Chapter 2: The Derivative

Part 1

Section 2.1 to Section 2.4

Chapter 2_Part1 Outline: Sections 2.1 to 2.4

Section 2.1: The Slope of a Straight Line

Section 2.2: The Slope of a Curve at a Point
Section 2.3: The Derivative and Limits
Section 2.4: Limits and the Derivative
Section 2.1: The Slope of a Straight Line

•Non-vertical Lines
•Positive and Negative Slopes of Lines
•Interpretation of a Graph
•Properties of the Slope of a Non-vertical Line
•Finding the Slope and y Intercept of a Line
•Sketching the Graph of a Line
•Forming Equations of Lines
•Slope as a Rate of Change
Nonvertical Lines

Definition Example
Equations of Non-vertical Lines: A
non-vertical line L has an equation of
the form y  3x  4
y  mx  b.
The number m is called the slope of L For this line, m = 3 and b = -4.
and the point (0, b) is called the y-
intercept. The equation above is called
the slope-intercept equation of L.
Lines – Positive Slope
EXAMPLE
The following are graphs of equations of lines that have positive slopes.
Lines – Negative Slope
EXAMPLE
The following are graphs of equations of lines that have negative slopes.

-6
Interpretation of a Graph
EXAMPLE

A salesperson’s weekly pay depends on the volume of sales. If

she sells x units of goods, then her pay is y = 5x + 60 dollars.
Give an interpretation of the slope and the y-intercept of this
straight line.
SOLUTION
460
(80, 460)
360

260
pay

160

60

-20-40 30 80 130
# of sales
Interpretation of a Graph

CONTINUED

The slope is 5, or 5/1. Since the numerator of this fraction

represents the amount of change in her pay relative to the
amount of change in her sales, the denominator, for every
1 sale that she makes, her pay increases by 5 dollars.

The y-intercept is 60 and occurs on the graph at the point

(0, 60). This point suggests that when she has executed 0
sales, her pay is 60 dollars. This $60 could be referred to
as her base pay.
Properties of the Slope of a Nonvertical Line
Properties of the Slope of a Line
Finding Slope and y-intercept of a Line
EXAMPLE
x 1
Find the slope and y-intercept of the line y .
3
SOLUTION

First, we write the equation in slope-intercept form.

x 1
y
3
1 1
y x
3 3

1/3 is the slope of the line and (0, 1/3) is the y-intercept.
Sketching Graphs of Lines
EXAMPLE

Sketch the graph of the line passing through (-1, 1) with slope ½.

SOLUTION
We use Slope Property 1. We begin at the given point (-1, 1) and from there, move up one unit and
to the right two units to find another point on the line.

5 5

3 3

(-1, 1) 1
(-1, 1) 1

-5 -3 -1 -1 1 3 5 -5 -3 -1 -1 1 3 5

-3 -3

-5 -5
Sketching Graphs of Lines

CONTINUED

Now we connect the two points that have already been determined, since two
points determine a straight line.

-5 -3 -1 -1 1 3 5

-3

-5
Forming Equations of Lines
EXAMPLE

Find an equation of the line that passes through the points (-1/2, 0) and (1, 2).

SOLUTION

To find an equation of the line that passes through those two points, we need a point (we already
have two) and a slope. We do not yet have the slope so we must find it. Using the two points we
will determine the slope by using Slope Property 2.

20 2 2 4
m   2 
 
1 1
2
3
2
3 3

We now use Slope Property 3 to find an equation of the line. To use this property we need the
slope and a point. We can use either of the two points that were initially provided. We’ll use the
second (the first would work just as well).
Forming Equations of Lines

CONTINUED

y  y1  mx  x1 

y  2  4 3 x  1

y 2  4 3x 4 3
y  4 3x  2 3
Forming Equations of Lines
EXAMPLE
Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (2, 0) and is perpendicular to the line
y = 2x.

