5.

1 HIGHWAY FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

ROADWAYS:
Roadways are a major component of the traffic system, and the specifics of their design have a
significant impact on traffic operations.
PRIMARY CATEGORIES OF SERVICE:
• Accessibility – direct connection to abutting lands and land uses provided by roadways
• Mobility – refers to the through movement of people, goods and vehicles from point A to point
B in the system.
TRIP FUNCTIONS ACCORDING TO AASHTO:
• MAIN MOVEMENT -Through portion of trip, from origin to destination.
• TRANSITION - Transfers from through portion to remaining functions that lead to access and
termination.
• COLLECTION - Brings driver and vehicles closer to destination
• ACCESS - Providing the driver an access to enter the land parcel sought.
• DISTRIBUTION - Gives the ability to leave a major through facility and get to general area of
destinations.
• TERMINATION - Providing the driver a place to leave his/her vehicle.
HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATIONS:
• LIMITED ACCESS FACILITIES - 100% through movement or mobility. No access to land uses.
• ARTERIALS - Design primarily for through movement but provide access for some abutting
lands
• COLLECTORS - intermediate category between arterials and local streets. Both mobility and
access is provided.
• LOCAL STREETS - Design to access abutting lands uses. Through movement is a minor
function.
TYPICAL RURAL AND URBAN ROADWAY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM:
FREEWAYS
RURAL URBAN
All freeways bearing interstate All freeways bearing interstate
INTERSTATE FREEWAYS designation. designation.

All other facilities with full control of All other facilities with full control of
OTHER FREEWAYS access access

Facilities with substantial control of Facilities with substantial control of

access but having some at grade access but having some at grade
EXPRESSWAYS
crossings or entrances. crossings or entrances.

ARTERIALS
RURAL URBAN
Serving significant corridor Principal service for through
movements, Often between areas with movements, with very limited land-
MAJOR OR PRINCIPAL populations over 25,000 to 50,000. access functions that are incidental to
ARTERIALS High-type design and alignment the mobility function. High-type design
prevail . prevail.

Provide linkage to significant traffic Principal service for through

generators, including towns and cities movements, with moderate levels of
with population below the below the access service also present
MINOR ARTERIALS range for principal arterials; Serve
shorter trip lengths than principal
arterials .

COLLECTORS
RURAL URBAN
Serve generators of intercounty No subcategories usually used for
importance not served by arterials; urban collectors.
MAJOR COLLECTORS provide connections to arterials and/or
freeways

Link locally important generators with Provide land access and circulation
the rural hinterlands; provide service within residential
connections to major collectors or neighborhoods and/or
arterials. commercial/industrial areas; collect
MINOR COLLECTORS trips from local generators and
channel them to nearby arterials;
distribute trips from arterials to their
ultimate destination

LOCAL STREETS
RURAL URBAN
No subcategories generally used in Provide land access and circulation
RESIDENTIAL rural classification scheme. . within residential neighborhoods.

Provide access to adjacent lands of all Provide land access and circulation in
types; Serve travel over relatively short areas of commercial development.
COMMERCIAL
distance.

No subcategories usually used for Provide land access and circulation in

INDUSTRIAL industrial in rural. areas of industrial development.
PRESERVING THE FUNCTION OF A FACILITY:
In order to preserve the function of a facility regardless of volume of traffic, a roadway should
implement the following:
• Parking Prohibition – to avoid roadway blockage.
• Median Dividers – to regulate left turns and prohibit illegal U-turns.
• Speed Limits – to control traffic congestion and speed.
• Coordinated Signals – to help control traffic flow on intersection points.
SURVEYING AND STATIONING:
Stationing is the process of defining locations along the project by station numbers. Highway
construction projects are divided into reference points spaced along the project.
A Station is equal to 1000 meters and takes into a form of:
x + yyy.yy
1 + 100.20
Where: x = no of km. (1000m) form station 0.
yyy.yy = intermediate distance less than 1000m.

