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Ayodhya (India): a Study of Ritual Landscapes

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Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 171

[493.17]. Kumar, Sarvesh and Singh, Rana P.B. 2017. Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual
Landscapes. Practising Geographer (ISSN: 0975-3850; Foundation of Practising
Geographers, Kolkata, India), vol. 21 (no. 2), Winter: pp. 171 - 180.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Ayodhya (India): a Study of Ritual Landscapes

Mr. Sarvesh Kumar and Prof. Rana P.B. Singh
________________________________________________________________________

Abstract : The ‘ritual landscape’ is result of maintenance of sacredness and of reciprocal

and interfacing relationship between human faith and landscapes in the trajectory of
‘time-space-ritual’ routines through variety of rituals and performing functionaries. The
bank of the Sarayu River at Ayodhya consists of a number of sacred places where devout
pilgrims perform variety of the rituals that emerged to form a distinct ritual landscape,
thus developed ritualscapes. Ayodhya is the sacred place not only for Hindus, but also to
other religious groups, like Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Muslims; that is how
multicultural ritual landscapes emerged. Every year around 1.9 million pilgrims pay visit
to Ayodhya, and pay visit to variety of sacred places and perform rituals, including sacred
walks along the three important pilgrimage routes, i.e. Panchakroshi, Chaudahkroshi, and
Chaurasikroshi. The present paper describes the historical and mythological values of
varying components of ritual landscapes in the frame of variety of religious places, and
finally attempts to develop Ayodhya as a city of global understanding and harmony.
Keywords: ritual landscapes, ritualscapes, sacredscapes, faithscapes, pilgrimage and
routes, religious heritage.

1. INTRODUCTION
Rituals, is one of the unique features of every religious activities and associated with the
landscape and sites that converges into ‘ritual landscapes’, and their cognates like
‘ceremonial landscape’, ‘sacred landscape’, ‘faithscapes’ and ‘symbolic and archetypal
landscape’ (Robb, 1998: 170-171). The ritual landscapes are important ritual spaces in all
important religions of India, as they ‘literally incorporated the sacrality of the landscape
in their own bodies to live a wholly meaningful existence by maintaining its continuity
and re-interpreting its meanings in varying contexts of the belief systems’. They not only
connect the local people to divine and sublime but also help to maintain social values,
cultural identities, power relationship, and place ballets. Virtually all landscapes have
cultural associations because all landscapes have been affected in some way by human
action or perception, and thus ritual landscapes emerges as a result of various religious
activities. The landscapes and associated attributes that emphasize the interaction
between human being and nature over time-maintaining existence-continuity-
transformation and transferability – that makes the cultural landscapes (Singh, 2013: 92).
The cultural landscapes are reflective of human and natural (physical) transformation to
landscapes. They hold different meanings to diverse groups of people, each of which hold
within their relative culture, varying attitudes towards landscapes (cf. Duncan, Johnson
and Schein, 2004). Cultural beliefs in the form of rituals within different groups of people
(religious group) depend on as to how these distinctive beliefs come to dominate
transformation to the landscape. Following the Saurian frame, the ritual landscape is, thus
fashioned from a natural landscape by a religious group, where religious rituals serve as
the agent, the natural area is the medium, and the ritual landscape is the result (Fig. 1).
The ritual landscape is the impartial part and product of cultural landscape. It includes the
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 172

present tangible and intangible cultural practices in the sphere of religion and festivities
and also includes all kind of religious heritage.

Fig. 1. The Convergence of the Ritual Landscape.

