Ellison Chair in International Floriculture

Literature citations with abstracts

Acar, C. and C. Sakici (2008). “Assessing landscape perception of urban rocky habitats.”
Building and Environment 43(6): 1153-1170.
By environmental literature conducted recently, it has been evidently comprehended that urban
life quality for mankind and others can be improved by serving these systems with green and
living elements. This study is to investigate urban rocky habitats that have special natural
characteristics and that can be implicated for urban green areas. But these habitats have been
considered as nature splits withstanding against the urban pressures by means of the unplanned
build-up activities foremost, and road construction, poor quality or neglected remnants.
Therefore, this study presents the environmental perception and preferences of urban rocky
habitats which are threatening within excessive urbanization and human use of natural areas in
the context of the city of Trabzon, Turkey. So, a total of 20 habitats selected from urban and
surroundings were Surveyed by using a questionnaire and landscape assessment approach. With
Surveying performed on 204 participants, visual preferences, landscape attributes and proposed
management options for urban nature conservation were determined. The chi(2)-test results
revealed clearly that he demographic and expertise status of the participants were correlated with
the preferences for types of rocky habitat scene and management options. The scenes with
natural elements and less human disturbance obtained higher scores on visual preferences than
any of the urban rocky scenes lacking these characteristics. Also, in the quantitative phase, factor
analysis based on principal component structure revealed the ‘visual and spatial effects’, the
‘usage and arrangement’, the ‘naturalness and ecological value’, and the ‘functionality’
components of the scenes. Consequently, some implications for the effective and efficient
planning and development Of urban nature conservation by assisting the letter understanding of
he various patterns of landscape preference, choice and satisfaction in habitats under the present
study were suggested. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Adachi, M., C. L. E. Rohde, et al. (2000). “Effects of floral and foliage displays on human
emotions.” HortTechnology 10(1): 59-63.
Changes in human emotions were investigated during exposure to three different indoor
conditions: floral display present, foliage display present, and no display present. There were 20
subjects (10 males and 10 females) in each condition. The subjects were shown a video that
introduced the University of Reading and included scenes of landscapes. It was shown that a
floral display had positive effects on human emotions, such as composition and confidence,
however, some evidence of a significant increase in annoyance was also found for this treatment.
The foliage display had a somewhat negative effect by slightly increasing bad temper, and the
foliage display tended to have a positive effect on clearheadedness. Investigations of
psychological responses to nature are complex, and many opportunities for more work exist.

Aldous, D. E. (2000). “Perspectives on Horticultural Therapy in Australia.”

HortTechnology 10(1): 18-23.
Human awareness of plants in Australia goes back 50,000 years when the aboriginal first began
using plants to treat, clothe and feed themselves. The European influence came in 1778 with the
First Fleet landing in New South Wales. Australia’s earliest records of using horticulture for
therapy and rehabilitation were in institutions for people with intellectual disabilities or who
were incarcerated. Eventually, legislation created greater awareness in the government and
community for the needs of persons with disabilities, and many worthwhile projects, programs
and organizations were established or gained greater recognition. Horticultural therapy programs
may be found in nursing homes, rehabilitation centers, adult training support services, hospitals,
day centers, community centers and gardens, educational institutions, supported employment,
and the prisons system. This article reviews the history and development of Australian
horticulture as a therapy in the treatment of disabilities and social disadvantaged groups, and
includes an overview of programs offered for special populations and of Australia’s horticultural
therapy associations. It also discusses opportunities for research, teaching and extension for
horticultural therapy in Australia.

Andrews, M. and B. Gatersleben (2010). “Variations in perceptions of danger, fear and

preference in a simulated natural environment.” Journal of Environmental Psychology In
Press, Corrected Proof.
Although natural environments can help promote health, they also contain a number of dangers.
This study attempted to examine how variations in the physical structure of a simulated natural
environment influenced perceptions of both overall and specific types of danger, fear and
preference before exploring the relationships between these variables. Three simulated walks
through a natural environment differing in levels of prospect-refuge were created for the study.
Respondents were randomly assigned to one of the conditions and asked to imagine taking the
walk for real. In support of the typology, the results found that the walks with higher levels of
prospect-refuge (higher visibility, fewer hiding places and more accessibility) were perceived as
less dangerous and fearful and more preferred than walks with lower levels of prospect-refuge.
However despite levels of prospect-refuge appearing to impact on the perceived likelihood of
encountering a physical danger or becoming lost, they were not found to impact on the
perception of encountering a social danger.

Appleseed, I. (2009, May 2009). “Valuing central park’s contributions to New York City’s
economy.” from http://www.appleseedinc.com/reports/centralpark-may2009.pdf.
In May 2009, the Central Park Conservancy released a report on Central Park’s impact on the
economy of New York City. The report, which was prepared by Appleseed, highlights the
multiple ways in which the Park contributes to the City’s economic vitality – as a major
enterprise in itself; as a magnet for visitors, a location for film and TV production and a venue
for major events; as a resource for New York City residents; and through its impact on property
values and City tax revenues. Most of the research and analysis presented in the report was
completed in 2008, before New York City began to feel the full impact of the current recession.
Some of the details of our analysis would of course be different if we had been using 2009 data.
Retail and office rents in the area around the Park have declined, for example, and a sharp
slowdown in the sale of apartments and commercial properties has meant less revenue from real
property transfer taxes. On the other hand, because changes on taxable assessed values always
lag behind changes in real market values (both on the way up and on the way down), the real
property tax revenues that the City derives from properties near the Park (and in effect, from the
Park itself) are actually higher in 2009 than they were in 2007. In other ways as well, Central
Park’s contribution to the City’s economy is probably even more important today than it was at
the height of the boom. Spending by Central Park enterprises and visitors to the Park directly and
indirectly accounted for $395 million in economic activity in New York City in 2007; and that
this economic activity, along with the increase in real property values attributable to proximity to
the Park, generated $656 million in tax revenues for the City in 2007.

Arbogast, K. L., B. C. P. Kane, et al. (2009). “Vegetation and outdoor recess time at
elementary schools: What are the connections?” Journal of Environmental Psychology
29(4): 450-456.
Empirical and anecdotal evidence suggests that landscapes with more vegetation have a positive
impact on children’s focus, attention, and cognitive development. In school, children are able to
regain focus, suppress impulses, and pay attention in class longer after exposure to natural
settings. Because children spend much of their time in school, the amount and types of
vegetation on school grounds may influence their development. Public elementary schools in the
Commonwealth of Virginia (N = 988) were surveyed to examine correlations between school
ground vegetation and outside recess. The number of trees on school grounds, the size of the
school grounds, and the presence of sports fields were modestly correlated with greater outside
recess time. These correlations support common sense because sports fields facilitate supervised
play and larger school grounds provide space for sports fields and playgrounds and additional
opportunities for free play. More trees on school grounds provide a welcoming environment for
students and teachers, and encourage outside play. These results may help school personnel
design and maintain school grounds that increase outdoor recess time.

Austin, M. E. (2002). “Partnership opportunities in neighbourhood tree-planting

initiatives: Building from local knowledge.” Journal of Arboriculture 28(4): 178-186.
This study explored resident involvement in tree planting and maintenance projects on vacant
lots in Detroit, Michigan, U.S. Thirty-eight individuals involved in follow-up care of tree
planting sites were interviewed and surveyed to understand their motivations for involvement
and their perception of these local neighborhood greening projects. “Tending to local residents,
as well as the trees, in neighborhoods can have positive impacts on tree survivorship, community
development, and improved relationships between foresters and the public. This study explored
resident involvement in tree planting and maintenance projects on vacant lots in Detroit,
Michigan, U.S. Thirty-eight individuals involved in follow-up care of tree planting sites were
interviewed and surveyed to understand their motivations for involvement and their perception of
these local neighborhood greening projects. Underlying motivations include an enjoyment from
working with nature as well a strong social motivation. Recommendations are offered for
forestry professionals seeking improved interactions with local constituents.”

Barnicle, T. and K. S. Midden (2003). “The Effects of a Horticulture Activity Program on

the Psychological Well-being of Older People in a Long-term Care Facility.”
HortTechnology 13(1): 81-85.
This study investigated the effects of indoor horticulture activities on the current psychological
well-being of older people in two long-term care facilities over a 7-week period. Thirty-one
participants at one facility served as the control group. Thirty-one participants at another facility
served as the horticulture group. Participants in both facilities continued with their normal daily
routine and activities over the 7-week period; however, the horticulture group participated in a 1-
hour horticulture activity session once a week over the 7-week period and the control group did
not. The control group and horticulture group did not differ significantly in psychological well-
being prior to the start of the study. After the 7-week program, the horticulture group had a
significant increase in psychological well-being, whereas the control group had a slight decrease
in psychological well-being. The results of this study indicate that horticulture activities may
have a beneficial effect on the current psychological well-being of older people in a long-term
care facility.

Bassuk, N. and P. Trowbridge (2010). “Creating the Urban Eden: Sustainable Landscape
Establishment in Theory and Practice.” HortTechnology 20(3): 485-486.
Creating the Urban Eden, a course taught jointly by faculty in Landscape Architecture and
Horticulture at Cornell University, is a unique two-semester class spanning the academic year
from August to May. Students face the task of creating viable, sustainable landscapes both in
theory and practice. The success and sustainability of any planting design is ultimately dependent
upon knowledgeable site assessment and analysis, appropriate plant selection, and clear
communication of design intentions. This class teaches all aspects of landscape establishment,
including detailed site assessment, woody plant identification, choice of appropriate plants,
planting design, soil remediation, transplanting, and early maintenance in human-impacted
landscapes. In addition to designing for a specific site, students learn about written specifications
for technical planting and graphic details to communicate and implement design proposals.
Every year on the Cornell University campus, the students in this class implement, in a hands-on
manner, all aspects of landscape establishment that they have learned by creating new landscapes
that serve to integrate theory, principles, practice, and provide a demonstration of fundamentals
taught in the class.

Behe, B., J. Hardy, et al. (2005). “Landscape plant material, size, and design sophistication
increase perceived home value.” Journal of Environmental Horticulture 23(3): 127-133.
Little consumer research is available to help landscape design and installation businesses develop
service marketing strategies. We investigated the effect of three components of a landscape
design on the perceived value of a home. This information would be useful in marketing lawn
and landscape services to prospective clients. Our objective was to provide a consumer
perspective on the value of the components in a ‘good’ landscape and determine which attributes
of a landscape consumers valued most. Using conjoint design, 1323 volunteer participants in
seven US states (Delaware, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,
and Texas) viewed 16 photographs that depicted the front of a landscaped residence. Landscapes
were constructed using various levels of three attributes: plant material type, design
sophistication, and plant size. Results showed that the relative importance increased from plant
material type to plant size to design sophistication. Across all seven markets, study participants
perceived that home value increased from 5% to 11% for homes with a good landscape.