5.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAYS

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• consists of straight-line segments (tangents) connected by circular curves either simple curves
or via transition curves.
• includes the design of superelevation, set back distance, transition curve design, etc.
QUANTIFYING THE SEVERITY OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
RADIUS (R) - larger radii depict less severe curves
DEGREE OF CURVATURE (D) -most often used because higher values depict sharper, or more
severe curves.
DEGREE OF CURVE (ARC BASIS) - is the angle at the center subtended by an arc of 20m (metric)
or 100ft. (English). This method is generally used in highway practices.
DEGREE OF CURVE (CHORD BASIS) - is the angle subtended by a chord of 20m or 100 ft.
By ratio and proportion:
ARC BASIS (METRIC) CHORD BASIS (METRIC)

𝐷 10
𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝝅 sin 2 =
= 𝑅
𝑫 𝟑𝟔𝟎

𝟏𝟎
𝐃=
𝟑𝟔𝟎 (𝟐𝟎) 𝑹=
𝑫
𝟐𝝅 𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐

𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟏𝟔
𝑫=
𝑹
CHARACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE
ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE
PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI or V = point of intersection or vertex
R = radius of the curve
D = degree of curvature
T = tangent distance
I or Δ = angle of intersection
E = external distance
M = middle ordinate
Lc = length of curve
C = long chord

ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE

TANGENT (T) LENGTH OF CHORD (C)

𝐼 𝐼
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan 𝐶 = 2𝑅 sin
2 2
EXTERNAL DISTANCE (E) LENGTH OF CURVE (Lc)

𝐼 20𝐼
𝐸 = 𝑅(sec − 1) 𝐿𝑐 =
2 𝐷
MIDDLE ORDINATE (M) 𝜋𝑅𝐼
𝐿𝑐 =
180
𝐼
𝑀 = 𝑅(1 − cos )
2
SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
SUPERELEVATION
- Is tilting the roadway to assist the drivers in resisting the effect of centripetal force.
- Must be done gradually over a distance without a noticeable reduction in speed or safety.
- superelevation “e” is expressed as the ratio of height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width
The speed of the vehicle and the radius of curvature are related to the superelevation rate (e) and the
coefficient of side friction (f), by the equation:
𝒗𝟐
𝑹=
𝟏𝟐𝟕(𝒆 + 𝒇)

R = minimum radius of curvature, m

v = speed of vehicle, kph
e = rate of superelevation (%)
f = coefficient of side friction
COEFFICIENT OF SIDE-FACTOR, F
- Is the friction between the tires and the pavement surface.
- Design values of the side factor friction vary with design speed.
MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION RATES
- According to aashto, the recommended superelevation for urban areas is between 4% to 6%.
- Rural areas may have superelevation of 10% to 12%.
- For design purposes, only an increment of 2% is used.
- In open highways or straight sections, there is a generally minimum superelevation
maintained.
SUPERELEVATION TRANSITION
RUNOUT
- total length to accomplish a change in slope from normal (crown slope) to zero.
RUNOFF
- total distance required for the outside lane to change a slope from 0% (flat) to full
superelevation.
SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVES
• A spiral curve is consisted of a simple curve bounded by spiral transitions on each end.
• The spiral transitions provide a transition from the tangent segment, which allows for the
equilibrium of vehicles to be maintained throughout the curve in a designed manner.
• Spiral curves are generally used to provide a gradual change in curvature from a straight section
of road to a curved section.
GEOMETRY OF SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVES

▪ T.S. – transition station from tangent to spiral

▪ S.C. – transition station from spiral to circular curve
▪ C.S. – transition station from circular curve to spiral
▪ S.T. – transition station from spiral to tangent
▪ ∆ – angle of deflection (central angle) of original circular curve without spiral
▪ ∆ s – angle of deflection (central angle) of circular portion of curve with spiral
▪ ẟ – angle of deflection for spiral portion of curve
▪ L s – length of spiral, ft