SOLUTION
To find an equation of the line, we need a point (we already have one) and a slope. We do not yet
have the slope so we must find it. We know that the line we desire is perpendicular to the line y
= 2x. Using Slope Property 5, we know that the product of the slope of the line desired and the
slope of the line y = 2x is -1. We recognize that the line y = 2x is in slope-intercept form and
therefore the slope of the line is 2. We can now find the slope of the line that we desire. Let the
slope of the new line be m.

(slope of a line)(slope of a new line) = -1 This is Property 5.

2m = -1 The slope of one line is 2 and the

slope of the desired line is denoted by
m.
m = -0.5 Divide.

Now we can find the equation of the desired line using Property 3.
Forming Equations of Lines

CONTINUED

y  y1  mx  x1 

y  0  0.5x  2

y  0.5 x  1
Slope as a Rate of Change
EXAMPLE

Compute the rate of change of the function over the given intervals.
y  2 x  27 0, 1, 0, 0.5
SOLUTION
We first get y by itself in the given equation.
y  2 x  27

y  2 x  27

Since this is clearly a linear function (since it’s now in slope-intercept form) it has
constant slope, namely -2. Therefore, by definition, it also has a constant rate of
change, -2. Therefore, no matter what interval is considered for this function, the
rate of change will be -2. Therefore the answer, for both intervals, is -2.
Practice Exercise 2.1
Section 2.2: The Slope of a Curve at a Point

•Tangent Lines
•Slopes of Curves
•Slope of a Curve as a Rate of Change
•Interpreting the Slope of a Graph
•Finding the Equation and Slope of the Tangent
Line of a Curve
 Tangent Lines

Definition Example
Tangent Line to a
Circle at a Point P:
The straight line that
touches the circle at
just the one point P
Slope of a Curve & Tangent Lines

Definition Example
The Slope of a Curve at
a Point P: The slope of
the tangent line to the
curve at P

(Enlargements)
 Slope of a Graph
EXAMPLE
Estimate the slope of the curve at the designated point P.

SOLUTION
The slope of a graph at a point is by definition the slope of the tangent line at
that point. The figure above shows that the tangent line at P rises one unit for
each unit change in x. Thus the slope of the tangent line at P is
change in y 1
  1.
change in x 1
Slope of a Curve: Rate of Change
Interpreting Slope of a Graph

EXAMPLE

Refer to the figure below to decide whether the following statements

about the debt per capita are correct or not. Justify your answers .
(a) The debt per capita rose at a faster rate in 1980 than in 2000.
(b) The debt per capita was almost constant up until the mid-1970s and
then rose at an almost constant rate from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s.
Interpreting Slope of a Graph

CONTINUED

SOLUTION
(a) The slope of the graph in 1980 is marked in red and the slope of the graph in
2000 is marked in blue, using tangent lines. It appears that the slope of the red
line is the steeper of the two. Therefore, it is true that the debt per capita rose at
a faster rate in 1980.
Interpreting Slope of a Graph
CONTINUED
(b) Since the graph is a straight, nearly horizontal line from 1950 until the mid-
1970s, marked in red, it is therefore true that the debt per capita was almost
constant until the mid-1970s. Further, since the graph is a nearly straight line
from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, marked in blue, it is therefore true that the
debt per capita rose at an almost constant rate during those years.
Slope of a Tangent Line to the
parabola y = x2
 Slope of tangent at any point = 2
(x-coordinate)
 Slope of tangent at P(x, y) = 2x

P(x, y)
Equation & Slope of a Tangent Line
EXAMPLE

Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = x2 at the point (-0.4, 0.16) and then
write the corresponding equation of the tangent line.

SOLUTION
The slope of the graph of y = x2 at the point (x, y) is 2x. (why?????)
The x-coordinate of (-0.4, 0.16) is -0.4, so the slope of y = x2 at this point is 2(-0.4) = -0.8.

We shall write the equation of the tangent line in point-slope form. The point is
(-0.4, 0.16) and the slope (which we just found) is -0.8. Hence the equation is:

y  0.16  0.8x   0.4.

