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Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape and Perspectives for Inclusive Heritage

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[486.17]. Kumar, Sarvesh and Singh, Rana P.B. 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape and
Perspectives for Inclusive Heritage Development. Context: Built, Living and Natural
[ISSN: 0973-502X; DRONAH, A-258, South city 1, Gurgaon, HA 122007, India], vol.
XIII (special issue on ‘Cultural Landscapes’): pp. 21 - 32. <size: 3,855 words, 13-pp.,
10 figures, references>.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ayodhya, India:
Cultural Landscape and Perspectives for Inclusive
Heritage Development
Sarvesh Kumar and Rana P.B. Singh

§ Sarvesh Kumar, a UGC Senior Research Fellow in geography at B.H.U., is pursuing Ph.D. on
the topic “Cultural Landscape and Heritage of Ayodhya-Faizabad”. He has presented papers in
five International Seminars held at Bali, SNU Seoul, APELA Korea, 33-IGU Beijing, Lampang,
and several held in India. He has published six papers on cultural landscapes of Ayodhya. He is a
Secretary of the ACLA - Asian Cultural Landscape Association (Seoul, Korea), and member of
APELA, ICOMOS, and INTACH.
Mobile: (+091)-93074 79872. Email: sarvesh1k@gmail.com
§ (Prof.) Rana P.B. Singh is researching in the field of cultural and sacredscapes and heritage
interfaces in Varanasi region since four decades, and also did field studies in Japan, Korea, Italy
and Sweden. He is the Vice-President, ACLA - Asian Cultural Landscape Association (Seoul,
Korea), and also Vice President, BHAI - Big History Association of India (an affiliate of IBHA,
USA). His publications on Banaras include 6 books and 125 papers.
https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers
Mobile: (+091)-98381 19474. Email: ranapbs@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Religion had played a role for controlling power in Indian monarchy in the ancient past, and in
contemporary India too it played a role in the formation of religious landscape and religious
heritage, through commonly using processions, pilgrimage, religious assemblies, religious fairs
(melā), and sacred places. Ayodhya-Faizabad represents an aesthetic and unique type of cultural
landscape and heritagescape that include natural, cultural, tangible and intangible heritages, and
variety of cultural landscapes. The city’s cultural landscapes, are illustrated with riverfront
sacredscapes and faithscapes, sacred sites associated with Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhist and ever
Sufis (and other Muslims), and several other small congregations. The existence, maintenance
and functioning of intangible heritages and sacredscapes make this city a role model for
understanding spirit of place, ritualscapes, and finally a model for inclusive heritage
development.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

1. Introduction: Perspective
Cultural landscapes are a legacy for everyone. These special sites reveal aspects of our country’s
origins and development as well as our evolving relationships with nature over time. They
provide scenic, economic, ecological, social, recreational, and educational opportunities helping
communities to better understand themselves. Sauer’s description of cultural landscape as subject
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 22

to evolutionary system in the frame of existence-continuity-maintenance in the passage of time

(cf. Fig. 2), and W.M. Davis’s normal cycle of natural landscape evolution, both took chorology
and succession as the process of evolution and changes (Livingstone 1992). Cosgrove and
Daniels (1988: 1) claimed that, “a landscape is a cultural image, a pictorial way of representing,
structuring or symbolising surroundings.” Since 2003 UNESCO has recognised three categories
of cultural landscape of outstanding universal values for world heritage listing; clearly defined
landscape designed and intentionally created by man, organically evolved landscape, and
associated cultural landscape (Ceccarelli and Rössler 2003). The ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development’ based on Inclusive Heritage Development and urban sustainability is now
considered inseparable. In Indian context, religious heritage as a religious properties and sacred
places considered as an integral part of larger ensembles, such as historic cities, cultural
landscapes and associated natural sites.
Ayodhya, being one of the most sacred places is known as the legendary capital of Rama;
and nowadays one of the most important places of pilgrimage in India with special reference to
its sacred cultural landscapes. Ayodhya, situated on the right bank of Ghaghara River (Sarayu)
(Fig.1), is primarily an ancient tirtha (riverfront sacredscape) and salvific place that records
settlement continuity since at least ca 800 BCE. Ayodhya is assumed to be the birth place of Lord
Rama, a mythological seventh incarnation of the God Vishnu, a major deity of Vaishnavite group
who established the order of ‘continuity and existence of organism’. Ayodhya was one of the
famous cities and the first capital of the powerful Koshala among the sixteen Mahajanapadas of
ancient India (Law 1944: 424, Chakrabarti 2000: 378 and 387).