Benedict, M. and E. T. McMahon (2003, 08/06/2010). “How cities use parks for green
infrastructure.” from http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/index.htm.
Just as growing communities need to upgrade and expand their built infrastructure of roads,
sewers, and utilities, they also need to upgrade and expand their green infrastructure, the
interconnected system of green spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions,
sustains clear air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife. Green
infrastructure is a community’s natural life support system, the ecological framework needed for
environmental and economic sustainability. In their role as green infrastructure, parks and open
space are a community necessity. By planning and managing urban parks as parts of an
interconnected green space system, cities can reduce flood control and stormwater management
costs. Parks can also protect biological diversity and preserve essential ecological functions
while serving as a place for recreation and civic engagement.They can even help shape urban
form and reduce opposition to development, especially when planned in concert with other open
spaces.

Blaha, K. (2005, 08/06/2010). “How cities use parks for smart growth.” from
http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/index.htm.
Parks are commonly thought of as the venue for “fun and games,” but that is only one role they
play in a metropolitan environment. Urban parks, which broadly include parkland, plazas,
landscaped boulevards, waterfront promenades, and public gardens, significantly define the
layout, real estate value, traffic flow, public events, and the civic culture of our
communities.With open spaces, our cities and neighborhoods take on structure, beauty, breathing
room, and value. Public understanding of the pivotal role that parks play in enhancing the quality
of life in our cities is growing, along with an understanding of the links between the quality of
city parks and sprawling growth on the fringe of cities. City parks are an important element of
smart growth that addresses both the public’s need for greenspace and the role of greenspace in
mitigating higher development density. The smart growth concerns of the public create
opportunities for both public agencies and private foundations to leverage support for smart
growth, “by making and “re-making” city parks that both strengthen urban cores and protect the
fringe.

Bolund, P. and S. Hunhammar (1999). “Ecosystem services in urban areas.” Ecological

Economics 29(2): 293-301.
Humanity is increasingly urban, but continues to depend on Nature for its survival. Cities are
dependent on the ecosystems beyond the city limits, but also benefit from internal urban
ecosystems. The aim of this paper is to analyze the ecosystem services generated by ecosystems
within the urban area. ‘Ecosystem services’ refers to the benefits human populations derive from
ecosystems. Seven different urban ecosystems have been identified: street trees; lawns/parks;
urban forests; cultivated land wetlands; lakes/sea; and streams. These systems generate a range
of ecosystem services. In this paper, six local and direct services relevant for Stockholm are
addressed: air filtration, micro climate regulation, noise reduction, rainwater drainage, sewage
treatment, and recreational and cultural values. It is concluded that the locally generated
ecosystem services have a substantial impact on the quality-of-life in urban areas and should be
addressed in land-use planning. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Bowler, D. E., L. Buyung-Ali, et al. (2010). “Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A
systematic review of the empirical evidence.” Landscape and Urban Planning 97(3): 147-
155.
`Urban greening’ has been proposed as one approach to mitigate the human health consequences
of increased temperatures resulting from climate change. We used systematic review
methodology to evaluate available evidence on whether greening interventions, such as tree
planting or the creation of parks or green roofs, affect the air temperature of an urban area. Most
studies investigated the air temperature within parks and beneath trees and are broadly
supportive that green sites can be cooler than non-green sites. Meta-analysis was used to
synthesize data on the cooling effect of parks and results show that, on average, a park was
0.94 °C cooler in the day. Studies on multiple parks suggest that larger parks and those with trees
could be cooler during the day. However, evidence for the cooling effect of green space is mostly
based on observational studies of small numbers of green sites. The impact of specific greening
interventions on the wider urban area, and whether the effects are due to greening alone, has yet
to be demonstrated. The current evidence base does not allow specific recommendations to be
made on how best to incorporate greening into an urban area. Further empirical research is
necessary in order to efficiently guide the design and planning of urban green space, and
specifically to investigate the importance of the abundance, distribution and type of greening.
Any urban greening programme implemented would need to be appropriately designed and
monitored to continue to evaluate benefit to human health through reducing temperature.

Brack, C. L. (2002). “Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by an urban forest.”

Environmental Pollution 116: S195-S200.
At the beginning of the 1900s, the Canberra plain was largely treeless. Graziers had carried out
extensive clearing of the original trees since the 1820s leaving only scattered remnants and some
plantings near homesteads. With the selection of Canberra as the site for the new capital of
Australia, extensive tree plantings began in 1911. These trees have delivered a number of
benefits, including aesthetic values and the amelioration of climatic extremes. Recently,
however, it was considered that the benefits might extend to pollution mitigation and the
sequestration of carbon. This paper outlines a case study of the value of the Canberra urban
forest with particular reference to pollution mitigation. This study uses a tree inventory,
modelling and decision support system developed to collect and use data about trees for tree
asset management. The decision support system (DISMUT) was developed to assist in the
management of about 400,000 trees planted in Canberra. The size of trees during the 5-year
Kyoto Commitment Period was estimated using DISMUT and multiplied by estimates of value
per square meter of canopy derived from available literature. The planted trees are estimated to
have a combined energy reduction, pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration value of
US$20-67 million during the period 2008-2012. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.

Bradshaw, J. and L. Tozer (1993) Enviroscaping to Conserve Energy: a Guide to

Microclimate Modification.
Florida homes use approximately 819 trillian Btu (a heat unit called British thermal unit) of
energy every year. As much as 80 trillion Btu of this energy could be saved by effective
management of the microclimate that surrounds our homes. Eighty trillion Btu is enough energy
to power approximately 529,000 homes in Florida. This energy savings would reduce the strain
on individual pocketbooks and the state’s bank account. Florida currently imports from other
states approximately 98 percent of the petroleum and 100 percent of the coal burned at the power
plants to make our electricity. This energy savings would reduce the strain on our environment,
too, by reducing the quantities of greenhouse gases and pollutants produced when fossil fuels are
burned.

Brascamp, W. (2005). “A Quantitative Approach to Human Issues in Horticulture:

Conjoint Analysis.” HortTechnology 15(3): 546-550.
Research on human issues in horticulture focuses on the human dimension of horticulture in an
effort to maximize the benefits of plants and nature in general, for human well-being. A key
issue is the need for scientific evidence of such benefits and for rigorous research methods to
reveal the mechanics of the interaction between people and plants. Conjoint analysis, a
methodology with obvious potential for successful application in the area of human issues in
horticulture, is widely used in consumer research to estimate the structure of people’s reactions
to multi-attribute objects or services. This paper discusses the steps involved in implementing
conjoint analysis and describes how it can be applied to people-plant research.

Brethour, C., G. Watson, et al. (2007).Literature review of documented health and

environmental benefits derived from ornamental horticulture products, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada Markets and Trade, Ottawa, ON.
A review of the literature demonstrated that ornamental horticulture has a wider suite of benefits
than expected. Plants can provide multiple benefits in terms of the economy, environment and
human lifestyles. Many of these benefits, however, are not well known or understood within the
general population. As a result, there is a considerable opportunity for the ornamental
horticulture industry to sell more products based on the benefits identified throughout this
literature review.

Bringslimark, T., T. Hartig, et al. (2007). “Psychological Benefits of Indoor Plants in

Workplaces: Putting Experimental Results into Context.” HortScience 42(3): 581-587.
Laboratory experiments and quasi-experimental field studies have documented beneficial effects
of indoor plants on outcomes such as psychophysiological stress, task performance, and
symptoms of ill health. Such studies have taken an interest in the value of indoor plants in work
settings, but they typically have not considered how the effects of plants might compare with
effects of other workplace characteristics. The present study makes an initial attempt to situate
the potential benefits of indoor plants in a broader workplace context. With cross-sectional
survey data from 385 Norwegian office workers, we used hierarchical regression analyses to
estimate the associations that plants and several often-studied workplace factors have with
perceived stress, sick leave, and productivity. Other variables included in our models were
gender, age, physical workplace factors (e.g., noise, temperature, lighting, air quality), and
psychosocial workplace factors (demands, control, social support). After controlling for these
variables, the number of indoor plants proximal to a worker’s desk had small but statistically
reliable associations with sick leave and productivity. Although small, such associations can
have substantial practical significance given aggregation over the large number of office workers
over time.

Bringslimark, T., T. Hartig, et al. (2009). “The psychological benefits of indoor plants: A
critical review of the experimental literature.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 29(4):
422-433.
People have been bringing plants into residential and other indoor settings for centuries, but little
is known about their psychological effects. In the present article, we critically review the
experimental literature on the psychological benefits of indoor plants. We focus on benefits
gained through passive interactions with indoor plants rather than on the effects of guided
interactions with plants in horticultural therapy or the indirect effect of indoor plants as air
purifiers or humidifiers. The reviewed experiments addressed a variety of outcomes, including
emotional states, pain perception, creativity, task-performance, and indices of autonomic arousal.
Some findings recur, such as enhanced pain management with plants present, but in general the
results appear to be quite mixed. Sources of this heterogeneity include diversity in experimental
manipulations, settings, samples, exposure durations, and measures. After addressing some
overarching theoretical issues, we close with recommendations for further research with regard
to experimental design, measurement, analysis, and reporting.

Burchett, M. (2000). “Report of the International People-Plant Symposium in Sydney,

Australia, July 1998.” HortTechnology 10(1): 36-37.
Participants from eight countries met in Australia in July 1998 for the International People-Plant
Symposium titled “Towards a New Millennium in People-Plant Relationships.” There were
about 75 presentations arranged under three general headings: 1) plants, cultural diversity, and
environmental quality, 2) plants for human health and well-being, and 3) plant and horticultural
education–community and schools. The symposium represented another step in the
dissemination of information and awareness on people-plant relationships.

