have cost 20 million lives. It was led by Hong
Xichuan who believed he was the Son of God and the younger brother of
Jesus. He preached a mixture of some Christian beliefs and some
Communism. His followers sold their property and put the money in a
common fund. Land was distributed among his followers. He also banned foot
binding, smoking opium and wearing the queue. His followers also destroyed
Buddhist and Taoist temples. He took Nanjing in 1853 and led a long
rebellion. It took the Qing more than a decade to crush it. Furthermore other
rebellions broke out in China. It took another 4 years to put down bandits in
the north called the Nanin. There were also rebellions by Muslims in outlying
areas. These were not defeated until 1873.

In the late 19th century the Chinese government made some attempts to
introduce European technology. None of them were very successful. In
partnership with Chinese merchants the government opened coalmines,
started a steam shipping company and opened iron works and cotton mills.
They also built a telegraph network and a small network of railways.
However all these efforts at reform met with resistance from traditional
Confucian scholars. Worse in 1893 the Empress Cixi took some money
intended for the navy and used it to build a marble ship in the shape of a
paddle steamer. China remained fundamentally unchanged in the late 19th
century, unlike Japan, which changed rapidly.

In 1894 came war with Japan. A rebellion broke out in Korea in 1894 and
Chinese troops were sent there. However the Japanese navy sank a Chinese
troop carrier, provoking war. The Japanese army and navy quickly won
stunning victories and the Chinese were forced to sign a humiliating treaty.
They were forced to cede Taiwan to Japan and to allow the Japanese to build
factories in China. China was also forced to pay a large sum of money.
Afterwards European powers took advantage of China's weakness by forcing
her to cede more territory to them.

After the shock of the Sino-Japanese war many Chinese realized that China
must modernize otherwise she would be carved up between the foreign
powers. In 1898 some officials persuaded the emperor to decree a series of
reforms. However the Empress Dowager (a retired empress) Cixi put a stop to
it. She arrested most of the reformers and executed them on the trumped up
charge that they were plotting to overthrow the government.

The Boxer Rebellion

In 1900 Chinese resentment of foreign interference boiled over into the Boxer
rebellion. It began with a secret society called the Harmonious Fists. They
hated Christian missionaries and foreign influence. The society grew rapidly
after 1898 and friction between them and the missionaries grew. Afraid, the
British sent 2,000 men to protect their nationals in Beijing.

However the Boxers cut the railway to Tianjin and the British were forced to
withdraw their soldiers. Cixi decided to join the Boxers and she declared war.
The foreigners in Beijing shut themselves in their buildings and the Chinese
lay siege. However a force of 20,000 European soldiers marched into Beijing
and sacked it. Afterwards the Chinese were forced to pay a large sum of
money to the Europeans as compensation.

The Fall of the Qing Dynasty

In 1901 the Empress Dowager, Cixi, changed her mind and decided some
reform was needed after all. Primary and secondary education was changed
to include western subjects. Then in 1905 the civil service entry exams, which
had been used for 2,000 years, were abolished. Some attempt was made to
reform the army and navy. In 1908 she agreed to make the Chinese
monarchy a constitutional one. In 1909 provincial assemblies were elected.
However only a limited number of men were allowed to vote and the
assemblies had little power. After 1910 there was a national assembly but it
too have very limited power. The limited reforms of the Qing satisfied nobody
and in 1911 they were swept away by a revolution. China became a republic.

THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 1911-1949

The Revolution

In the early 20th century many people decided the only thing to do was to
sweep away the old order. Leading the revolutionaries was Sun-Yat-Sen
(1866-1925). He put forward 3 principles, nationalism, democracy and
socialism. In 1905 he formed the Revolutionary Alliance of Tongmen Hui.
Some soldiers in Wuchang with revolutionary ideals formed an organisation
called the Literary Society. In 1911 they were planning revolution. However
they accidentally set off a bomb. Realizing the government would now be
alerted they decided to start the revolution immediately.

The revolution soon gathered pace and spread across southern China.
Province after province seceded from the Qing Empire. However the Qing
turned to a man named General Yaun Shikai. This man had been a regional
governor but the Qing dismissed him, as they feared he was growing too
powerful. Now they recalled him and gave him wide powers to crush the
revolution.