2. AYODHYA: GEOGRAPHICAL PERSONALITY

Ayodhya counted among one of the seven most scared, ritualistic, and salvific cities of
the India (i.e. Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya-Haridvar, Kashi, Kanchi, Avantika-Ujjain, Puri,
Dvarka), is situated on the right bank of the river Sarayu (Ghaghara) at a distance of 7km
east from Faizabad city ( Singh and Rana, 2006: 277-285 ). Ayodhya is the part of
Faizabad city and both are known together as Ayodhya-Faizabad twin city (260 47’ North
and 260 80’ North Latitude and 820 12’ East and 820 20’ East Longitude) (Fig. 2).
According to Hindu mythology, Ayodhya was settled by King Manu (Hindu progenitor
of mankind), and narrated as the birth place of Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of
Hindu God Vishnu. Ayodhya was one of the famous cities and the first capital of the
powerful Koshala among the sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient India (Law 1944: 424,
Chakrabarti 2000: 378 and 387). Ayodhya for a period of over two thousand years has
borne witnessed to the presence of Jainism, Buddhism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and
Sufism (Islam) too, therefore Ayodhya consists of the sacred and religious places for
Hindus together with Muslims, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs too (Shaw, 2000: 698).
According to the ancient history, Ayodhya was one of the holiest cities where
people of the various religious adherents live together, and maintain their respective
temples and shrines, viz. Hindus (1161, dominated by the authority of Lord Rama),
followed by Muslim Sufis and their affiliates (186), and Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists (cf.
Table 1). Altogether they formed spaces of cultural mosaic and social cohesiveness.
Ayodhya History is a chequered one. In the Atharvaveda, this place was described as a
city that was made by gods and was as prosperous as heaven itself. The powerful
kingdom of ancient Koshala had Ayodhya as its capital. This city was also a significant
trade centre in 600 BCE. Historians have identified this place to be Saketa, a key
Buddhist centre during the 5th century BCE (it is a widely held belief that Buddha visited
Ayodhya on several occasions) which it remained till the 5th century CE. In fact, Fa-hien,
the Chinese monk, kept record of several Buddhist monasteries that he saw here (Kumar
and Singh, 2017: 306).
In the 12th century under the sultanate rule at Delhi and Mughal rulers, Ayodhya
was invaded and destroyed many times by the order of the Mughal invader Mir Baqi
Tashkandi who demolished the famous Rama temple Ramajanmabhumi of Pratihara from
the Gahadavala period at the birth place of Rama, and in the following period of fifteen
months he built a Muslim monument (Babari mosque) using the debris of the temple.
Since its inception this has been controversial and sensitive place for centuries and even
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 173

today. Muslims have never performed prayer (namaz) there. As it has been centre of
Hindu-Muslim riots, the main site was opened for devout Hindus till 23rd of February
1857 when the East India Company (Britain) made a separating wall and stop the entry of
Hindus through the mosque since 5th of January 1950 under the law, and only restricted
entry was permitted (Singh and Rana 2002: 301).
Table 1. Ayodhya: Religious Properties – Temples and Shrines
Se. Sacred Shrines ca. No. Notable Temple/ Shrine
1. Hindu Deities (1161)
a. Vishnu 7 Chandrahari, Dharmahari, Chakrahari
b. Rama 1035 Kanak Bhavan, Ramajamabhumi,
Lakshman Kila, Treta ke Thakur
c. Krishna 3 Radhe Kishna, Radhe Krishna
d. Shiva (& family) 18 Nageshvarnath, Kshireshvarnath
e. Devis (goddess) 11 Badi Devkali, Annapurna Devi, Chhoti
Devkali, Pateshvari, Jalpa Devi, Shitala
f. Auxiliary deities 5 Hanumangarhi, Hanuman, Shani Dev
g. Chhavani (a sect 3 Mani Ramadas (Chhoti) Chhavani,
monastery) Raghunath ji ki Chhavani, Badi Chhavani
h. Akhada (Dashnami 10 Digambar, Juna, Nirmohi, Udasin,
monastery) Mahanirvani, Niranjani, Santoshi
i. Caste-temple 62 Nishad Temple, Kori Temple
j. Folk deities 7 Bramha Baba, Sati Mata, Mari Mata
2. Jain temple 5 Adinatha, Ajitnath, Abhinandannath,
Sumatinath, Anantanath.
3. Buddhist Vihar 2 Vishakha Buddha, Panchashil Buddha
4. Christians (Church) 3 Saint Mary, Saint Andrew, Central
Methodist.
5. Sikhs (Gurudvaras) 7 Nishan Sahib, Thara Sahib, Brahmakunda,
Dukhanivaran
6 Muslims (186)
a. Mosque (masjid) 103 Jama Tatshah, Washika, Khajur, Sunahari,
Hasan Raza Khan, Terhi Bazar, Alamganj,
Saiyyedwada
b. Mazar (dargah) 80 Hazrat Noah, Hazrat Shish, Badi Bua
c. Karbala 3 Haqbari Sharif Karbala, Shia Karbala
Source: Field survey by the authors, 2015-2017.

