Appendix

■ then we add the components to find the resultant

orthogonal components, Rx and Ry
Rx = Ax + Bx Ry = Ay + By
■ to find the magnitude of the resultant vector, R, we
use equation (i)
R = √Rx
2 + Ry
2
■ finally, to find the direction, θ, R makes with the
x-axis, we use equation (iv)
tan θ =
Ry
Rx
The use of orthogonal components in addition of vectors
is discussed on pages 13 and 14.
Vectors relative to each other
Two cases of vectors relative to each other were discussed
on pages 12 and 13. The value of a vector vA relative to a
vector vB (for example the velocity, vAB, of A relative to
B) is found by the equation
vAB = vA − vB
For a situation involving three vectors
vAB = vAC + vCB
An example of the latter is the velocity of a boat relative
to the shore (vBS), the velocity of the boat relative to the
water (vBW) and the velocity of the water relative to the
shore (vWS):
vBS = vBW + vWS
■ See Discussion examples 1.9 to 1.11 in Chapter 1.
9: Calculus notation
Slope of a graph
To find the slope (gradient) of a straight line y versus x
graph, we take two points on the graph and divide the
rise, i.e. the change in y (or Δy), by the corresponding
change in x (Δx). Any Δy divided by the corresponding
Δx will give us the same value for the slope of the graph,
since the slope of a straight line graph is constant.
■ Velocity is the slope of a graph of position versus time.
■ Acceleration is the slope of a graph of velocity versus
time.
If we pick two points on a graph that is curved, and
divide Δy by Δx, we get only the average slope of the
graph between the two points. To get the actual slope of
a graph at a single point on the graph, we need to take
an infinitesimally small Δx (called dx in calculus) and the
corresponding infinitesimally small Δy (called dy) and
do the division dy
dx
.
■ A treatment of slopes of graphs is given in pages 24
and 25. Slopes of position, velocity and acceleration
versus time graphs are discussed on pages 24–28.
In practice, it is not possible to obtain dy and dx by
measurements on a graph. To obtain the slope, the best
that could be done geometrically is to draw a tangent to
the graph such that the straight line touches the graph
at that single point only, in which case, Δy and Δx would
be infinitesimally small. The slope of that tangent line is
constant, is easily calculated (using a measurable Δy and
Δx for the tangent line), and therefore will be equal to dy
dx
.
An alternative to finding the slope of any graph at any
point on the graph is to use the method of differentiation
in calculus. If the equation of the graph is known, the
slope can be found at any point on the graph by the use of
an appropriate formula. This course is algebra-based and
therefore does not require the use of calculus.
Area under graph
The area under a straight line graph is easily found by
applying an appropriate geometric formula. For a curved
or irregularly shaped graph, the area can be found using
the method of integral calculus. Alternatively, one can
find the area under a graph, approximately, by using the
‘counting the squares’ method (see page 72). This course
is algebra-based and therefore does not require the use of
calculus.
■ Work done represents the area under a force versus
displacement graph (see page 57).
■ Impulse represents the area under a force versus time
graph (see page 72 and Worked example 5.3