Fig. 1. Location of Ayodhya-Faizabad.

Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 23

Ayodhya for a period of over two thousand years has borne witnessed to the presence of
Jainism, Buddhism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Islam too, therefore Ayodhya consists of the
sacred and religious places for Hindus together with Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims too
(Shaw 2000: 698). Ayodhya is also sacred and important place for Koreans because it is
birthplace of legendary foremother from whom the royal dynasty got succession. Ayodhya
records manifestation of the five kinds of “scapes” that are related to the gods and various
deities making the city as sacred or religious Cultural Landscape: (i) the Sacredscapes that
contain various sacred places, temples, chhavanis (religious places for marshal training) and
ashrams (monasteries); (ii) the Ritualscapes carrying traditions of variety of the rituals
performed by pilgrims (e.g. sacred bathing, offering, cremation, etc.); (iii) the Riverfrontscapes
consisting of the Ghats, stairways to waterfront; (iv) the holy Tankscapes/ Kundscapes, the
kunda or sacred tank that plays an important role in Hindu’s purification rituals; and (v)
Routescapes that historically and primarily consists of five pilgrimage routes, viz.
Chaurasikroshi, Chaudahakroshi, Panchakroshi, Ramkot ki Parikrama and Antargrihi Parikrama –
among these the two later are relatively less popular. Three major pilgrimage routes defining the
three territorial limits of Ayodhya, are Chaurasikroshi (macrocosmos – outer space),
Chaudahakroshi (mesocosmos – middle space), and Panchakroshi (microcosmos – inner space).

2. Sacred Landscape in the sphere of religion

The sacred landscape based on Saurian frame of cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural
landscape by a sacred religious group, where sacrality of cultural functioning is the agent, the
natural area is the medium, and the sacred landscape is the final product (Fig. 2). The Sacred
Landscape is the impartial part of Cultural Landscapes. It includes the present tangible and
intangible cultural practices in the sphere of religion, associated festivities and also all kind of
religious/sacred heritages and their attributes.

Fig. 2. Formation of Ritual Landscape in the Saurian frame; here ‘sacrality’ serves as medium.

2.1. Hindu Shrines

Hanumangarhi: it is one of the most important temples of Ayodhya, situated in the heart of the
city (Fig. 3). This belongs to the CE 10th century, and built in the four-side fort with circular
bastions at each corner, and is believed to be the place where monkey god Hanuman used to live
in a cave as a guard of the city. The temple has golden idol of Hanuman in view of Rajatilak.
Ramajanmabhumi: it is the place where Lord Rama was said to have taken birth. There is a
small Rama temple here. During the Gupta period (CE 4th - 6th century) many Vaishnavite
temples were built, including the famous one at this site that was reshaped and expanded in the
CE 11th-12th centuries (Kumar and Singh 2015: 69). By the order of Mughal king Babur the
temple was demolished in 1528, and using the debris made here a mosque-like monument so-
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 24

called Baburi Masjid. However, on 6th of December 1992 the right-wing Hindus razed the
mosque-like structure in order to build a temple to Lord Ram; since then the whole area faces
contestation and conflict, and is under the control of military. Kanak Bhawan: this temple was
built by the Queen of Tekamahgarh (M.P.) in 1891, around an open inner court in which stand a
small shrine of Ramapada. The main idols installed inside the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) are of
the goddess Sita and Lord Rama with his three brothers (Bakker 1986: 141). Nageshvarnatha
Temple: situated on the Svaragadvara Ghat, the present temple of Nageshvarnatha was built
during the period of Nawab Safdar Jung by his Hindu minister Naval Ray in the fifth decade of
the 18th Century. The temple contains a Shiva Linga, in front of which stand three images of
Nandin Ox (vehicle of Shiva). According to mythology temple was founded by King Kusha, the
son of Lord Rama (der Veer 1988: 17).

2.2. Riverfront Ghat

The banks of the Sarayu River at Ayodhya consists of a number of bathing places (ghats), and are
counted as sacred and ritualistic places for Hindu adherents (Figs. 3 and 4). Commonly,
pilgrims perform four important rituals, i.e. snana (bathing), dhyana (meditation), dana
(donation), and shradha (cremation) on the riverfront ghat (stairways to waterfront). Some of
ghats are pakka, having flights of stone steps leading down to the river, while others are
called kaccha, just mud bank. Svargadvara Ghat is the most famous ghat, where the
pilgrims come for worship, take holy dip and perform other rituals (Kumar and Singh 2015).