3. HINDU RITUAL LANDSCAPE

Ayodhya is the Hindu religious city therefore most ritual landscape related to the Hindu
religion. Presently, of the total population of Ayodhya, 90% inhabitants belong to Hindu
religion. According to personal experiences and understanding it is estimated that
presently around 1.9 million pilgrims pay visit to Ayodhya every year and performing
variety of rituals on various religious occasions and creates ritual landscape. The ongoing
networking and functional system at a holy or pilgrimage site, like Ayodhya, has cultural
context and its continuity since ancient past that is how the whole landscape is
conceptualized (mytholised), visualized, and inscribed in the belief systems through
circumambulation (parikramā), auspicious vision (darshan), and ultimately in the
formation of ritualscapes (pujā-kshetra), which is regulated by sacred processes, which
includes functions and functionaries, oration and meanings, festivities and ceremonies in
the rhythm of space-time-sacrality, supporting economics, devotion and fear of curses,
and institutional and organisational running, and the consequential occurrences.
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 174

Fig. 2. Ayodhya: Notable Temples and Kundas.

3.1 Riverfront Ghat

The banks of the Sarayu River at Ayodhya consists of a number of bathing places (ghats),
and are counted as sacred and ritualistic places for Hindu adherents (Fig. 3).
Basically, pilgrims performing four important rituals snana (bathing), dhyana
(meditation), dana (donation), and cremation on the riverfront ghat (stairways to
waterfront). Some of ghats are pakka, having flights of stone steps leading down to
the river, while others are called kaccha, just mud bank. Svargadvara Ghat is the
most famous ghat, where the pilgrims come for pilgrimage and holy dip and other
rituals (Kumar and Singh, 2015a). Other important ghats are situated on the eastern and
the western side of the bank.
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 175

Fig. 3. Ayodhya: Riverfront Ghats

Every ghat possesses individual historical, mythological, religious folk tales and
spiritual importance. Svargadvara Ghat, ‘Door to the Heaven’, is the main ghat, which
spreads between the Sahastradhara and the temple of Treta Ke Thakur, and is considered
as the first tirtha established on the bank of the Sarayu River. According to the ancient
text this holy place was established by Vishnu before his seventh incarnation as Rama.
The archaeologist Alexander Cunningham describes in his report Svargadvara as the
place where body of Rama was cremated (last ritual) (Führer, 1891: 297). Its sanctity and
importance continued since 11th century onwards. It is believed that people who die or
would bury at this place were at once be relieved from the transmigration and be
settled in the heavens. During 1960s the bed of the Sarayu River had shifted northwards,
leaving the Svargadvara and other ghats. In 1960 the new ghat (Naya Ghat) and also a
bridge were built, about 100m to 150m north in front of the old Svargadvara Ghat and a
water poll (Ram Ki Paidi) with beautiful flower garden was also opened in between these
ghats (Kumar and Singh, 2015 b). Around the Svargadvara Ghat the notable temples are
Chandrahari, Gangamahal, Sarayu, Nageshvaranath, and Chaturbhuji. At these ghats the
pilgrims performs variety of rituals, including holy bath for purification, meditation
and donation of alms that emerged to form a distinct ritualscapes.
Special ritual includes offertory of cow, of money, of cloths, and of food too.
Other important ghats are Lakshman Ghat, Jhunki Ghat, Papamochan Ghat, Rinamochan
Ghat, Raj Ghat, Brahmakunda Ghat, Kaushlya Ghat, Chakratitha Ghat and Guptar Ghat.