▪ Length of Spiral, L s can be determined as

𝟑.𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟑
𝑳𝒔 = 𝑹∗𝑪

where: L s = length of spiral, ft

S = design speed of the curve, mi/h
R = radius of the circular curve, ft
C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration, ft/s3
The values of C commonly used in highway design range between 1 and 3 ft/s 3 . When a value of
1.97 is used (a common standard value adopted by highway agencies), the equation becomes:
𝑺𝟑
𝑳𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑹

▪ Angle of Deflection (Central Angle) for the Spiral, ẟ can be determined as

𝑳 𝑫
ẟ = 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒔

where: ẟ = spiral angle of deflection, degrees

L s = length of spiral, ft
D = degree of curve for the circular curve, degrees
▪ Angle of Deflection (Central Angle) for Circular Portion of Curve Spiral Easement, ∆ s can
be determined as
∆ s= ∆ - 2ẟ
where: ẟ = spiral angle of deflection, degrees or radians
∆ = angle of deflection for circular curve without spiral, degrees or radians
▪ Length of Tangent Distance, TS, between P.I. and T.S. (and P.I. and S.T.) can be determined
as
∆ 𝑳𝟐
TS = [𝑹𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟐)] +[(𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(ẟ) -𝑹 + 𝟔𝑹𝒔 )
∆
∗ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟐)] + [𝐋s - 𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏(ẟ)]

where: TS = distance between P.I. and T.S. (also P.I. and S.T.), ft
R = radius of the circular curve, ft
∆ = angle of deflection for circular curve without spiral, degrees or radians
ẟ = spiral angle of deflection, degrees or radians
▪ Length of Tangent Distance, TS, between P.I. and T.S. (and P.I. and S.T.) can be determined
as
∆ 𝑳𝟐
TS = [𝑹𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟐)] +[(𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(ẟ) -𝑹 + 𝟔𝑹𝒔 )
∆
∗ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝟐)] + [𝐋s - 𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏(ẟ)]

where: TS = distance between P.I. and T.S. (also P.I. and S.T.), ft
R = radius of the circular curve, ft
∆ = angle of deflection for circular curve without spiral, degrees or radians
ẟ = spiral angle of deflection, degrees or radians
SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

Illustrated on the figure is the effect of horizontal curves on sight distance. Sight distance is
measured along the arc of the roadway, using the centerline of the inside travel lane.
The middle ordinate, M is taken as the distance from the centerline of the inside lane to the
nearest roadside sight blockage.
▪ The formula for the Middle Ordinate, M can be expressed uniformly using either the degree of
curvature, D, or the radius of curvature, R:
𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟗.𝟓𝟖 𝒔 𝒅 𝑫
𝑴= [𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝟎𝟎 )]
𝑫

𝟐𝟖.𝟔𝟓𝒅𝒔
𝑴 = 𝑹 [𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )]
𝑹

where: ds = safe stopping distance, ft

• The Safe Stopping Distance, ds may be computed as:
𝑺𝟐
ds = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝑺𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎(𝟎.𝟑𝟒𝟖±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝑮)

where: S = design speed, mi/h

t = reaction time, s
G = grade, %
COMPOUND HORIZONTAL CURVES

Compound horizontal curve is consists of two or more consecutive horizontal curves in a single direction
with different radii.
GENERAL CRITERIA FOR COMPOUND HORIZONTAL CURVES
• Use of compound curves should be limited to cases in which physical conditions require it.
• Use of compound curves should be limited to cases in which physical conditions require it.
• Whenever two consecutive curves in the same direction are separated by a short tangent (<200
ft), they should be combined in compound curve.
• A compound curve is merely a series of simple horizontal curves subject to the same criteria as
isolated horizontal curves.
• AASHTO relaxes some of these criteria for compound curves for ramp design.
REVERSE HORIZONTAL CURVES

• A reverse curve consists of two consecutive horizontal curves in opposite directions.

• Two horizontal curves in opposite direction should always be separated by a tangent of at
least 200 feet.
• Use of spiral transition curves is a significant assist to drivers negotiating reverse curves.
5.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAYS
- The vertical alignment of highway generally defined as the presence of heights and depths in vertical axis
with respect to horizontal axis of alignment.
- Composed of series of vertical tangents that are smoothly connected by curves.
- Vertical alignments are usually shown in profile, and its curvature is represented by a parabola, instead
of a circle.