However when his forces were repulsed at Nanjing the general decided to
change sides. He made a deal with the revolutionaries. He would make China
a republic if he could be President. Sun Yat-Sen and the other revolutionaries
feared that a divided China would be easy prey for the foreign powers so they
agreed to his terms. The Qing were persuaded to abdicate in February 1912.
Yuan Shikai became president of China. A parliament was elected in
February. The largest party were the nationalists of Kuomintang with Sun Yat-
Sen at their head.

However the general had no intention of sharing power with parliament and
soon made himself dictator. The Kuomintang were banned at the end of 1913
and parliament was closed in January 1914.

The Warlord Years

When General Yuan died in 1916 China descended into semi-anarchy.
Central government had little power and warlords controlled the provinces. In
1916 the Japanese took over the German 'sphere of influence' in Shangdong.
After the war, in 1919, it became clear that the victorious powers intended to
let Japan keep it. This news provoked 3,000 students to demonstrate in
Beijing on 4 May 1919. They burned the Minister of Communication's house.
Although the police moved to suppress the demonstration in Beijing similar
protests took place elsewhere in China. The protest gave rise to a movement
called the Fourth of May movement which rejected Confucian values and
sought to modernize China. Although the Kuomintang were banned in 1913
they simply moved their base to Guangzhou and continued to operate.

In 1921 the Chinese Communist Party or CCP was founded. Communism was
based on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883). According to him society went
through an inevitable series of stages ending in Communism. The workers, he
said, would inevitably rise up against the capitalists and Capitalism would be
replaced by Socialism in which the state would own industry. However the
state would 'wither away' leaving a classless society or Communism.
Needless to say the promised utopia never materialized.

One of the founders of the Communist Party was Mao Tse-Tung (1893-1976).
By 1935 he became head of the new party. At first the Communists decided to
co-operate with the Kuomintang. For a time the two joined forces.

Meanwhile China was changing in the early 20th century. Industry was
expanding rapidly (although the country remained overwhelmingly agricultural)
and China saw a wave of strikes and labor unrest in the 1920s. Then in 1926
the Kuomintang decided to unite China. From their base in the south they sent
an army of 150,000 men into the north. The warlords in some of the northern
provinces were defeated and by the end of 1926 large parts of northern China
were brought under Kuomintang control. In 1928 the Northern Expedition was
renewed and in April Kuomintang forces entered Beijing. China was reunited.

Meanwhile the Kuomintang and the Communists argued. In the autumn of

1927 Mao Tse Tung led a peasant rebellion called the Autumn Harvest
Uprising. However it was crushed. In December 1927 there was an uprising in
Guangzhou and a Communist government was very briefly established in the
city but government forces soon crushed the movement.

In 1930 the Kuomintang said that China was not ready for democracy. Instead
China became a military dictatorship led by Chiang Kai Shek. In 1930 Li Lisan
led another Communist rebellion but it was easily crushed. However in the
countryside Mao Tse Tung adopted a much more successful policy. From his
base in a mountain range he carried out guerrilla warfare. He created a well-
disciplined force that conducted 'hit and run' raids and hid whenever the
enemy advanced, avoiding pitched battles. His men were able to wear down
and demoralize them. Guerrilla warfare proved to be extremely successful in
the 20th century.

In 1934 the Kuomintang attempted to encircle the Communists. Mao decided

to break out. About 90,000 soldiers escaped the trap and embarked on a long
march to the north of China. This Long March became legendary although
less than 20,000 of those who took part survived the march. Then in 1937
Communists and Kuomintang agreed to a temporary truce to fight the
Japanese.

In 1931 the Japanese occupied Manchuria. In 1932 they created a separate

state with a puppet government called Munchuko. In 1937 the Japanese
invaded the rest of China. The invasion began with the 'rape of Nanjing' when
tens of thousands of people in that city were murdered. Women were raped
and buildings were burned. However the Japanese were unable to conquer all
of China due to its sheer size.

In the 1930s some modernization occurred in the coastal cities of China.

Many new railways were built and many more roads were metaled. The
amount of electricity generated increased 7 times over. Industrial output was
small but it was growing. Coal mining boomed. Cotton spinning also grew.
However the interior of China remained overwhelmingly agricultural. When the
Japanese invaded in 1937 Chiang Kai Shek attempted to evacuate many
people, especially skilled workers to the unoccupied areas of China. Industrial
machinery was also evacuated west. However to finance the fighting the
Kuomintang were forced to print money. The result was rampant inflation
which undermined their support.