Burghardt, K. T., D. W. Tallamy, et al. (2009). “Impact of Native Plants on Bird and
Butterfly Biodiversity in Suburban Landscapes.” Conservation Biology 23(1): 219-224.
Managed landscapes in which non-native ornamental plants are favored over native vegetation
now dominate the United States, particularly east of the Mississippi River. We measured how
landscaping with native plants affects the avian and lepidopteran communities on 6 pairs of
suburban properties in southeastern Pennsylvania. One property in each pair was landscaped
entirely with native plants and the other exhibited a more conventional suburban mixture of
plants2014a native canopy with non-native groundcover and shrubs. Vegetation sampling
confirmed that total plant cover and plant diversity did not differ between treatments, but non-
native plant cover was greater on the conventional sites and native plant cover was greater on the
native sites. Several avian (abundance, species richness, biomass, and breeding-bird abundance)
and larval lepidopteran (abundance and species richness) community parameters were measured
from June 2006 to August 2006. Native properties supported significantly more caterpillars and
caterpillar species and significantly greater bird abundance, diversity, species richness, biomass,
and breeding pairs of native species. Of particular importance is that bird species of regional
conservation concern were 8 times more abundant and significantly more diverse on native
properties. In our study area, native landscaping positively influenced the avian and lepidopteran
carrying capacity of suburbia and provided a mechanism for reducing biodiversity losses in
human-dominated landscapes. Los paisajes bajo manejo en los que las plantas ornamentales no
nativas son favorecidas en lugar de la vegetación nativa son dominantes en los Estados Unidos,
particularmente al este del Río Mississippi. Medimos el efecto del ajardinado con plantas nativas
sobre las comunidades de aves y lepidópteros en seis pares de propiedades suburbanas en el
sureste de Pennsylvania. Una propiedad en cada par estaba ajardinada con plantas nativas
completamente y la otra presentaba una mezcla suburbana de plantas más convencional 2013 un
dosel nativo con hierbas y arbustos no nativos. El muestreo de la vegetación confirmó que la
cobertura total de plantas era mayor en los sitios convencionales y que la cobertura de plantas
nativas era mayor en los sitios nativos. Medimos varios parámetros de la comunidad de aves
(abundancia, riqueza de especies, biomasa y abundancia de aves reproductoras) y de lepidópteros
larvales (abundancia y riqueza de especies) de junio 2006 a agosto 2006. Las propiedades nativas
sustentaron un número significativamente mayor de orugas y de especies de orugas, así como
una abundancia, diversidad, riqueza de especies, biomasa de aves y parejas reproductoras de
especies nativas significativamente mayores. Es de particular importancia que las especies de
aves de interés de conservación regional fueron 8 veces más abundantes y significativamente
más diversas en las propiedades nativas. En nuestra área de estudio, el ajardinado nativo influyó
positivamente sobre la capacidad de carga de aves y de lepidópteros de los suburbios y
proporcionó un mecanismo para reducir las pérdidas de biodiversidad en paisajes dominados por
humanos.

Chee, Y. E. (2004). “An ecological perspective on the valuation of ecosystem services.”

Biological Conservation 120(4): 549-565.
Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and the
species that make them up, sustain and fulfil human life. Ecosystem service valuation is being
developed as a vehicle to integrate ecological understanding and economic considerations to
redress the traditional neglect of ecosystem services in policy decisions. This paper presents a
critical review on the neoclassical economic framework, tools used for economic valuation of
ecosystem services and the economic welfare approach to collective decision-making, from an
ecological perspective. The applicability of the framework and techniques for valuing ecosystem
services are evaluated in light of the challenges posed by the complex, non-linear nature of many
ecosystem services. Decisions concerning ecosystem management are often complex, socially
contentious and fraught with uncertainty. Although judicious application of economic valuation
techniques to ecosystem services can provide valuable information for conceptualizing decision
choices and evaluating management options, there are serious limitations in the economic
welfare approach to decision-making. These shortcomings and their implications for ecosystem
management are elucidated and alternative approaches that emphasize participation, explicit
treatment of uncertainty and transparent decision-making processes are discussed.

Chiesura, A. (2004). “The role of urban parks for the sustainable city.” Landscape and
Urban Planning 68(1): 129-138.
International efforts to preserve the natural environment are mainly concerned with large, bio-
diverse and relatively untouched ecosystems or with individual animal or vegetal species, either
endangered or threatened with extinction. Much less attention is being paid to that type of nature
close to where people live and work, to small-scale green areas in cities and to their benefits to
people. Increasing empirical evidence, however, indicates that the presence of natural areas
contributes to the quality of life in many ways. Besides many environmental and ecological
services, urban nature provides important social and psychological benefits to human societies,
which enrich human life with meanings and emotions. The main concern of this paper is to
address the importance of urban nature for citizens’ well being and for the sustainability of the
city they inhabit. Some results of a survey conducted among visitors of an urban park in
Amsterdam (The Netherlands) are presented and discussed. The issues investigated concern
people’s motives for urban nature, the emotional dimension involved in the experience of nature
and its importance for people’s general well being. Results confirm that the experience of nature
in urban environment is source of positive feelings and beneficial services, which fulfill
important immaterial and non-consumptive human needs. Implications for the sustainability of
the city will be analyzed and discussed. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Cho, S. H., J. M. Bowker, et al. (2006). “Measuring the contribution of water and green
space amenities to housing values; An application and comparison of spatially weighted
hedonic models.” Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 31(3): 485-507.
This study estimates the influence of proximity to water bodies and park amenities on residential
housing values in Knox County, Tennessee, using the hedonic price approach. Values for
proximity to water bodies and parks are first estimated globally with a standard ordinary least
squares (OLS) model. A locally weighted regression model is then employed to investigate
spatial nonstationarity and generate local estimates for individual sources of each amenity. The
local model reveals some important local differences in the effects of proximity to water bodices
and parks on housing price.

Chon, J. H. and C. S. Shafer (2009). “Aesthetic Responses to Urban Greenway Trail

Environments.” Landscape Research 34(1): 83-104.
The ways people perceive greenway trails in urban environments are not well studied. Trail
layout and aspects of maintenance and design of trails in urban areas would benefit from better
knowledge of how potential users perceive these places and what might encourage or discourage
their use. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative influence of aesthetic response
dimensions on the likeability of greenway trail scenes in an urban environment. A web-based
‘virtual tour’ was used to elicit responses to scenes of urban greenway environments in
downtown Houston and Austin, Texas, USA. The 211 subjects who participated in the study
were selected from an undergraduate student population. Participants viewed the scenes and
responded to the survey in a controlled computer laboratory. Perceptions of the greenways
supported the aesthetic dimensions that Nasar has suggested for broader urban environments.
Our analysis resulted in the identification of five dimensions of aesthetic response to the
greenway scenes that were interpreted as: maintenance, distinctiveness, naturalness, pleasantness
and arousal. These represented both cognitive and affective responses to the environment and all
five dimensions were significant positive predictors of the likeability of greenway scenes. The
dimension of pleasantness had the greatest influence on likeability and maintenance had the
least. The implications of the findings for urban design related to greenway trails and future
research are discussed.

Clark, C., P. Adriaens, et al. (2008). “Green Roof Valuation: A Probabilistic Economic
Analysis of Environmental Benefits.” Environmental Science & Technology 42(6): 2155-
2161.
Green (vegetated) roofs have gained global acceptance as a technology that has the potential to
help mitigate the multifaceted, complex environmental problems of urban centers. While policies
that encourage green roofs exist at the local and regional level, installation costs remain at a
premium and deter investment in this technology. The objective of this paper is to quantitatively
integrate the range of stormwater, energy, and air pollution benefits of green roofs into an
economic model that captures the building-specific scale. Currently, green roofs are primarily
valued on increased roof longevity, reduced stormwater runoff, and decreased building energy
consumption. Proper valuation of these benefits can reduce the present value of a green roof if
investors look beyond the upfront capital costs. Net present value (NPV) analysis comparing a
conventional roof system to an extensive green roof system demonstrates that at the end of the
green roof lifetime the NPV for the green roof is between 20.3 and 25.2% less than the NPV for
the conventional roof over 40 years. The additional upfront investment is recovered at the time
when a conventional roof would be replaced. Increasing evidence suggests that green roofs may
play a significant role in urban air quality improvement. For example, uptake of NOX is
estimated to range from $1683 to $6383 per metric ton of NOX  reduction. These benefits were
included in this study, and results translate to an annual benefit of $895−3392 for a 2000 square
meter vegetated roof. Improved air quality leads to a mean NPV for the green roof that is
24.5−40.2% less than the mean conventional roof NPV. Through innovative policies, the
inclusion of air pollution mitigation and the reduction of municipal stormwater infrastructure
costs in economic valuation of environmental benefits of green roofs can reduce the cost gap that
currently hinders U.S. investment in green roof technology.

Clark, C., P. Adriaens, et al. (2008). “Green Roof Valuation: A Probabilistic Economic
Analysis of Environmental Benefits.” Environmental Science & Technology 42(6): 2155-
2161.
Green (vegetated) roofs have gained global acceptance as a technology that has the potential to
help mitigate the multifaceted, complex environmental problems of urban centers. While policies
that encourage green roofs exist at the local and regional level, installation costs remain at a
premium and deter investment in this technology. The objective of this paper is to quantitatively
integrate the range of stormwater, energy, and air pollution benefits of green roofs into an
economic model that captures the building-specific scale. Currently, green roofs are primarily
valued on increased roof longevity, reduced stormwater runoff, and decreased building energy
consumption. Proper valuation of these benefits can reduce the present value of a green roof if
investors look beyond the upfront capital costs. Net present value (NPV) analysis comparing a
conventional roof system to an extensive green roof system demonstrates that at the end of the
green roof lifetime the NPV for the green roof is between 20.3 and 25.2% less than the NPV for
the conventional roof over 40 years. The additional upfront investment is recovered at the time
when a conventional roof would be replaced. Increasing evidence suggests that green roofs may
play a significant role in urban air quality improvement. For example, uptake of NOX is
estimated to range from $1683 to $6383 per metric ton of NOX reduction. These benefits were
included in this study, and results translate to an annual benefit of $895−3392 for a 2000 square
meter vegetated roof. Improved air quality leads to a mean NPV for the green roof that is
24.5−40.2% less than the mean conventional roof NPV. Through innovative policies, the
inclusion of air pollution mitigation and the reduction of municipal stormwater infrastructure
costs in economic valuation of environmental benefits of green roofs can reduce the cost gap that
currently hinders U.S. investment in green roof technology.