3.2 Holy Tank (Kunda)

In the Hindu religious tradition holy tank called kunda. From the ancient period kunda
have played an important role of Hindu’s purificatory rituals and also the essential
source of water (Kumar and Singh, 2013). Here some kundas are in natural forms without
any human construction but some kundas consist of steps all the sides. Most of the
kundas found in the side of Panchakroshi circumambulation path but some situated in the
inner part of the city. Every kunda has own ritualistic quality like as Surya Kunda is
famous for Sun worshiping and fire offering rituals on the special occasion of Bhanu
Saptami (month of September). Pilgrims bathe in kunda (tank) and pays homage to god
Sun. The festival days of this solar sanctuary are connected with seasonal festivals the
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 176

apparent winter solstices (uttarayana) in Pausha month (month of January)

Makarsamkranti, and the spring festival in Magha. Other important kundas are
Dantadhavan Kunda, Vidya Kunda, Sita Kunda, Brihaspati Kunda, Laxmi Kunda, and
Girja Kunda.

3.3 Pilgrimage Route

Ayodhya has developed five ritualistic pilgrimage routes in continuity of history, viz.
Chaurasikroshi, Chaudahakroshi, Panchakroshi, Ramkot ki Parikrama and Antargrihi
Parikrama; among these the two later are minor and relatively less popular (Fig. 4). Three
major pilgrimage routes define the three territorial limits of Ayodhya, viz.
Chaurasikroshi, Chaudahakroshi, and Panchakroshi. Like most of the pan-Indian holy
centres Ayodhya too displays a three-tier cosmology, respectively as macro (i.e.
Mandala, the Outer one), meso (i.e. Kshetra, the Middle one), and micro (i.e. Puri /city,
inner sanctum) cosmos, all demarcated by routes and linked archetypally by
temples/shrines and are described in the ancient mythologies, which are frequently cited
in various rituals and group-chanting and sacred walks. Chaurasikroshi is the oldest
pilgrimage route, and associated with 148 sacred places. Mythologically the route
symbolises journey to 8.4 million (84 lakhs) of organic species where the soul has to
move, and is performed in a period of thirty days.

Fig. 4. Ayodhya: Pilgrimage Routes

The Chaudahakroshi Parikrama route links over thirty-six sacred places, related to
life incidences of Lord Rama, from birthplace (Ramakot) to death-place (Guptar Ghat).
The Panchakroshi refers to the core area and associated with thirty most sacred places;
these are only related to the birth place of Lord Rama, and completed within six hours.
These all five pilgrimage routes converge into five circular loops from inner Antargrihi to
outer Chaurasikrosi pilgrimage routes. All pilgrimage journeys start with firstly taking
sacred bathe in the Sarayu River and performing ritual of moral bondage (sankalpa) for
performing pilgrimage journey and the journey ends with the process of getting release
from this bondage (sankalpa chodana) (Singh, 2003: 144).

3.4 Temples and shrines

Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 177

Ayodhya has more than thousands of small and big temples and every temple followed
verity of rituals in existence of ritual landscapes of Ayodhya. Every temple of Ayodhya is
performing the following sequential eleven steps of ritual activities:
1. Meditation (dhyana)
2. Invocation (avahana)
3. Welcome ceremony (arghya, padya)
4. Bath (snana)
5. Dressing (vastra)
6. Worship of the various parts of god body (ang puja)
7. Offering incense and a lamp (dhupa, dipa)
8. Offering food to god (naivedya)
9. Hymn of praise (stuti)
10. Worship of the attendant deities (sah-deva puja)
11. Dismissal, conclusion (asana, prathana)

Hanumangarhi is one of the most important temples of Ayodhya, situated in most

prominent area of Ramakot (Fig. 4).This is the 10th century temple, built in the four-side
fort with circular bastions at each corner, and is believed to be the place where monkey
god Hanuman used to live in a cave-guard of the city (cf. der Veer, 1988: 19). The temple
has golden idol of Hanuman in view of Rajatilak. Ramajanmabhumi is the place where
Lord Rama was said to have taken birth. There is a small Rama temple here. During the
Gupta period (CE 4th - 6th century) many Vaishnavite temples were built, including the
famous one at this site that was reshaped and expanded in the CE 11th-12th centuries.
The military commander of Mughal king Babur demolished the temple in CE 1528, and
using the debris made here a mosque-like monument called Baburi Masjid. On 6th of
December 1992 the right-wing Hindus razed the mosque in order to build a temple to
Lord Rama. Nageshvaranatha Temple is situated on the Svaragadvara Ghat, and was built
during the period of Nawab Safdar Jung by his Hindu minister Naval Ray in the fifth
decade of the 18th Century. The temple contains a Shiva Linga, in front of which stand
three images of Nandin Ox (vehicle of Shiva). According to mythology temple was
founded by King Kusha, the son of Lord Rama (cf. der Veer, 1988: 17).