The Revolution in China

In August 1945 Russia declared war on Japan. As a result Russian troops

occupied Manchuria after the Japanese surrender. When they withdrew the
Communists were left in control of Manchuria. In 1946 the civil war resumed
between Communists and Kuomintang. At first the Kuomintang were
successful and they recaptured southern Manchuria and other parts of
northern China. However the Communists turned to guerrilla warfare and
successfully harassed the Kuomintang and their lines of communication.
From the middle of 1947 the Communists were winning the war. Then in
November 1948-January 1949 the Communists won a victory at Huai-Hai.
They encircled an army of 300,000 Kuomintang and eventually forced them to
surrender. After that the Kuomintang position swiftly collapsed. The
Communists took Beijing in January 1949. In April they took Nanjing and in
May Shanghai. The remaining Kuomintang then fled to Taiwan and in October
Mao Tse Tung declared the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing.

MODERN CHINA

The Early Years of the Peoples Republic

Under the Communists industry was nationalized. The peasants were

encouraged to pool their resources and form their small farms into co-
operatives. Any opposition to the Communist regime was ruthlessly
suppressed.

In 1958 Mao launched an attempt to greatly increase output of farming and

industry. It was called The Great Leap Forward. Agricultural co-operatives
were joined together to form larger units called communes. Creches and
nurseries were set up so women could work.

Communes were encouraged to make steel in their own makeshift furnaces.

Many peasants were forced to work on water conservation works.

However the Great Leap Forward proved to be a disaster. Most of the steel
was of very poor quality and could not be used.

Worse farm output greatly declined and there was a terrible famine in China in
1959-62. Far too much labor was diverted to making steel or building projects
leaving not enough for the harvests which in some areas were left to rot.
Worse crops fell prey to locusts. In 1958 Mao launched a campaign to kill
sparrows (because they ate grain seeds). However sparrows also ate locusts
and other insects. Huge numbers of sparrows were killed and without natural
predators the number of locusts greatly increased, making the famine worse.
Bad weather in 1959 and 1960 made the famine worse still.

Yet even though there was a famine and people were starving China
continued to export grain. An estimated 36 million people in China died in the
famine. Not all died of starvation. Starving people were executed for stealing
food. It was the worst man made famine in history. However Mao was
unmoved by the famine. He said 'To distribute resources evenly will only ruin
the Great Leap Forward. It is better to let half the people die so that the other
half can eat their fill'. Nevertheless The Great Leap Forward was a failure and
it had to be abandoned. Afterwards Mao lost some of his authority.

The Cultural Revolution in China

In 1966 to reassert his authority Mao launched the Cultural Revolution.

Students began to call themselves the Red Guard and they held rallies in
Beijing. Soon a movement began to root out old habits, beliefs and attitudes
and cause a cultural revolution. The Red Guard began to attack intellectuals
and also officials. In 1967 they forced the mayor and other officials in
Shanghai to resign. The same thing happened in other cities as well. Many
party officials were purged and removed from power.

During the Cultural Revolution religion was persecuted in China. Many places
of worship were destroyed. (Mao like all Marxists was an atheist and he
detested religion).

However in 1968 Mao realized that things were going too far. The Red Guard
was disrupting industry and agriculture. Mao ordered them to disband. Mao
himself died in September 1976.

In 1989 a mass demonstration was held in Tiananmen Square in Beijing

demanding democratic reforms. It was crushed by the Chinese army.

China's Economic Miracle

In the late 20th century China introduced a market economy. As a result

China became an amazing success story. The economy grew very rapidly in
the last years of the 20th century and by the mid-1990s China had become an
affluent society. Consumer goods like TVs and fridges became common. In
the last years of the 20th century the government switched to a market
economy. Peasants in communes were given contracts. They were given a
certain amount of land and agreed to grow a certain amount of crops. If they
grew any excess they could sell it. In industry factories were given more
autonomy. They were allowed to make their own agreements with their
suppliers and their customers. If they made large profits they could pay their
workers bonuses. The new slogan was 'To be rich is glorious!'. Four special
economic zones were formed in the east of China. The result was a huge
increase in Chinese industrial output and a great improvement in Chinese
standards of living.
In 2005 there was a significant sign of China's growing economic power when
Shanghai overtook Rotterdam as the largest port in the world. China is
predicted to become the world's largest economy by 2040. Today the
population of China is 1.35 billion.