Coley, R. L., F. E. Kuo, et al. (1997). “Where does community grow? The social context
created by nature in urban public housing.” Environment and Behavior 29(4): 468-494.
This study examines how the availability of nature influences the use of outdoor public spaces in
two Chicago public housing developments. Ninety-six observations were collected of the
presence and location of trees and the presence and location of youth and adults in semiprivate
spaces at one high-rise and one low-rise public housing development Results consistently
indicated that natural landscaping encourages greater use of outdoor areas by residents. Spaces
with trees attracted larger groups of people, as well as more mixed groups of youth and adults,
than did spaces devoid of nature. In addition, more dense groupings of trees and trees that are
located close to public housing buildings attracted larger groups of people. These findings
suggest that natural elements such as trees promote increased opportunities for social
interactions, monitoring of outdoor areas, and supervision of children in impoverished urban
neighborhoods.

Collins, C. C. and A. M. O’Callaghan (2008). “The Impact of Horticultural Responsibility

on Health Indicators and Quality of Life in Assisted Living.” HortTechnology 18(4): 611-
618.
This study used quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate the impact of indoor
gardening on elderly residents of a low-income assisted living facility over a 4-week period.
Mastery, self-rated health, and self-rated happiness were pre-, post-, and post-post measured to
evaluate whether a short-term introduction of indoor gardening that involved individual plant-
care responsibility would improve these measures that are predictive of health and quality of life.
Eighteen residents participated in four 2-hour interactive horticulture classes taught by a social
horticulturist and a sociologist. Class members showed a significant increase in mastery, self-
rated health, and self-rated happiness. The results of this study indicate that a basic horticultural
activity, as simple as learning how to maintain a houseplant and taking individual responsibility
for one, can have a short-term positive impact on the quality of life and on primary indicators of
future health outcomes of older adults residing in assisted living facilities.

Costanza, R., R. d’Arge, et al. (1998). “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and
natural capital.” Ecological Economics 25(1): 3-15.
The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to
the functioning of the Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both
directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. We
have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on
published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of
which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion (1012) per year,
with an average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, this must
be considered a minimum estimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion
per year.

Criley, R. A. (2008). “Ornamentals – More than just beautiful.” Proceedings of the

International Workshop on Ornamental Plants 788: 23-28.
The myriad of cultures around the world differ from continent to continent and within continents,
regions, and even cities themselves. The cultural expectations are often aesthetics-based, but
there are more reasons than just beauty for the popularity of ornamental plants. Growers and
garden centers feature the new, the different, the plant breeder introductions, and the tried-and-
true heritage varieties, but keeping up with change is difficult. Across America, and to a certain
extent, Europe, the traditional customers are retiring and the next generation of customers is not
willing to spend the time gardening that their parents did. In both the USA and Europe,
increasing attention is paid to marketing and how to attract the 25- to 45-year-old customer. The
market is changing from “Do It Yourself” to “Do It For Me,” as the new generation, brought up
on instantaneous gratification, wants it Now. In addition to the appeal of something new, the
markets are promoting and sharing the knowledge of how valuable plants are in a home or
workplace as stress relievers, air purifiers, environmental modifiers, health benefits, and symbols
of feelings, friendship, and comfort. The support behind the commercial ornamental industries
includes plant breeders and university and government researchers, but also industry
organizations, marketplace gurus, psychologists, and social scientists. As cities reinvent their
aging downtowns, the green industries play a huge role in enhancing the quality of life the urban
dwellers experiences. Different strategies are needed for different target groups, but basic themes
include “providing solutions,” and contributing easy and instant applications. Growers must be
able to choose among the many new plants introduced each year to produce enough plants for the
demand, but they must also be ready to switch to new products when that demand weakens. Keys
to this include knowing the customer better and keeping up with the trends that influence plant
selection and use.

Crompton, J. L. (2005) How cities use parks to promote tourism.

Public parks are often the “engine” that drives tourism in many communities. In a simplified
tourism model, visitors use some mode of transportation to leave their homes and travel to
attractions, which are supported by various kinds of services, such as hotels/motels, restaurants,
and retailing.The attractions and support services provide information and promote their
offerings to target groups they have identified as potential visitors. Attractions activate this
tourism system. Rarely do people leave their homes and travel some distance because they want
to stay in a particular hotel or dine at a particular restaurant in a different locale. Most of the
time, the desire to go to a destination on a pleasure trip is stimulated by its attractions. Many of
these attractions are located in parks, while some parks are themselves attractions.This leads to
the conclusion that in many communities, parks drive the tourism industry..

Crompton, J. L., R. National, et al. (2004). The proximate principle: the impact of parks,
open space and water features on residential property values and the property tax base.
Ashburn, Va., National Recreation and Park Association.
Communities are often confronted with the difficult decision of land use development. Often the
assumption is that developing the land for residential homes offers more revenue to the
community then developing parks and open spaces. Several factors show that this assumption is
in error. The evidence shows that preserving open space can be a less expensive alternative to
development. The evidence clearly indicates that preserving open space can be a less expensive
alternative to development. Hence, a number of communities have elected to purchase park and
open space land, rather than allow it to be used for residential development, because this reduces
the net tax deficit for their residents, which would occur if new homes were built on that land.
The conclusion is that a strategy of conserving parks and open space is not contrary to a
community’s economic health, but rather it is an integral part of it.

Day, S. D., S. T. Dorn, et al. (1997). “Advanced Master Gardener-Tree Steward: Training
to Enhance Community Volunteerism.” HortTechnology 7(4): 363-367.
The Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) Advanced Master Gardener-Tree Steward (AMGTS)
program provides advanced training in leadership development and arboriculture to MG
volunteer educators so they may expand the influence of extension through leadership in
community forestry. A statewide survey of agents, MGs, and foresters served as the basis for
developing the training package, which was funded in part by the Virginia Department of
Forestry. According to a statewide survey, 70% of VCE MGs and extension agents with MG
programs would like to be involved in community tree programming, while only 26% was
currently involved. Typically, agents cited limited staff and volunteer resources as the primary
factors in restricting program expansion. Furthermore, 90% of municipal foresters indicated they
would like to work with trained volunteers. The AMGTS program simultaneously answers the
desire of MGs to expand their role in the community landscape and the need of VCE to expand
its outreach with increasingly limited resources. AMGTS training, guided by a 10-unit resource
book, integrates technical and program management expertise to foster volunteer pride and self-
sufficiency. This allows MG tree stewards to coordinate much of their own training and recruit
and manage non-MG volunteers to whom they can provide limited training for specific projects,
thus allowing program expansion without additional staff. The training is designed for delivery
by knowledgeable professionals in the local community, such as arborists, horticulturists, college
professors, extension specialists, MGs, and others who can provide quality training following the
program guidelines.

Dearborn, D. C. and S. Kark (2010). “Motivations for conserving urban biodiversity.”

Conserv Biol 24(2): 432-440.
In a time of increasing urbanization, the fundamental value of conserving urban biodiversity
remains controversial. How much of a fixed budget should be spent on conservation in urban
versus nonurban landscapes? The answer should depend on the goals that drive our conservation
actions, yet proponents of urban conservation often fail to specify the motivation for protecting
urban biodiversity. This is an important shortcoming on several fronts, including a missed
opportunity to make a stronger appeal to those who believe conservation biology should focus
exclusively on more natural, wilder landscapes. We argue that urban areas do offer an important
venue for conservation biology, but that we must become better at choosing and articulating our
goals. We explored seven possible motivations for urban biodiversity conservation: preserving
local biodiversity, creating stepping stones to nonurban habitat, understanding and facilitating
responses to environmental change, conducting environmental education, providing ecosystem
services, fulfilling ethical responsibilities, and improving human well-being. To attain all these
goals, challenges must be faced that are common to the urban environment, such as localized
pollution, disruption of ecosystem structure, and limited availability of land. There are, however,
also challenges specific only to particular goals, meaning that different goals will require
different approaches and actions. This highlights the importance of specifying the motivations
behind urban biodiversity conservation. If the goals are unknown, progress cannot be assessed.

DeMarco, L. W., D. Relf, et al. (1999). “Integrating Gardening into the Elementary School
Curriculum.” HortTechnology 9(2): 276-281.
Gardening is increasing in use as the focus of interdisciplinary teaching units in the elementary
school curriculum and as a stratagem for student therapeutic, recreational, and social
experiences. Elementary school teachers, identified as experienced in using gardening as a
teaching tool, were surveyed and interviewed to determine successful strategies for integration of
gardening into elementary school curricula. The most important factors determined by these
teachers for the successful use of gardening in the curriculum were 1) student and faculty
ownership or commitment to integrating gardening in their curriculum, 2) availability of physical
resources, and 3) faculty knowledge and skill in the application of gardening to enhance an
interdisciplinary curriculum. Educators who incorporate school gardening into their curriculum
report that school gardening is a somewhat successful (35.2%) or very successful (60.6%)
teaching tool that enhances the learning of their students. Most (92%) teachers surveyed
requested additional school gardening education for themselves.
Des Rosiers, F., M. Thériault, et al. (2002). “Landscaping and House Values: An Empirical
Investigation.” Journal of Real Estate Research 23(1/2): 139-161.
This hedonic study investigates the effect of landscaping on house vales, based on a detailed
field survey of 760 single-family homes sold between 1993 and 2000 on the territory of the
Quebec Urban Community. Environmental information includes thirty-one landscaping
attributes of both houses and their immediate environment. By and large, a positive tree cover
differential between the property and its immediate neighborhood, provided it is not excessive,
translates into a higher house value. Findings also suggest that the positive price impact of a
good tree cover in the visible surroundings is all the more enhanced in areas with a high
proportion of retired persons. Finally, a high percentage of lawn cover as well as features such as
flower arrangements, rock plants, the presence of a hedge, etc. all command a substantial market
premium.

Dobbs, C., F. J. Escobedo, et al. (2011). “A framework for developing urban forest
ecosystem services and goods indicators.” Landscape and Urban Planning 99(3-4): 196-206.
The social and ecological processes impacting on urban forests have been studied at multiple
temporal and spatial scales in order to help us quantify, monitor, and value the ecosystem
services that benefit people. Few studies have comprehensively analyzed the full suite of
ecosystem services, goods (ESG), and ecosystem disservices provided by an urban forest.
Indicators, however, are one approach that could be used to better understand the structure of an
urban forest, the suite of ESG provided by urban forests, and their influence on human well-
being using a simple, innovative and repeatable metric. This study presents a framework for
developing indicators using field data, an urban forest functional model, and the literature. Urban
tree and soil indicators for groups of ecosystem functions were used to statistically analyze the
effects of urban morphology and socioeconomics on urban forest ESG. Findings show that the
most influential ESG indicators were tree cover, soil pH, and soil organic matter. Indicators were
significantly influenced by land use and time since urbanization, while analyses of property
values and household income did not yield any particularly significant results. The indicators
presented in this paper present a first approach to non-monetary valuation of urban forest ESG
and can be used to develop urban forest structure management goals and to monitor the effects of
urban greening policies on human well-being.