4. JAIN RITUAL LANDSCAPE

Ayodhya has a historical significance for the Jain community too (Kumar and Singh,
2016-17: 65). Ayodhya has the honour of being the birthplace of five Jain Tirthankaras
(prophets): Sri Adinath or Rishabhadeva (1st), Sri Ajitnath (2nd), Sri Abhinandannath
(4th), Sri Sumatinath (5th) and Sri Anantnath (14th). In commemoration of the five
Tirthankaras, five temples were constructed at the site of their birth places, respectively
at Muraitola Swargadvara, Saptsagar, Saraya, near Ramakot, and near Golaghat. They
also received diksha in Ayodhya. In CE 1193, Muhammad Ghori invaded north India
including Ayodhya, and his army officer Makhdum Shah come to Ayodhya and
destroyed the famous Jain temple of Adinatha in CE 1194. Jain texts also stand testimony
to the visit of Mahavira, Jainism’s founder to this city. From Ayodhya, on the Lucknow-
Ayodhya National Highway near Ronahi at a distance of 24 km at Ratnapuri lies the
birthplace of Sri Dharmanath, the 15th Tirthankara.

5. SIKH RITUAL LANDSCAPE

Ayodhya has three Gurudvara (Sikh worshiping place), as memorial sites remembering
visit of first Guru and many other Gurus in various periods. The historical Gurudvara of
Brahma Kunda is situated on the bank of River Sarayu. The first Sikh Guru Nanak Dev
(CE 1469-1539) visited Ayodhya (1500) during his pilgrimage from Haridwar to
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 178

Jaganatha Puri and shared some religious discourses with Brahmins in the shadow of
wood apple tree on the Brhamakunda Ghat and also cleaning his teeth near to
Dukhabhanjana well, now which is protected by Gurudvara authority (Bakker, 1986:
274). According to mythology Brahmakund was place of austerity for Hindu god
Brahma in the Treta era. The ninth Guru Shri Teg Bahadur (CE 1670) and tenth Guru
Shri Guru Govind Singh also visited on this place several times and performed bathing
and meditation rituals, and conveyed Guru’s messages to Brahmin society of Ayodhya.
Another historical Gurudvara of Nazar Bag is situated near to Hanumangarhi temple;
Nazar Bag means Gifted Garden which was gifted by Man Singh, the king of Ayodhya to
Guru Nanak Dev in his honour. Presently a big Gurudvara has been constructed by Sikh
devotees and religious Sikh saints.
Sikh religion follows simple code of conduct based on precise and practical
guidelines laid out by the founder Guru (religious master) Nanak Deva for the practice of
the “Sikh way of life”. The Guru emphasised that a Sikh should lead a disciplined life
engaged in two important rituals, i.e. first meditation (simran), and second selfless
service (sewa). Gurudvara (the temple) is the main ceremonial place for performing
worship and other rituals. The ceremony of initiation into the Sikh religion is called the
Amrit ceremony. Every ritualistic ceremony is conducts in the presence of five baptized
Sikhs, called Panch Pyare, who wear the five Sikh symbols or Five ‘K’ of Sikh:
1. Kesha (long hair, which is never cut). This term is used to refer to the turban that
is used to cover the hair.
2. Kangha (comb)
3. Kachha (short pants)
4. Kada (metal bracelet)
5. Kirpan (a ceremonial dagger)