GRADIENTS

Gradient is defined as the rise or fall corresponding to some horizontal distance.

- Raise with respect to horizontal distance is called Upward gradient (+n %)

- Fall with respect to Horizontal distance is called Downward Gradient (-n %)

TYPES OF GRADIENTS

1. Ruling Gradient
This is the maximum gradient which is generally used to design the vertical profile of highway.
2. Limiting Gradient
This gradient is provided as shorter stretches in highways. Whenever ruling gradients costs high
for the hilly terrains then limiting gradient is provided which will reduce the cost.
3. Exceptional Gradient
These are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations and they are adopted for
stretches not exceeding 100m of length.
4. Minimum Gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTICAL CURVES

TYPES:

1. Summit or Crest Vertical Curve

-Adopted mainly when the gradient is upwards.
-Entry tangent grade is greater than exit tangent grade.

2. Valley or Sag Vertical Curve

-Adopted mainly when the gradient is downwards.
-Entry tangent grade is lower than exit tangent grade.
ELEMENTS OF VERTICAL CURVE

▪ Point
of Vertical

Intersection, PVI – the location where the entrance grade and the exit grade intersect. This is the
point of symmetry if the vertical curve is symmetric.

▪ Difference in Grades, A – algebraic change in grades, expressed as percent.

A = G2 – G1

▪ Point of Vertical Curvature, PVC – the point where the vertical curve begins, and the highway leaves
the tangent.

▪ Point of Vertical Tangency, PVT - the point where the vertical curve ends, and the highway returns to
the tangent.

▪ Curve Length, L – the horizontal distance between the PVC and the PVT. This is not the distance along
the arc . If the curve is symmetric, the length is bisected by the PVI. The curve length is
expressed in stations.

▪ Entrance Grade, G1 – the grade of the tangent leading into the vertical curve. This is expressed as
percent.

▪ Exit Grade, G2 – the tangent leading out of the vertical curve. This is expressed as percent.

The equation for the vertical curve is based on the equation,

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

where y is the elevation at any point along the vertical curve and x is the horizontal distance along the curve
from the origin.

The slope of the point at any curve is,

𝒅𝒚
= 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃
𝒅𝒙
 When x = 0, the slope is equal to the entry grade G1, thus,

𝒅𝒚
= 𝑮𝟏 = 𝟐𝒂(𝟎) + 𝒃
𝒅𝒙
𝒃 = 𝑮𝟏

The second derivative of the equation is equal to the rate of change in slope along the grade,

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝑮𝟐 − 𝑮𝟏
= 𝟐𝒂 =
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝑳
𝑮𝟐 − 𝑮𝟏
𝒂=
𝟐𝑳
Thus, the equation for vertical curve is given as,

(𝑮𝟐 − 𝑮𝟏 ) 𝟐
𝒀= 𝒙 + 𝑮𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑷𝑽𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗
𝟐𝑳

The high or low point, or the turning point, is the point where the slope of the highway is equal to zero.

𝒅𝒚 𝑮𝟐 − 𝑮𝟏
=𝟎=( ) 𝒙 + 𝑮𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝑳
−𝑮𝟏 𝑳
𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 =
𝑮𝟐 − 𝑮𝟏

SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL CURVES

- The minimum length of vertical curve is governed by sight distance considerations.
- On vertical curves, sight distance is measured from an assumed eye height of 3.5 ft and an
object height of 2.0 ft (AASHTO standards).