Dobbs, G. S. and D. Relf (1995). “Enclave Employment at Virginia Colleges and

Universities.” HortTechnology 5(2): 131-133.
Surveys taken in 1991 and 1992 in Virginia suggest that the enclave model of employment may
be a more successful and long-term method of employing individuals with mental disabilities
(IMDs) within Virginia college grounds departments. Individual, competitive placement of IMDs
seems to be less successful, resulting in increased level of temporary and short-term
employment. Additional research is needed to document the methods and benefits of
employment used by other grounds departments, including colleges outside Virginia in the
employment of IMDs.

Dobbs, K., D. Relf, et al. (1998). “Survey on the Needs of Elementary Education Teachers
to Enhance the Use of Horticulture or Gardening in the Classroom.” HortTechnology 8(3):
370-373.
To determine if and how plant materials were used in Virginia elementary school curricula, a
survey was conducted on horticulture or gardening in elementary [Kindergarten-sixth grade (K-
6)] education. To do this, 10 questionnaires and cover letters were sent to each of 100 randomly
chosen elementary schools throughout Virginia. Based on a 34% response rate from a self-
selected group of K-6 teachers, there was a relatively high level of interest (88%) regarding using
horticulture or gardening in the classroom. A major goal of this survey was to determine what
would encourage or facilitate incorporating horticulture or gardening into the curriculum.

Donovan, G. H. and J. P. Prestemon (2010). “The Effect of Trees on Crime in Portland,

Oregon.” Environment and Behavior.
The authors estimate the relationship between trees and three crime aggregates (all crime, violent
crime, and property crime) and two individual crimes (burglary and vandalism) in Portland,
Oregon. During the study period (2005-2007), 431 crimes were reported at the 2,813 single-
family homes in our sample. In general, the authors find that trees in the public right of way are
associated with lower crime rates. The relationship between crime and trees on a house’s lot is
mixed. Smaller, view-obstructing trees are associated with increased crime, whereas larger trees
are associated with reduced crime. The authors speculate that trees may reduce crime by
signaling to potential criminals that a house is better cared for and, therefore, subject to more
effective authority than a comparable house with fewer trees.

Dravigne, A., T. M. Waliczek, et al. (2008). “The Effect of Live Plants and Window Views
of Green Spaces on Employee Perceptions of Job Satisfaction.” HortScience 43(1): 183-187.
A job satisfaction survey was posted on the Internet and administered to office workers in Texas
and the Midwest. The survey included questions regarding job satisfaction, physical work
environments, the presence or absence of live interior plants and windows, environmental
preferences of the office workers, and demographic information. Approximately 450 completed
responses were included in the final sample. Data were analyzed to compare levels of job
satisfaction of employees who worked in office spaces with live interior plants or window views
of exterior green spaces and employees who worked in office environments without live plants
or windows. Statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) were found regarding perceptions of
overall life quality, overall perceptions of job satisfaction, and in the job satisfaction
subcategories of “nature of work,” “supervision,” and “coworkers” among employees who
worked in office spaces with live interior plants or window views and those employees who
worked in office environments without live plants or windows. Findings indicated that
individuals who worked in offices with plants and windows reported that they felt better about
their job and the work they performed. This study also provided evidence that those employees
who worked in offices that had plants or windows reported higher overall quality-of-life scores.
Multivariate analysis of variance comparisons indicated that there were no statistically
significant differences among the categories of “age,” “ethnicity,” “salary,” “education levels,”
and “position” among employees who worked in offices with or without plants or window views.
However, there were gender differences in comparisons of males in that male participants in
offices with plants rated job satisfaction statements higher when compared with males working
in offices with no plants. No differences were found in comparisons of female respondents.

Dunnett, N. and M. Qasim (2000). “Perceived Benefits to Human Well-being of Urban

Gardens.” HortTechnology 10(1): 40-45.
Private gardens occupy a significant proportion of the total surface area of a British city. For
many people, the garden represents their only contact with nature and their chance to express
themselves creatively. Yet relatively little research has been carried out on the role and value of
such gardens to human well-being. We report in this paper on a major survey on the role of
private, urban gardens in human well-being, conducted with a wide cross-section of randomly
selected garden owners from the city of Sheffield, England, over the summer of 1995. In
particular, we discuss the perceived value that gardens have to the well-being of people, both
individually through the enjoyment of their own gardens and collectively through the
contribution of city gardens to environmental enhancement. We relate these values to age,
gender and social demographics.

Dwivedi, P., C. S. Rathore, et al. (2009). “Ecological benefits of urban forestry: The case of
Kerwa Forest Area (KFA), Bhopal, India.” Applied Geography 29(2): 194-200.
In developing countries like India, migration of people from rural to urban areas is responsible
for ever expanding urban boundaries. This trend is exerting significant pressure on unprotected
natural forests located near urban centers. This paper highlights the case of Kerwa Forest Area
(KFA), located at about 10 km from the city of Bhopal, capital of Madhya Pradesh state. The
objectives of this study are to quantify the extent of disturbance faced and ecosystem services
provided by the KFA. Suitable spatial technologies and forest sampling techniques have been
used to achieve the objectives of the study. It was found that the KFA is currently facing severe
anthropogenic pressure. Parts of the KFA, located close to the settlements, were found more
disturbed than the parts which were located far from the settlements. In spite of disturbances,
KFA is a habitat for many threatened and endangered plant, animal, and bird species. KFA also
plays a critical role of a carbon sink with a total storage of about 19.5 thousand tons of
aboveground carbon. Immediate precautionary measures are required to prevent further
degradation of the KFA for ensuring better environmental quality for the residents of Bhopal city
in the future. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Elings, M. (2006). “People-plant interaction – The physiological, psychological and

sociological effects of plants on people.” Farming for Health: Green-Care Farming Across
Europe and the United States of America 13: 43-55.
This paper reports the results of a literature study into the effects of plants on human wellbeing.
Different studies from various countries show that there are many different settings in which
humans interact with plants. Some of these settings have a therapeutic aim, others do not. This
paper demonstrates that various target groups can benefit from working with plants. Little is
known, however, about the mechanisms behind horticultural therapy while the evidence is weak
due to the. methodological limitations of the studies.

Evers, A.-M., L. Linden, et al. (2000). “A Review of Human Issues in Horticulture in

Finland: Urbanization Motivates a Renewed Appreciation for Plants and Nature.”
HortTechnology 10(1): 24-26.
Approaches using human issues in horticulture (HIH) offer new possibilities to develop nearby
nature in cities, especially during a period of rapid urbanization in Finland. New initiatives have
been developed in school gardening, environmental education, gardening in training programs
for disabled people, therapeutic environments in hospitals and institutions, and in the University
of Helsinki horticultural education and research programs. At the University of Helsinki, two
contact teaching courses and national seminars were organized in 1996 and 1998. Initial studies
in the HIH approach have three main themes: 1) gardening as a tool for better quality of life in
homes for the elderly, 2) ecology, native plants and extensive maintenance in parks, and 3) the
use of horticulture in environment and science education at the lower level of the comprehensive
school.

Fjeld, T. (2000). “The Effect of Interior Planting on Health and Discomfort among
Workers and School Children.” HortTechnology 10(1): 46-52.
Plants are widely used in building environments; however, studies reporting the health and
discomfort symptoms of people in response to indoor foliage plants are few. The objective of the
presented studies was to assess the effect of foliage plants or a combination of foliage plants and
full-spectrum fluorescent lamps on self-reported health and discomfort complaints in three
different work environments: an office building, an X-ray department in a Norwegian hospital,
and a junior high school. Health and discomfort symptoms were found to be 21% to 25% lower
during the period when subjects had plants or plants and full-spectrum lighting present compared
to a period without plants. Neuropsychological symptoms, such as fatigue and headache, and
mucous membrane symptoms, such as dry and hoarse throat, seemed to be more affected by the
treatments than skin symptoms, such as itching skin.

Flagler, J. S. (1992). “Master Gardeners and Horticultural Therapy.” HortTechnology

2(2): 249-250.
Horticultural therapy programs can benefit from the services of Master Gardeners. Trained
through the U.S. Cooperative Extension Service, Master Gardeners are skilled in practical plant
sciences and committed to volunteerism. A nationwide survey has determined that 374 Master
Gardeners in 21 states are helping to bring structured horticultural activities to individuals in
nursing homes, hospitals, rehabilitation centers, prisons, and other special service facilities.

Francis, M. (2002) How cities use parks for community engagement.

Community engagement is the process of working collaboratively with individuals and groups to
achieve specific goals. For parks and open spaces, community engagement allows mayors and
public officials to directly involve their constituencies in the ongoing design, planning, and
management of these resources. This process results in informed and engaged residents that feel
better connected to their communities.While sometimes contentious, but more often productive
and rewarding, community engagement is an essential ingredient of making successful urban
open space.Parks support community engagement by providing residents with a venue for
participation in and attachment to their communities. They also provide a sense of place and
offer essential life-enhancing qualities that aid community and individual well-being. By
understanding the community benefits of parks, decision makers can develop constituencies that
can sustain their urban park systems over time.

Fried, G. G. and M. J. Wichrowski (2008). “Horticultural Therapy : A Psychosocial

Treatment Option at the Stephen D. Hassenfeld Children’s Center for Cancer and Blood
Disorders.”  15(7): 5.
Quality psychosocial care for patients undergoing treatment for hematology/oncology disorders
and their families serves to reduce the inevitable disruptions in life experienced during treatment.
Horticultural therapy, a process through which plants and gardening activities are used as
vehicles in professionally conducted programs of therapy is a program option that can address
the psychosocial needs of patients in numerous medical situations. The horticultural therapy
program at the Stephen D. Hassenfeld Children’s Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders of New
York University Langone Medical Center is designed to stimulate sensory, cognitive, and
communication skills as well as increase knowledge and awareness of nature while providing a
stress-reducing diversion during treatment. This program provides a range of benefits that
complement other treatment options and serves to help minimize potential challenges in the
quality of life for patients and their families.