Practice Exercise 2.2
Section 2.3: The Derivative and Limits

•The Derivative
•Differentiation
•Slope and the Derivative
•Equation of the Tangent Line to the Graph of y = f (x) at (a, f (a))
•Leibniz Notation for Derivatives
•Limits and the Secant-Line Calculation of the Derivative
The Derivative

Definition Example

Derivative: The slope formula for a Given the function f (x) = x2, the
function y = f (x), denoted: derivative is 𝑓 / (x) = 2x

y  f x  .
Given the function f (x) = x3, the
derivative is f x   3x 2 .
Differentiation Examples

These examples can be summarized by the following rule.

Differentiation Examples
EXAMPLE

f x   7 .
Find the derivative of 1
x
SOLUTION

f x  
1
7
This is the given equation.
x

f x  
1
Rewrite the denominator as an exponent.
x1 7

f x   x 1 7 Rewrite with a negative exponent.

What we’ve done so far has been done for the sole purpose of rewriting the function in the form of
f (x) = xr.

f  x    x 1 7 1   x 1 7 7 7   x 8 7
1 1 1 Use the Power Rule where r = -1/7
7 7 7 and then simplify.
Differentiation Examples
EXAMPLE
Find the slope of the curve y = x5 at x = -2.

SOLUTION
We must first find the derivative of the given function.

f x   x 5 This is the given function.

f x   5x 4 Use the Power Rule.

Since the derivative function yields information about the slope of the original function, we can
now use f x  to determine the slope of the original function at x = -2.

f  2  5 2
4
Replace x with -2.
f  2  516  80 Evaluate.

Therefore, the slope of the original function at x = -2 is 80 (or 80/1).

Equation of the Tangent Line to the Graph of y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a))
Equation of the Tangent Line
EXAMPLE

Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 3x at x = 4.

SOLUTION
We must first find the derivative of the given function.

f  x   3x This is the given function.

f x   3 Differentiate.

Notice that in this case the derivative function is a constant function, 3. Therefore, at x = 4, or any
other value, the value of the derivative will be 3. So now we use the Equation of the Tangent Line
that we just saw.

y  f 4  f 4x  4 This is the Equation of the Tangent

Line.
y  12  3x  4 f (4) = 12 and f x   3.

y  3x Simplify.
Leibniz Notation for Derivatives

Ultimately, this notation is a better and more effective notation for working with derivatives.
Limits and the Secant-Line Calculation of the Derivative

f x  h   f x 
The Difference Quotient is .
h
Practice Exercise 2.3
Section 2.4: Limits and the Derivative
•Definition of the Limit
•Finding Limits
•Limit Theorems
•Differentiable
•Limit Definition of the Derivative
•Limit Calculation of the Derivative
•Using Limits to Calculate a Derivative
•More Work With Derivatives and Limits
•Limits as x Increases Without Bound
Definition of the Limit
Finding Limits
EXAMPLE Determine whether the limit exists. If it does, compute it.


lim x  7
x4
3

SOLUTION

Let us make a table of values of x approaching 4 and the corresponding values of x3 – 7.

x x3 - 7 x x3 - 7
4.1 61.921 3.9 52.319
4.01 57.481 3.99 56.521
4.001 57.048 3.999 56.952
4.0001 57.005 3.9999 56.995

As x approaches 4, it appears that x3 – 7 approaches 57. In terms


of our notation, lim x 3  7  57.
x 4

Finding Limits
EXAMPLE

For the following function g(x), determine whether or not lim g  x  exists. If so, give
x 3
the limit.

SOLUTION lim g  x   2.
x 3

We can see that as x gets closer and closer to 3, the values of g(x) get closer and closer
to 2. This is true for values of x to both the right and the left of 3.
Limit Theorems
Finding Limits
EXAMPLE
x 2  5 x  36
Use the limit theorems to compute the following limit. lim
x 9 8  3x
SOLUTION

x  5 x  36
2 lim x 2  5 x  36
lim  x 9
Limit Theorem VI
x 9 8  3x lim8  3 x 
x 9


limx  5 x  36
x 9
2
1
2
Limit Theorem II with r = ½
lim8  3x 
x 9


lim x  lim 5 x  lim 36
x 9
2
x 9 x 9
1
2
Limit Theorem IV
lim 8  lim 3x
x 9 x 9
 Finding Limits
CONTINUED

lim x   5 lim x  lim 36

1
2 2

 x 9 x 9 x 9 Limit Theorems I and II

lim 8  3 lim x
x 9 x 9

Since lim x,  9 we have that:

x 9

 
1 1
9  59  36 81  45  36
1
2 2
2 2 0 0
    0
8  39 8 - 27  19  19
Limit Theorems
Finding Limits
EXAMPLE