CREST VERTICAL CURVES

The daylight sight line controls minimum length of vertical curves.
| 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 | × 𝑑𝑆2
⬘ 𝐿= for 𝑑𝑠 < 𝐿
2 158

2 158
⬘ 𝐿 = 2𝑑𝑠 − (| 𝐺 ) for 𝑑𝑠 > 𝐿
2 − 𝐺1 |

where:
L = minimum length of vertical curve, ft
𝑑𝑠 = required stopping sight distance, ft
𝐺1 = departure grade, %
𝐺2 = approach grade, %
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
For sag vertical curves, the sight distance is limited by the head lamp range during nighttime driving
conditions.
| 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 | × 𝑑𝑆2
• 𝐿= for 𝑑𝑠 < 𝐿
400+3.5 𝑑𝑠

400+3.5 𝑑𝑠
• 𝐿 = 2𝑑𝑠 − ( | 𝐺 ) for 𝑑𝑠 > 𝐿
2 − 𝐺1 |

where:
L = minimum length of vertical curve, ft
𝑑𝑠 = required stopping sight distance, ft
𝐺1 = departure grade, %
𝐺2 = approach grade, %
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the minimum length of vertical curve that must be provided to connect a 5% grade with a 2%
grade on a highway with a design speed of 60 m/h? Driver reaction time is the AASHTO standard of
2.5s for simple highway stopping reactions.

so,
SOLUTION: 602
𝑑𝑠 = 1.47 (60) (2.5) +
(from previous topic) 30 (0.348 + 0.01 ∗ 2)

𝑆2
𝑑𝑠 = 1.47 𝑆 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑠 = 220.5 + 326.1 = 546.587 ft
30 (0.348 ± 0.01𝐺)
(assume 𝑑𝑠 < L )
where:
| 2 − 5| × 546.5872
𝑑𝑠 = safe stopping distance, ft 𝐿=
2 158
S = design speed, mi/h L = 415.325 ft
T = reaction time, s (assumption of 𝑑𝑠 < L was not correct )
G = grade, %
so,
(use 𝑑𝑠 > L )
2 158
𝐿 = 2(546.587) − (| 2−5|)
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝟒𝟏 𝒇𝒕
(assumption of 𝑑𝑠 > L was correct )

L = 375 ft
OTHER MINIMUM CONTROLS ON LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVES
There are two other controls on the minimum length of sag vertical curves only.
▪ For driver comfort, the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is given by;
| 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 | 𝑆 2
𝐿=
46.5
▪ For general appearance
𝐿 = 100 | 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 |
where;
S = design speed, mi/h
SOME VERTICAL GUIDELINES FOR VERTICAL CURVES:
AASHTO gives a number of commonsense guidelines for the design of highway profiles.
1. A smooth grade line with gradual changes is preferred to a line with numerous breaks and
short grades.
2. Profiles should avoid the “roller-coaster” appearance, as well as “hidden dips” in the alignment.
3. Undulating lines involving substantial lengths of momentum (down) grades should be carefully
evaluated with respect to operation of trucks.
4. Broken-back grade lines (two consecutive vertical curves in the same direction separated by a
short tangent section) should be avoided wherever possible.
5. On long grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom, lightening the
grade on the ascent. If this is difficult, short sections of lighter grades should be inserted
periodically to aid operations.
6. Where at-grade intersections occur on roadway sections with moderate to steep grades, the
grade should be reduced or flattened through the intersection area.
7. Sag vertical curves in cuts should be avoided unless adequate drainage is provided.
5.4 CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAYS
A 90° cut across the facility from roadside to roadside. It contains elements that are critical to
the design of the facility. The following elements are:
• Travel Lanes
• Shoulders
• Side Slopes
• Curbs
• Medians and Median Barriers
• Guardrails
• Drainage Channels

1. Travel Lanes and Pavements

Paved travel lanes provide the space that moving or parked vehicles occupy during normal
operations. The width of travel lanes depends on its function and location.
WIDTH DESCRIPTION
9 FT Minimum recommended width, only for low-volume, low- speed
rural or residential roadways
10 FT Low-speed facilities
12 FT Standard width
> 12 FT Provided for off-tracking of the rear wheels of large trucks

2. Cross-slope of Pavement
All pavements have a cross-slope essentially to provide proper drainage and also provide
superelevation on curves. Cross- slope is developed based on type of highway and the design of other
drainage facilities. However, superelevated sections where cross-slopes are sufficient for drainage
does not need to be modified for a steeper slope. The standard cross-slope of pavement is listed in the
table:
TYPE OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS RANGE
Portland cement, concrete, asphaltic
High-type Pavement 1.5% to 2.0%
concrete
Penetration surfaces, compacted
Low-type Pavement 2% to 6%
earth

The design of pavement varies depending on the draining of water.