Frumkin, H. and M. E. Eysenbach (2003, 08/06/2010). “How cities use parks to improve
public health.” from http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/index.htm.
People value the time they spend in city parks, whether walking a dog, playing basketball, or
having a picnic. Along with these expected leisure amenities, parks can also provide measurable
health benefits, from providing direct contact with nature and a cleaner environment, to
opportunities for physical activity and social interaction. A telephone survey conducted for the
American Public Health Association found that 75 percent of adults believe parks and recreation
must play an important role in addressing America’s obesity crisis. Because of the different ways
people experience parks, cities need to provide all types, from neighborhood facilities to large
natural areas. In fact, many of the health benefits described below can be best achieved through
small-scale, readily accessible sites. A full reckoning of the benefits of parks will better inform
public policy about parks and provide a useful public health tool.

Getter, K. L., D. B. Rowe, et al. (2009). “Carbon Sequestration Potential of Extensive

Green Roofs.” Environmental Science & Technology 43(19): 7564-7570.
Two studies were conducted with the objective of quantifying the carbon storage potential of
extensive green roofs. The first was performed on eight roofs in Michigan and four roofs in
Maryland, ranging from 1 to 6 years in age. All 12 green roofs were composed primarily of
Sedum species, and substrate depths ranged from 2.5 to 12.7 cm. Aboveground plant material
was harvested in the fall of 2006. On average, these roofs stored 162 g C·m−2 in aboveground
biomass. The second study was conducted on a roof in East Lansing, MI. Twenty plots were
established on 21 April 2007 with a substrate depth of 6.0 cm. In addition to a substrate only
control, the other plots were sown with a single species of Sedum (S. acre, S. album, S.
kamtshaticum, or S. spurium). Species and substrate depth represent typical extensive green
roofs in the United States. Plant material and substrate were harvested seven times across two
growing seasons. Results at the end of the second year showed that aboveground plant material
storage varied by species, ranging from 64 g C·m−2 (S. acre) to 239 g C·m−2 (S. album), with
an average of 168 g C·m−2. Belowground biomass ranged from 37 g C·m−2 (S. acre) to 185 g
C·m−2 (S. kamtschaticum) and averaged 107 g C·m−2. Substrate carbon content averaged 913 g
C·m−2, with no species effect, which represents a sequestration rate of 100 g C·m−2 over the 2
years of this study. The entire extensive green roof system sequestered 375 g C·m−2 in above-
and belowground biomass and substrate organic matter.

Getter, K. L., D. B. Rowe, et al. (2009). “Carbon Sequestration Potential of Extensive

Green Roofs.” Environmental Science & Technology 43(19): 7564-7570.
Two studies were conducted with the objective of quantifying the carbon storage potential of
extensive green roofs. The first was performed on eight roofs in Michigan and four roofs in
Maryland, ranging from 1 to 6 years in age. All 12 green roofs were composed primarily of
Sedum species, and substrate depths ranged from 2.5 to 12.7 cm. Aboveground plant material
was harvested in the fall of 2006. On average, these roofs stored 162 g C·m−2 in aboveground
biomass. The second study was conducted on a roof in East Lansing, MI. Twenty plots were
established on 21 April 2007 with a substrate depth of 6.0 cm. In addition to a substrate only
control, the other plots were sown with a single species of Sedum (S. acre, S. album, S.
kamtshaticum, or S. spurium). Species and substrate depth represent typical extensive green
roofs in the United States. Plant material and substrate were harvested seven times across two
growing seasons. Results at the end of the second year showed that aboveground plant material
storage varied by species, ranging from 64 g C·m−2 (S. acre) to 239 g C·m−2 (S. album), with
an average of 168 g C·m−2. Belowground biomass ranged from 37 g C·m−2 (S. acre) to 185 g
C·m−2 (S. kamtschaticum) and averaged 107 g C·m−2. Substrate carbon content averaged 913 g
C·m−2, with no species effect, which represents a sequestration rate of 100 g C·m−2 over the 2
years of this study. The entire extensive green roof system sequestered 375 g C·m−2 in above-
and belowground biomass and substrate organic matter.

Gorham, M. R., T. M. Waliczek, et al. (2009). “The Impact of Community Gardens on

Numbers of Property Crimes in Urban Houston.” HortTechnology 19(2): 291-296.
Research has suggested that city environments with more green space may have lower crime
levels. For this pilot study, 11 established community gardens in Houston, TX, were selected and
mapped using ArcGIS 9.1 software. The numbers of property crimes reported in the 2005 crime
data from the Houston Police Department surrounding the community garden areas at a distance
of 1/8 mile were then tallied and mapped for the areas. The numbers of crimes were evaluated
alongside demographic data from the 2000 U.S. Census. Statistical comparisons were made
between community garden areas and randomly selected city areas that were within a 1-mile area
surrounding each garden. Initial results of paired t tests indicated no statistically significant
differences between the mean number of crime occurrences in community garden areas and the
mean number of crimes in randomly selected areas. Results from a linear regression analysis also
indicated that the presence of a community garden was not a predictor of a lower crime rate for a
neighborhood. Adjustments were then made by removing randomly selected areas that were
demographically least like their respective community gardens. Results from further analysis
indicated that there were no crime number differences between the community garden areas and
the randomly selected areas. However, interviews conducted with community garden
representatives showed that community gardens appeared to have a positive influence on
neighborhoods, with residents reporting neighborhood revitalization, perceived immunity from
crime, and neighbors emulating gardening practices they saw at the community gardens.

Grinde, B. and G. G. Patil (2009). “Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impact on
Health and Well-Being?” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health 6(9): 2332-2343.
It is concluded that an environment devoid of Nature may act as a “discord”, i.e., have a negative
effect. While the term mismatch is used for any difference between present living conditions and
the environment of evolutionary adaptation, discords are mismatches with a potentially
undesirable impact on health or quality of life. The problem is partly due to the visual absence of
plants, and may be ameliorated by adding elements of Nature, e.g., by creating parks, by offering
a view through windows, and by potted plants. The conclusion is based on an evaluation of some
fifty relevant empirical studies.
Haberl, H., M. Wackernagel, et al. (2004). “Land use and sustainability indicators. An
introduction.” Land Use Policy 21(3): 193-198.
Bioproductive land is one of the most significant natural resources. People use the land for
receiving ecological services. This leads to humans using and favouring certain species, while
competing with all other species. Land use can create diverse cultural landscapes of outstanding
aesthetic, economic and ecological value, but it may equally result in land degradation, soil loss
and impoverished ecosystems. Hence land use is shaped by processes of society-nature
interaction. These processes can detract from sustainability–in other words, society-nature
interaction may deplete the natural capital upon which the provision of ecosystem services for
humans depends. Sustainability indicators aim at monitoring key aspects of society-nature
interaction in order to generate information needed to document the current state and the history
leading up to it. Moreover, they are useful to communicate complex sustainability problems
within the scientific community, to policy-makers and the broad public. This paper introduces a
special issue that seeks to contribute to the development of sustainability indicators that track
society-nature interaction. We focus on a variety of concepts that measure socio-economic
metabolism. All the discussed approaches relate socio-economic energy and material flows to the
bioproductive area needed to support them, above all, the ecological footprint and the human
appropriation of net primary production. In addition, this special issue also analyses the
consequences of land use intensity on the diversity, naturalness and patterns of landscapes.

Hamilton, S. L. and K. DeMarrais (2001). “Visits to Public Gardens: Their Meaning for
Avid Gardeners.” HortTechnology 11(2): 209-215.
This study examined how avid gardeners experience a public garden. Phenomenological
interviewing was used to collect data from six avid gardeners who frequently visited a public
garden. Data about the gardeners’ beliefs and actions regarding gardening history, gardening
practices, and involvement with public gardens were gathered. From inductive analysis, a model
of a gardener’s world composed of four conceptual themes: 1) personal history, 2) social
connections, 3) human well-being, and 4) learning experiences was delineated. The conceptual
themes of a gardener’s world are the personal learning constructs through which gardeners
experience the plant world. Each of the four conceptual themes influenced how participants in
this study experienced a public garden. Participants used a public garden to socially interact with
others, enhance their human well-being, strengthen their gardening background, and extend their
gardening knowledge and skill. Several subthemes emerged within the four conceptual themes of
an avid gardener’s world to inform us how gardening plays an integral role in gardeners’ lives.

Harnick, P. (2002) How cities use parks for community revitalization.

Parks are complex elements of a city. They can serve scores of different uses, may be specialized
in their function, or can simply provide visual appeal for residents. However they work, they act
to define the shape and feel of a city and its neighborhoods. They also function as a conscious
tool for revitalization. Parks can stem the downturn of a commercial area, support the
stabilization of faltering neighborhoods, and provide a landmark element and a point of pride for
constituents. For all these things to happen, the city needs to be open and aware of parks’
potential to spur revival, and support the elements that are needed to make that happen.

Hartig, T., M. Mang, et al. (1991). “Restorative Effects of Natural Environment

Experiences.” Environment and Behavior 23(1): 3-26.
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-
experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and
nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued
with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive
relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of
affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures.
Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater
restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and
design are discussed.

Haviland-Jones, J., H. H. Rosario, et al. (2005). “An environmental approach to positive

emotion: Flowers.” Evolutionary Psychology 3: 104-132.
For more than 5000 years, people have cultivated flowers although there is no known reward for
this costly behavior. In three different studies we show that flowers are a powerful positive
emotion “inducer”. In Study 1, flowers, upon presentation to women, always elicited the
Duchenne or true smile. Women who received flowers reported more positive moods 3 days
later. In Study 2, a flower given to men or women in an elevator elicited more positive social
behavior than other stimuli. In Study 3, flowers presented to elderly participants (55+ age)
elicited positive mood reports and improved episodic memory. Flowers have immediate and
long-term effects on emotional reactions, mood, social behaviors and even memory for both
males and females. There is little existing theory in any discipline that explains these findings.
We suggest that cultivated flowers are rewarding because they have evolved to rapidly induce
positive emotion in humans, just as other plants have evolved to induce varying behavioral
responses in a wide variety of species leading to the dispersal or propagation of the plants.