Compute the following limit.

x 2  5 x  36
lim
x 9 8  3x

SOLUTION
Since evaluating the denominator of the given function at x = 9 is 8 – 3(9) = -
19 ≠ 0, we may use Limit Theorem VIII.

x 2  5 x  36 92  5  9  36
lim  0
x 9 8  3x 8  3 9
Differentiability

Definition Example
Differentiable: A function f is differentiable The function f (x) = |x| is differentiable for all
at x if values of x except x = 0 since the graph of the
function has no definite slope when x = 0 (f is
f x  h   f x  non-differentiable at x = 0) but does have a
h definite slope (1 or -1) for every other value
approaches some number as h approaches of x.
zero.

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Limit Definition of the Derivative
Using Limits to Calculate a Derivative
Using Limits to Calculate a Derivative
EXAMPLE

Use limits to compute the derivative f 3 for the function f x   1

.
2x  5
SOLUTION
f 3  h   f 3
We must calculate f 3 = lim
h 0
.
h
1 1

f 3  h   f 3 23  h   5 23  5
lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
1 1

 lim 6  2h  5 6  5
h 0 h

1 1 11  11  2h 

 lim 11  2h 11  lim 121 22h
h 0 h h 0 h
Using Limits to Calculate a Derivative

CONTINUED

 2h
 lim 121 22h
h 0 h

 2h 1
 lim 
h 0 121 22h h

 2h 1
 lim 
h 0 121 22h h

2 2 2
 lim  
h  0 121 22h 121 22  0 121
More Work With Derivatives and Limits
EXAMPLE

Match the limit with a derivative. Then find the limit by computing the
derivative. 1 1 
lim   1
h 0 h h  1
 
SOLUTION
f x  h   f x 
The idea here is to identify the given limit as a derivative given by lim for a
h 0 h
specific choice of f and x. Toward this end, let us rewrite the limit as follows.

1
1
1 1 
lim   1  lim h  1
h 0 h
 h 1  h 0 h
1
1
f 1  lim h  1 .
h 0 h
More Work With Derivatives and Limits
CONTINUED

Now go back to lim f x  h   f  x . . Take f (x) = 1/x and evaluate f 1

h 0 h
according to the limit definition of the derivative:

On the right side we have the desired limit; while on the left side f 1 can be
computed using the power rule (where r = -1):

Hence, f (x) = 1/x

f x    x 2 ,
f 1  1

1 1 
lim   1  f 1  1.
h 0 h h  1
 
 Limits as x Increases Without Bound
EXAMPLE 10x  100
Calculate the following limit. lim 2
x  x  30

SOLUTION Both 10x + 100 and x2 – 30 increase without bound as x does. To determine the
limit of their quotient, we employ an algebraic trick. Divide both numerator and
denominator by x2 (since the highest power of x in either the numerator or the
denominator is 2) to obtain

10 100
 2
10x  100 x x .
lim  lim
x  x 2  30 x  30
1 2
x
As x increases without bound, 10/x approaches 0, 100/x2 approaches 0, and 30/x2 approaches 0.
Therefore, as x increases without bound, 10/x + 100/x2 approaches 0 + 0 = 0 and 1 - 30/x2
approaches 1 – 0 = 1. Therefore,
Limits as x Increases Without Bound

CONTINUED

10 100
 2
10x  100 x x 00 0
lim 2  lim    0.
x  x  30 x  30 1  0 1
1 2
x
Practice Exercise 2.4