Fig. 3. The Riverfront Ghats and Temples

Other important ghats are situated on the eastern and the western sides of the bank. Every
ghat possesses individual historical, mythological, religious folk tales and spiritual importance.
Svargadvara Ghat, ‘Door to the Heaven’, is the main ghat, which spreads between the
Sahastradhara and the temple of Treta Ke Thakur, and is considered as the first tirtha established
on the bank of the Sarayu River. According to the ancient text this holy place was established by
Vishnu before his seventh incarnation as Rama. In his report, the archaeologist Alexander
Cunningham describes Svargadvara as the place where body of Rama was cremated (last ritual)
(Führer 1891: 297). Its sanctity and importance continued since 11th century onwards. It is
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 25

believed that people who die or would bury at this place were at once be relieved from
the transmigration and be settled in the heavens. During 1960s the bed of the Sarayu River had
shifted northwards, leaving the Svargadvara and other ghats.

Fig. 4. Ayodhya: the Sarayu (Ghaghara) riverfront ghats – Rama ki Paidi.

In 1960 the new ghat (Naya Ghat) and a bridge were built, about 100m to 150m north in
front of the old Svargadvara Ghat and also a water pool (Ram ki Paidi, cf. Fig. 4) with beautiful
flower garden was also opened in between these ghats. Around the Svargadvara Ghat the notable
temples are Chandrahari, Gangamahal, Sarayu, Nageshvaranath, and Chaturbhuji. At these ghats
the pilgrims performs variety of rituals, including holy bath for purification, meditation
and donation of alms that emerged to form a distinct ritualscapes. Special ritual includes
offertory of cow, of money, of cloths, and of food too. Other important ghats are Lakshman Ghat,
Jhunki Ghat, Papamochan Ghat, Rinamochan Ghat, Raj Ghat, Brahmakunda Ghat, Kaushlya
Ghat, Chakratitha Ghat and Guptar Ghat.

2.3. Jain Shrines

Ayodhya has the honour of being the birthplace of five Jain Tirthankaras (saviour and spiritual
teachers), all represented with the temples: (i) Sri Adinath/ Rishabhadev (1st), (ii) Sri Ajitnath
(2nd), (iii) Sri Abhinandannath (4th), (iv) Sri Sumatinath (5th) [Fig. 5], and (v) Sri Anantnath
(14th). They also received diksha (initiation) in Ayodhya. Their temples, respectively are:
Swargadwar area (Muraitola), Baksaria Tola (Begumpura, Saptasagar), Mohalla Mondhiana
Rajghat, Ramkot Mohalla, and Golaghat. Kesari Singh, the treasurer of Nawab of Faizabad, got
the five Jain shrines repaired and re-constructed to preserved the birthplace of these Tirthankaras,
in CE 1724 (1781 Vikrama Samvata).
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 26

Fig. 5. Ayodhya: the Sumatinath temple, Ramkot.

Jain texts also stand testimony to the visit of Mahavira [ca 599-527 BCE], Jainism’s
founder to this city. In the CE 7th century, Xuanzhang (Hiüen-tsang), the Chinese monk,
recorded spotting many Hindu temples and also Jain temples in Ayodhya. The neighbourhood of
Raiganj is known for its Digambar Jain temple that consists of 9.45 metre (31ft) high marble-idol
of Shri Rishabhadev, known as ‘Badi Murti’ [‘the big image’]. All these temples consist of
pilgrims’ rest houses (dharmashalas). In CE 1193, Muhammad Ghori invaded north India
including Ayodhya, and his army officer Makhdum Shah Juran Ghori come to Ayodhya and
destroyed the famous Jain temple of Adinatha in CE 1198 together with several other temples (cf.
Jain 2013; also Kishore 2016: 473-474), but in 1724 it has been re-built in the inner side of the
garden along Raj Ghat. Ghori’s tomb exists in the premise of Adinath temple.

2.4. Muslim Sacredscapes

Ayodhya also records more than hundred mosques, mazars (tombs), Idgahs (prayer ground),
Karbala (burial place), etc. related to Muslim sacred/ritual landscapes, that is how in folk way
metaphysically known as a “Chhoti Mecca” (Little Mecca). Muslims perform variety of the
rituals on their associated sacred places (cf. Fig. 6). Ayodhya is also famous for two important
graves of Muslim saints, and they are plying important role in existence of Muslim ritual
landscape (Kumar and Singh 2015: 70).
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 27

Fig. 6. Ayodhya: Muslim shrines – religious landscapes.