Heidt, V. and M. Neef (2008). Benefits of Urban Green Space for Improving Urban
Climate. Ecology, Planning, and Management of Urban Forests: 84-96.
Urban settlements transform the natural environment so greatly that people tend to see the city
only as an employment site, and economic and cultural center. Thus a growing number of people
prefer to reside in greener suburbs or rural areas. This results in increased automobile commuter
traffic, accompanied by traffic jams, accidents, stress, and ever more damage to the environment.
Concepts of sustainable development or the ecological city represent strategies for changing
these negative trends. The purpose for doing so is principally the well-being of a city’s residents.
Often this entails bringing more of the natural environment back into the city, because urban
green space fulfills several critical functions in an urban context that benefit people’s quality of
life. There is a broad consensus about the importance, and therefore the value, of urban green
space in cities as currently constructed, in addition to its value in planning ecological cities.
Steadily growing traffic and urban heat not only damage the environment, but also incur social
and economic costs. As we explain further, we can save costs even by making small changes to
existing situations. Furthermore, we maintain and show that an integrated approach is needed for
designing and maintaining urban green space. The main thesis of this chapter, therefore, is as
follows: To provide sufficient quality of life in high-density cities, it is important to maintain and
restore an urban green space system; moreover, urban green space and a comfortable urban
climate also produce social and economic benefits.
Hodges, A. W., W. D. Mulkey, et al. (2000). Economic impacts of the Florida Botanical
Gardens and related cultural attractions in Pinellas county Florida. Gainesville, FL,
University of Florida.
This report estimates the potential regional economic impacts associated with construction,
operations and tourism in the Heritage Village, Florida Botanical Gardens and Gulf Coast
Museum of Art attractions. All three attractions are housed within a 180 acre site of Pinewood
Cultural Park in Pinellas County, Florida and serve as research and public education vehicles on
issues related to the arts, history and environment. This analysis estimated the total economic
impacts associated with the Heritage Village, Florida Botanical Gardens and Florida Gulf Coast
Art Museum attractions. Specifically, the total economic impacts of expenditures on or by
overnight visitors, annual operations and construction between the years 2000 and 2002 were
estimated for each attraction. This analysis was restricted to the 4-county region of Hillsborough,
Hernando, Pinellas and Pasco counties and data assumptions employed in this study were based
on information provided by the Pinellas County Cooperative Extension Service. Results revealed
that the combined cultural attractions will stimulate output by $170.1 million, increase
employment by 2,409 jobs, stimulate value-added by $92.1 million and increase labor income by
$63.8 million between the years 2000 and 2002. Additionally, the annual economic impacts of
1000-person overnight visitor expenditures were presented given some level of uncertainty
surrounding actual overnight visitor attendance in each attraction. Each 1,000 person grouping
will stimulate output by $156.6 thousand, increase employment by 3 jobs, stimulate valueadded
by $92.6 thousand and stimulate labor income by $60.4 thousand.

Home, R., N. Bauer, et al. (2010). “Cultural and Biological Determinants in the Evaluation
of Urban Green Spaces.” Environment and Behavior 42(4): 494-523.
Dramatically increasing urbanization is observable worldwide and brings pressure on space
within urban areas as the built environment intensifies. Considerable evidence suggests that
contact with nature is important for city dwellers, although it is not known whether residents’
appreciation of the forms of urban green spaces is constant across different contexts. More
specifically, it has not yet been shown whether our appreciation of nature is innate and inherently
human, is cultural and something that we learn, or is a mixture of both. This article describes an
exploratory study consisting of 17 interviews carried out in Zurich, Switzerland. Kelly’s
repertory grid technique is used to identify preferred urban landscapes, which were contrasted
with identified rejected landscapes. Principle components analysis and multidimensional scaling
reveal a clear separation of cultural and biological modes of landscape assessment in some
respondents. The research contributes to an understanding of the meanings of urban green
spaces, which would in turn provide planners with a tool to match urban natural resource
management with the needs of residents.

Iles, J. K. (2003). “The science and practice of stress reduction in managed landscapes.”
Environmental Stress and Horticulture Crops(618): 117-124.
Managed landscapes are an intricate blend of woody and herbaceous ornamentals, turfgrass,
organic and mineral groundcovers, and a vast array of manufactured elements, generically
referred to as “hardscape.” When properly designed, installed, and maintained, “built
landscapes” provide countless economic and quality-of-life benefits for people in rural,
suburban, and urban areas. But the journey from drafting table to finished landscape often is
poorly defined and fraught with challenges, frustrations, and misconceptions. Functional and
sustainable landscapes are created when attention is paid to minimizing or alleviating abiotic and
biotic stress along the continuum from plant production and selection, to installation, and finally
maintenance of established plants. Topics for discussion include selection and use of superior
taxa for managed landscapes, nursery crop production techniques for enhanced transplant
success, installation and post-plant maintenance protocols to minimize stress, and
intervention/rescue treatments for established plants with compromised root systems.

Jarrott, S. E., H. R. Kwack, et al. (2002). “An Observational Assessment of a Dementia-

specific Horticultural Therapy Program.” HortTechnology 12(3): 403-410.
Horticultural therapy (HT) is used across the lifespan with individuals with a wide range of
physical, social, and cognitive abilities. Older adults make up a large group of participants in
horticultural activities. As the population of older adults grows, more adults face the risk of
experiencing a dementing illness. Many families turn to institutional care programs, such as
nursing homes and adult day service (ADS) programs, for assistance with the care of their
relative with dementia. HT may be an appropriate activity to incorporate into dementia care
activity programs, but formal evaluations of such programs are limited. The current study
evaluated a 10-week HT program conducted with adults with dementia at an ADS program.
Observations indicated that participants engaged in the horticultural activities for greater periods
of time than the nonhorticultural activities. Participant affect during the horticultural and
nonhorticultural activities was comparable. HT is appropriate for dementia care programs
serving adults with a wide range of cognitive, physical, and social needs, and it should be
considered as a viable alternative to more typical dementia care program activities.

Jim, C. Y. and W. Y. Chen (2008). “Assessing the ecosystem service of air pollutant
removal by urban trees in Guangzhou (China).” Journal of Environmental Management
88(4): 665-676.
In Chinese cities, air pollution has become a serious and aggravating environmental problem
undermining the sustainability of urban ecosystems and the quality of urban life. Besides
technical solutions to abate air pollution, urban vegetation is increasingly recognized as an
alternative ameliorative method by removing some pollutants mainly through dry deposition
process. This paper assesses the capability and monetary value of this ecosystem service in
Guangzhou city in South China. The results indicated an annual removal of SO2, NO2 and total
suspended particulates at about 312.03Mg, and the benefits were valued at RMB90.19 thousand
(US$1.00 = RMB8.26). More removal was realized by recreational land use due to a higher tree
cover. Higher concentration of pollutants in the dry winter months induced more removal. The
lower cost of pollution abatement in China generated a relatively subdued monetary value of this
environmental benefit in comparison with developed countries. Younger districts with more
extensive urban trees stripped more pollutants from the air, and this capacity was anticipated to
increase further as their trees gradually reach final dimensions and establish a greater tree cover.
Tree cover and pollutant concentration constitute the main factors in pollutant removal by urban
trees. The efficiency of atmospheric cleansing by trees in congested Chinese cities could be
improved by planting more trees other than shrubs or grass, diversifying species composition and
biomass structure, and providing sound green space management. The implications for greenery
design were discussed with a view to maximizing this ecosystem service in Chinese cities and
other developing metropolises. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Jo, H. K. and E. G. McPherson (2001). “Indirect carbon reduction by residential vegetation
and planting strategies in Chicago, USA.” Journal of Environmental Management 61(2):
165-177.
Concern about climate change has evoked interest in the potential for urban vegetation to help
reduce the levels of atmospheric carbon. This study applied computer simulations to try to
quantify the modifying effects of existing vegetation on the indirect reduction of atmospheric
carbon for two residential neighborhoods in north-west Chicago. The effects of shading,
evapotranspiration, and windspeed reduction were considered and were found to have decreased
carbon emissions by 3.2 to 3.9% per year for building types in study block I where tree cover
was 33%, and -0.2 to 3.8% in block 2 where free cover was 11%. This resulted in a total annual
reduction of carbon emission averaging 158.7 (+/-12.8) kg per residence in block I and 18.1 (+/-
5.4) kg per residence in block 2. Windspeed reduction greatly contributed to the decrease of
carbon emission. However, shading increased annual carbon emission from the combined change
in heating and cooling energy use due to many frees in the wrong locations, which increase
heating energy use during the winter The increase of carbon emission from shading is somewhat
specific to Chicago, due in part to the large amount of clean, nuclear-generated cooling energy
and the long heating season. In Chicago, heating energy is required for about eight months from
October to May and cooling energy is used for the remaining 4 months from June to September
If fossil fuels had been the primary source for cooling energy and the heating season had been
shorter, the shading effects on the reduction of carbon emission would be greater. Planting of
large frees close to the west wall of buildings, dense planting on the north, and avoidance of
planting on the south are recommended to maximize indirect carbon reduction by residential
vegetation, in Chicago and other mid and high-latitude cities with long heating seasons. (C) 2001
Academic Press.

Joye, Y., K. Willems, et al. (2010). “The effects of urban retail greenery on consumer
experience: Reviewing the evidence from a restorative perspective.” Urban forestry &
urban greening 9(1): 57-64.
Over the last three decades solid empirical evidence for the positive influence of greenery on
human psychological and cognitive functioning has been steadily accruing. Based on this
evidence, researchers and practitioners increasingly realize the importance of urban greening as a
strategic activity to promote human wellbeing. Although commercial and retail activities
constitute a significant and influential component of urban contexts, a concern is that the
stakeholders involved (e.g. merchants) can sometimes be reluctant to integrate vegetation in
commercial districts. This can be an important stumbling block for the process of urban
greening. In this paper we introduce the concept of Biophilic Store Design (BSD) as the retail
design strategy to consciously tap the beneficial effects of vegetation. The central aim of this
paper is to demonstrate that the reluctance of certain retail stakeholders to integrate greening
practices like BSD is unjustified. Two lines of evidence in support of this claim will be
discussed. On the one hand, we sketch a conceptual framework which supports the view that
BSD can have restorative effects for those implied in store environments. On the other hand, we
review Wolfs multi-study research program on the effects of urban greening on consumer
behavior, attitudes, and perceptions. These two lines of evidence show that commercial activities
and urban greening are not to be considered as antagonistic but as mutually reinforcing practices.
(C) 2009 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
Kaplan, R. (1984). “Impact of urban nature: A theoretical analysis.” Urban Ecology 8(3):
189-197.
The stresses and strains of the urban environment are widely acknowledged. The means for
recovery, for recuperation, are perhaps less evident. In particular, the role of environmental
configurations in this process is often neglected in the measurement of quality of life. The urban
natural environment can provide the setting for such restorative experiences, both physically and
conceptually. A theoretical analysis is presented that focuses on the importance of fascination
and coherence as essential processes in the powerful effects of the nature context. When these
are both afforded by the setting, many of the benefits available in more remote natural settings
may be available in the nearby urban context as well. The bits and pieces of urban nature are
significant not only in terms of active recreational encounters. The view of trees and birds, the
thought of spring to come, and the plans for summer’s window box can all help in the restorative
experience.