• Both sides
There must be drainage ditches or culverts and pipes on both sides of the pavement.
• More than one lane
Each successive lane should have a cross-slope 0.5% steeper than previous lane as
shown.
• Water absorbed into the earth
Before adopting this approach, the soil has to be tested whether it is adequate.
3. Shoulder
- Based on AASHTO, a shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way
that accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of sub-base, base, and
surface courses (of the roadway structure). The width of shoulder also varies depending on the function
and location of shoulder. For some low-volume rural roads in difficult terrain, no shoulders are provided.
Normally, the width ranges from 2 ft to 12 ft. Minimum width of 10 ft are used in rural highways where
shoulders are used for mobility function. The narrowest, 2 ft shoulders are for lowest classifications of
highways only. Ranging from 6 to 8 ft are considered desirable.
Functions of shoulder are:
• Refuge for stalled or temporarily stopped vehicles
• Buffer for accident recovery
• Contributes to driving ease and driver confidence
• Increases sight distance on horizontal curves
• Improves capacity and operations on most highways
• Space for maintenance operations and equipment
• Space for snow removal and storage
• Lateral clearance for signs, guardrails, and other roadside objects
• Improving drainage on a traveled way
• Structural support for the roadbed

The cross-slope of shoulder depends on the type of its surface. The table is a list of recommended
cross-slope for every type of surface.
TYPE OF SURFACE RECOMMENDED CROSS-SLOPE
(%)
Bituminous 2.0-6.0
Gravel or Stone 4.0-6.0
Turf 6.0-8.0
Note: No shoulder should have a cross-slope of more than 7:1

4. Side-Slopes
In urban areas, sufficient right-of-way is generally not available to provide for natural side-slopes,
and retaining walls are frequently used.
Where natural side-slopes are provided, the following limitations must be considered:
• A 3:1 side-slope is the maximum for safe operation of maintenance and mowing equipment.
• A 4:1 side-slope is the maximum desirable for accident safety. Barriers should be used to prevent
vehicles from entering a side-slope area with a steeper slope.
• A 2:1 side-slope is the maximum on which grass can be grown, and only then in good climates.
• A 6:1 side-slope is the maximum that is structurally stable for where sandy soils are predominate.
Side-slopes for Cuts and Embankments
Due to the danger of steep terrain, the side-slopes for roads located in such areas should be limited
to a value depending on the height of cut or fill on the side of the road. The table provides the
recommended side-slopes for the roads located on terrains.
HEIGHT OF TERRAIN
CUT OR FILL MODERATELY
LEVEL or ROLLING STEEP
(ft) STEEP
0-4 6:1 4:1 4:1
4-10 4:1 3:1 2:1
10-15 3:1 2.5:1 1.75:1*
15-20 2:1 2:1 1.5:1*
>20 2:1 1.5:1* 1.5:1*
Note: *Avoid where soils are subjected to erosion
5. Guardrails
One of the most important features of any cross-section design is the use and placement of
guardrail. It is intended to prevent vehicles from entering a dangerous area o the roadside or median
during an accident or intended action.
▪ Median Guardrail
▪ Primarily provided to prevent vehicles from encroaching into the opposite lane(s) off
traffic. It also prevents vehicles from colliding with median objects.
▪ Wide Medians
▪ 20 ft or wider medians without dangerous objects is not provided guardrail and is not
curbed. They can also serve as accident recovery areas.
▪ Narrow Medians
▪ Generally, require some type of barrier to avoid accident of encroaching vehicles from
opposite lanes.