6. MUSLIM RITUAL LANDSCAPE

Ayodhya also records more than hundred mosques, mazars (tombs), Idgahs (prayer
ground), Karbala (burial place), etc. related to Muslim sacred/ritual landscapes, that is
how in folk way metaphysically known as a “Chhoti Mecca” (Little Mecca) (Sharda,
2016). Muslim peoples are performing the variety of rituals on related sacred place.
Ayodhya is famous for two important graves of Muslim saint and those are plying
important role in existence of Muslim ritual landscape. The Grave of Hazrat Shish was
the son of Hazrat Adam (the first man to be sent on earth) and according to myths he was
the first child to be born on earth and lived for about 1,000 years. Another popular grave
is of Naugazi Mazar or Hazrat Noah, situated behind the Ayodhya police station.
According to mythology Hazrat Noah saved the life on earth at the enormous flood on
earth. The grave of Noah is very popular, where newly-weds, especially Hindus, come to
seek his blessings for a happy married life. Muslim and also Hindu devotees, both
perform fatiah (prayer) ritual on every Thursday. On the special occasion of celebrating
death anniversary in the form of Urs ritualistic celebration held there, and devotees
perform kawaali (religious songs). Basically, Muslims generally practise five-pillar of
Islam or five important religious rituals, viz. confession of faith (shahada), ritual prayer
(salat), alms in form of tax (zakat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (sawm), and the
pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Rituals play a very important role in every sphere of humankind. In Hindu religion rituals
starts from the birth (janma) and completed on death (mrityu). According to historical
proof in Hindu religion every people performs sixteen types of rituals on some
appropriate place – these places are called Ritual Landscape/ Ritualscapes. The Indian
Kumar & Singh (2017), Ayodhya (India): a study of Ritual Landscapes. Practising Geographer, 21 (2), Winter. 179

ritualistic city Ayodhya represents an aesthetic and unique type of cultural landscape that
include historical religious monuments, artefacts, ghats, water pools, traditional
performances, mythology and faiths, custom, folklore, festivities, pilgrimage route and
multi-cultural religious sites in the form of ritual landscapes. Ayodhya may certainly be
developed as a sacred place where divinity meets humanity and thus emerges the
landscapes of global understanding and harmony where Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Muslims, Sufis, and several other small congregations together develop a series and
variety of sacredscapes and ritualscapes characterised by mosaicness and religio-cultural
pluralities. This is warned that religious buildings (temples and shrines) form a large part
of the cultural heritage in South Asia, but little consciousness of historical value (Feilden,
1993: 1). In addition “with lack of understanding the universal importance of
heritagescapes and their resource value in promoting heritage tourism, increasing pace of
individualism and consumerism, the situation turned to be horrifying by constant threat
and destruction to such sites” (Singh, 2008: 96).
With the growing sense of tourism and wish to see culture in the mirror of history
and tradition, heritage resource management becomes a focal issue in both the ways:
protection and maintenance of sacred sites, and survival and continuity of pilgrimage
ceremonies; Ayodhya to be taken as a model example. Fostering a “rediscovery of
forgotten (or, about so) common cultural heritage and practices at sacred places that
centred on reverence to and harmony with the Earth as source and sustainer of life, the
conservation and preservation of such holy sites would put a strong step in this direction”
(Singh, 2006: 234).

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_____________________________________________
Authors
Mr. Sarvesh Kumar, M.A., UGC Senior Research Fellow (Ph.D. in Progress. –
‘Cultural Landscapes of Ayodhya’), Member - ACLA (Korea), APELA (Korea),
ICOMOS (India), INTACH, NGSI; Life Member - BISS, Bharatiya Itihas Samkalana
Samiti, U.P; Secretary - ACLA, Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU, Seoul,
Korea); Department of Geography, Institute of Science; Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, UP 221005, INDIA.
Mob. (+091)-8756259470, & 9307479877. Email: sarvesh1k@gmail.com

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh, MA, PhD, FJF, FIFS, FAAI, FACLA, ‘Ganga-Ratna’, is Vice-
President, ACLA: Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), and
Vice-President: BHAI, Big History Association of India, and was Professor of
Geography (spel. Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies), & Head (2013-2015),
Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005, India.
Mob. (+091)-9838119474. Email: ranapbs@gmail.com
https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers/

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