The Grave of Hazrat Shish is of the son of Hazrat Adam (the first man to be sent on the
Earth) and according to myths he was the first child to be born on the earth and lived for about
1,000 years. Another popular grave is of Navgazi [‘length of 9 yards’, 8.23 metres] Mazar or
Hazrat Noah, situated behind the Ayodhya police station (Fig. 7). According to mythology Hazrat
Noah saved life on the earth at the enormous flood on earth. The grave of Noah is very popular,
where newly-weds, especially poor Hindus, come to seek his blessings for a happy married life.
Muslim and Hindu devotees, both perform fatiah (prayer) ritual on every Thursday. On special
occasion of celebrating death anniversary in the form of Urs ritualistic celebration held there, and
devotees commonly perform kawaali (religious songs). Muslims generally practise five-pillar of
Islam or five important religious rituals, viz. confession of faith (shahadah), ritual prayer (salaat/
salah), alms-giving in form of religious tax (zakat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (sawm)
to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad, and the pilgrimage to Mecca
(hajj).
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 28

Fig. 7. Ayodhya: Mazar of Hazrat Noah Allaihsallam (‘Navgazi’)

3. Memorable Landscape of Korean Queen Huh (Korean Park)

According to Sam Kuk Yusa, an old historical tale of Korea dated ca CE 11th Century in Korean
language “History of three Kingdoms”, Queen Huh Hwang-Ho (wife of King Suro, the founder of
Karak Kingdom) was born in the city of Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh. In the year CE 48, an Indian
princess (Huh) came to Korea from Ayodhya by the journey of sea and got marriage with King
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 29

Kim Suro of the ancient Korean Kingdom of Kaya which is now the Kimhe city, known as the
ancestral home of Karaka kingdom in southern Korea. On 27th February 2000, a delegation led
by Kimhe city Mayor Song Eun-Bok, had paid visit to their ancestral site, and proposed Ayodhya
as a sister city of Kimhe and a plan was thought to set up a memorial building honouring Queen
Huh in future. In continuation, on 18th January 2001 Korean delegation, including the
ambassador of Korea, has inaugurated a memorial stone-plate honouring their Royal ancestor
Queen Huh; hundreds or historians, and government representatives including the Korean
ambassador to India unveiled the memorial in the Park (Korean Park) on the right bank of the
Sarayu River at Naya Ghat, i.e. 750m north-east from the Nageshvarnatha temple (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Ayodhya: Korean Park at the Naya Ghat along the Saryu River (north-eastern part).

Fig. 9. Ayodhya: The future development plan of Korean Park at the Naya Ghat.
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 30

Today Queen Huh’s descendants number more than six million, including the Kim Hae
Kim Huh and Inchon Lee clans. Among her famous descendants are General Kim Yoo-Shin who
first unified the Korean Kingdom in the seventh Century, as well as former Korean President Kim
Dae-Jung and former Prime Minister Kim Jong-Pil. Now, the Korean delegates come to Ayodhya
every year, including the Royal family of Ayodhya and performing the number of rituals at the
Queen Huh memorial place. The memorable monument is the symbol of unbreakable ancient
relationship between South Korea and India. Further extension of the whole area is in process
(Fig. 9).

4. Pilgrimage Routes
Ayodhya has developed five ritualistic pilgrimage routes in continuity of history, viz.
Chaurasikroshi, Chaudahakroshi, Panchakroshi, Ramkot ki Parikrama and Antargrihi Parikrama
(Fig. 10); among these the two later are relatively less popular. Three major pilgrimage routes
define the three territorial limits of Ayodhya, viz. Chaurasikroshi, Chaudahakroshi, and
Panchakroshi. Like most of the pan-Indian holy centres Ayodhya too displays a three-tier
cosmology, respectively as macro (i.e. Mandala, the Outer one), meso (i.e. Kshetra, the Middle
one), and micro (i.e. Puri /city, inner sanctum) cosmos; and all are demarcated by routes and
linked archetypally by temples/shrines and are described in the ancient mythologies, which are
frequently cited in various rituals and group-chanting and sacred walks.

Fig. 10. Ayodhya: The Five Pilgrimage routes (Yatra/ Parikrama).

Chaurasikroshi is the oldest pilgrimage route, and associated with 148 sacred places.
Mythologically the route symbolises journey to 8.4 million (84 lakhs) of organic species where
the soul has to move [for scientific corollary, see Singh 2017: 23], and is performed in a period of
thirty days. The Chaudahakroshi Parikrama route links over thirty-six sacred places, related to life
incidences of Lord Rama, from birthplace (Ramakot) to death-place (Guptar Ghat). The
Panchakroshi refers to the core area and associated with thirty most sacred places; these are only
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 31

related to the birth place of Lord Rama, and completed within six hours. These all five pilgrimage
routes converge into five circular loops from inner Antargrihi to outer Chaurasikroshi pilgrimage
routes. All pilgrimage journeys start with firstly taking sacred bathe in the Sarayu River and
performing vow-ritual of moral bondage (sankalpa lena) for performing pilgrimage journey and
the journey ends with the process of getting release from this bondage (sankalpa chodana).

5. Heritage and Pilgrimage Inclusive Development: Framing HRIDAY and

PRASAD
Framing tourism and cultural development in holistic frame for national and international
resource within the purview of the ancient roots of heritage properties and traditions of
spirituality, sacrality and pilgrimages that have a long tradition and continuity in India, Ministry
of Tourism and Culture, and Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, have
recently conceptualised two innovative and appropriate national programmes of interfacing and
counter-depending missions of (i) Heritage city Development and Augmentation Yojana
(HRIDAY), and (ii) Pilgrimage Rejuvenation And Spiritual Augmentation Drive (PRASAD). In
both of these programmes the ministries of Culture and Tourism and Urban Development will
collaborate to strengthen and promote the heritage sites and centres of pilgrimage-tourism in
making the environment green and sustainable while befitting into the roots of culture, traditions
and society and also image of the site. Under the banner of new government in Uttar Pradesh (19
March 2017) an agreement between GOI Ministry of Culture and Tourism and government of
U.P. has been made on 24 March 2017 to develop and transform the five cities as special sites for
heritage and religious tourism, viz. Varanasi, Ayodhya, Mathura, Gorakhpur, and Agra. In a
recent recommendation (10 May 2017) under PRASAD the city of Ayodhya and Varanasi have
given priority consideration for developing pilgrimage sites, routes and facilities. Special plans
are in process preparing conservation and rejuvenation of heritage and religious sites in these
cities to promote pilgrimage-tourism and spiritual message for global harmony.

6. Concluding Remarks
Ayodhya should be developed as a sacred place where divinity meets humanity and thus emerges
the landscapes of global understanding and harmony where Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Muslims, Sufis, and several other small congregations together develop a sacredscapes and
ritualscapes of mosaicness and religio-cultural pluralities (Kumar and Singh 2016-17: 76). The
following viable measures for Inclusive heritage sustainable development based on UN-SDGs
should be taken into account:

1. Heritage be protected and maintained as part of cultural landscapes, while placing them in
the Master Plan and the delineated heritage zones – aiming to promote cultural tourism
that ultimately bring sustainable economic benefits to the local population. Of course, the
present acts and laws are grossly inadequate for conservation, preservation and
maintenance of cultural-heritage landscapes, and also there is lack of a system that
maintain close ties with the stakeholders. However, initiative already started to solve these
issues.
2. Heritage protection be continuously monitored, assessed and strategies be changed as per
needs after assessment – befitting according to appropriateness, priority and in need of
the time through mass awakening, public participation and the festivities supported by the
residents and stakeholders. Religious trusts are encouraged and activated for awareness
building. Through the cooperation of state government the Avadh University (existing in
Ayodhya-Faizabad) has recently taken initiative in this direction.
3. City development plans follow specific heritage guidelines support system and the by-laws,
which do not yet exist! However, the recently formed Municipal Corporation of Ayodhya
has initiated plans for preservation and conservation of heritage sites in view of their
Kumar and Singh 2017. Ayodhya, India: Cultural Landscape & IHD…. Context, vol. XIII 32

revival and uses, while restating the sense of religiosity and spirit of place (genius loci)
and inherent sacrality (sacral loci).
4. The recent march for getting “The Heritage Sites, Riverfront and Pilgrimage Routes of
Ayodhya” in the UNESCO World Heritage List is a positive indication for realising
values of cultural landscapes and interrelated heritagescapes in the overall development in
the frame of SDGs (see Kumar and Singh 2017: 307-309).

Under recently initiated (24 March 2017) the state government’s strategy of ‘Pilgrimage-
Heritage City Development Plan’, the pilgrimage-heritage cities will enhance the natural
environment, preserve culture and history, and embrace new urban technology, hoping that these
things will lead to the ‘restoration and sustenance of culture, holy sites and related heritage and
spirituality with enhanced quality of life’. The city of Ayodhya is a part of this project. The
supporting resources and monetary allocation will be sorted out by a public-private-partnership
(PPP).

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