Kaplan, R. and S. Kaplan (1989). The experience of nature : a psychological perspective.

Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.
A study of the natural environment, people, and the relationship between them. The authors offer
a research-based analysis of the vital psychological role that nature plays. They try to understand
how people perceive nature and what kinds of natural environments they prefer.

Kohlleppel, T., J. C. Bradley, et al. (2002). “A Walk through the Garden: Can a Visit to a
Botanic Garden Reduce Stress?” HortTechnology 12(3): 489-492.
Stress has been characterized as an epidemic and has been found to play an important role in
causing many diseases. In contrast, people often seek out nature and green spaces to help cope
with life stress. Botanic gardens provide opportunities for people to immerse in nature, explore
their horticultural interests, and experience recreation and leisure. The literature suggests that all
of these activities are effective coping strategies against life stress. This study explored the
effectiveness of botanic garden visits as a coping strategy. The findings of this study suggest that
botanic gardens could be a place for coping with the effects of stress. Botanic garden visitation,
along with gender, stressful life events, perceived health, and selfesteem, was found to be
important in explaining reported levels of depression. Data also showed that visitors who
received the most benefit of stress reduction were those most needing a coping strategy.

Kuo, F. E. (2001). “Coping with poverty – Impacts of environment and attention in the
inner city.” Environment and Behavior 33(1): 5-34.
Considerable evidence suggests that exposure to “green” environments can enhance human
effectiveness and make life’s demands seem manageable. Does this phenomenon extend to poor
inner cities, where green space is minimal and life’s demands may be overwhelming? In 145
urban public housing residents randomly assigned to buildings with and without nearby nature,
attentional functioning and effectiveness in managing major life issues were compared.
Residents living in buildings without nearby trees and grass reported more procrastination in
facing their major issues and assessed their issues as more severe, less soluble, and more long-
standing than did their counterparts living in greener surroundings. Mediation tests and extensive
tests for possible confounds supported the attention restoration hypothesis-that green space
enhances residents’ effectiveness by reducing mental fatigue. These findings suggest that urban
public housing environments could be configured to enhance residents’ psychological resources
for coping with poverty.

Kuo, F. E. (2003). “The role of arboriculture in a healthy social ecology.” Journal of

Aboriculture 29(3): 148-155.
In urban communities, arboriculture clearly contributes to the health of the biological ecosystem;
does it contribute to the health of the social ecosystem as well? Evidence from studies in inner-
city Chicago suggests so. In a series of studies involving over 1,300 person–space observations,
400 interviews, housing authority records, and 2 years of police crime reports, tree and grass
cover were systematically linked to a wide range of social ecosystem indicators. These indicators
included stronger ties among neighbors, greater sense of safety and adjustment, more supervision
of children in outdoor spaces, healthier patterns of children’s play, more use of neighborhood
common spaces, fewer incivilities, fewer property crimes, and fewer violent crimes. The link
between arboriculture and a healthier social ecosystem turns out to be surprisingly simple to
explain. In residential areas, barren, treeless spaces often become “no man’s lands,” which
discourage resident interaction and invite crime. The presence of trees and well-maintained grass
can transform these no man’s lands into pleasant, welcoming, well-used spaces. Vital, wellused
neighborhood common spaces serve to both strengthen ties among residents and deter crime,
thereby creating healthier, safer neighborhoods.

Kuo, F. E. (2004). “Horticulture, well-being, and mental health: From intuitions to

evidence.” Expanding Roles for Horticulture in Improving Human Well-Being and Life
Quality(639): 27-34.
Can horticulture contribute significantly to human well-being and mental health? Increasing
evidence suggests it can. These findings come from scientific studies with diverse populations,
including residents of poor inner city neighborhoods, ecological restoration volunteers, and
children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Moreover, the findings come from
studies of diverse outcomes, including lower rates of violent and property crime, lower incidence
of aggression, greater ability to cope with poverty, better life functioning, greater life
satisfaction, reduced attention deficit symptoms, greater strength of community, and others. This
presentation gives an overview of the evidence for horticultural contributions to human mental
health and well-being, with a particular focus on its implications for children, the poor, and other
vulnerable populations.

Kuo, F. E., M. Bacaicoa, et al. (1998). “Transforming inner-city landscapes – Trees, sense
of safety, and preference.” Environment and Behavior 30(1): 28-59.
How would inner-city residents respond to the incorporation of trees and grass in their
neighborhoods? Law enforcement officials have argued that, in these settings, trees and other
forms of vegetation increase fear. Tree density, tree placement, and levels of grass maintenance
were manipulated in photo simulations of neighborhood outdoor space. One hundred residents of
Chicago’s Robert Taylor Homes living adjacent to the space rated the images with respect to
preference and sense of safety. Although tree placement (subspaces created by trees, formality of
arrangement) had little effect on sense of safety and no effect on preference, both tree density
and grass maintenance had strong effects on preference and sense of safety (eta(2)s from .49 to .
89), Surprisingly, tree density and grass maintenance increased both preference and sense of
safety. Results suggest that-contrary to some views-trees and grass maintenance can increase
sense of safety in inner-city neighborhoods.

Kuo, F. E. and W. C. Sullivan (2001). “Aggression and violence in the inner city – Effects of
environment via mental fatigue.” Environment and Behavior 33(4): 543-571.
S. Kaplan suggested that one outcome of mental fatigue may be an increased propensity for
outbursts of anger and even violence. If so, contact with nature, which appears to mitigate mental
fatigue, may reduce aggression and violence. This study investigated that possibility in a setting
and population with relatively high rates of aggression: inner-city urban public housing residents.
Levels of aggression were compared for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned
to buildings with varying levels of nearby nature (trees and grass). Attentional functioning was
assessed as an index of mental fatigue. Residents living in relatively barren buildings reported
more aggression and violence than did their counterparts in greener buildings. Moreover, levels
of mental fatigue were higher in barren buildings, and aggression accompanied mental fatigue.
Tests for the proposed mechanism and for alternative mechanisms indicated that the relationship
between nearby nature and aggression was fully mediated through attentional functioning.

Kuo, F. E. and W. C. Sullivan (2001). “Environment and crime in the inner city – Does
vegetation reduce crime?” Environment and Behavior 33(3): 343-367.
Although vegetation has been positively linked to fear of crime and crime in a number of
settings, recent findings in urban residential areas have hinted at a possible negative relationship:
Residents living in “greener” surroundings report lower levels of fear, fewer incivilities, and less
aggressive and violent behavior. Ibis study used police crime reports to examine the relationship
between vegetation and crime in an inner-city neighborhood. Crime rates for 98 apartment
buildings with varying levels of nearby vegetation were compared. Results indicate that although
residents were randomly assigned to different levels of nearby vegetation, the greener a
building’s surroundings were, the fewer crimes reported. Furthermore, this pattern held for both
property crimes and violent crimes. The relationship of vegetation to crime held after the number
of apartments per building, building height, vacancy rate, and number of occupied units per
building were accounted for.

Kuo, F. E., W. C. Sullivan, et al. (1998). “Fertile ground for community: Inner-city
neighborhood common spaces.” American Journal of Community Psychology 26(6): 823-
851.
Research suggests that the formation of neighborhood social ties (NSTs) may substantially
depend on the informal social contact which occurs in neighborhood common spaces, and that in
inner-city neighborhoods where common spaces are often barren no-man’s lands, the presence of
trees and grass supports common space use and informal social contact among neighbors. We
found that for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to 28 architecturally
identical buildings, levels of vegetation in common spaces predict both use of common spaces
and NSTs; further use of common spaces mediated the relationship between vegetation and
NSTs. In addition, vegetation and NSTs were significantly related to residents’ senses of safety
and adjustment. These findings suggest that the use and characteristics of common spaces may
play a vital role in the natural growth of community, and that improving common spaces may be
an especially productive focus for community organizing efforts in inner-city neighborhoods.
Kuo, F. E. and A. F. Taylor (2004). “A potential natural treatment for attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence from a national study.” American Journal of
Public Health 94(9): 1580-1586.
Objectives. We examined the impact of relatively “green” or natural settings on attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms across diverse sub-populations of children.
Methods. Parents nationwide rated the aftereffects of 49 common after-school and weekend
activities on children’s symptoms. Aftereffects were compared for activities conducted in green
outdoor settings versus those conducted in both built outdoor and indoor settings.
Results, In this national, nonprobability sample, green outdoor activities reduced symptoms
significantly more than did activities conducted in other settings, even when activities were
matched across settings. Findings were consistent across age, gender, and income groups;
community types; geographic regions; and diagnoses.
Conclusions. Green outdoor settings appear to reduce ADHD symptoms in children across a
wide range of individual, residential, and case characteristics.

Kuttler, W. and A. Strassburger (1999). “Air quality measurements in urban green areas –
a case study.” Atmospheric Environment 33(24-25): 4101-4108.
The influence of traffic-induced pollutants (e.g. CO, NO, NO2 and O-3) on the air quality of
urban areas was investigated in the city of Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), Germany.
Twelve air hygiene profile measuring trips were made to analyse the trace gas distribution in the
urban area with high spatial resolution and to compare the air hygiene situation of urban green
areas with the overall situation of urban pollution. Seventeen measurements were made to
determine the diurnal concentration courses within urban parks (summer conditions: 13
measurements, 530 30 min mean values, winter conditions: 4 measurements, 128 30 min mean
values). The measurements were carried out during mainly calm wind and cloudless conditions
between February 1995 and March 1996. It was possible to establish highly differentiated spatial
concentration patterns within the urban area, These patterns were correlated with five general
types of land use (motorway, main road, secondary road, residential area, green area) which were
influenced to varying degrees by traffic emissions. Urban parks downwind from the main
emission sources show the following typical temporal concentration courses: In summer rush-
hour-dependent CO, NO and NO2 maxima only occurred in the morning. A high NO2/NO ratio
was established during weather conditions with high global radiation intensities (K > 800 W m(-
2)), which may result in a high O-3 formation potential. Some of the values measured found in
one of the parks investigated (Gruga Park, Essen, area: 0.7 km(2)), which were as high as 275
mu g m(-3) O-3 (30-min mean value) were significantly higher than the German air quality
standard of 120 mu g m(-3) (30-min mean value, VDI Guideline 2310, 1996) which currently
applies in Germany and about 20% above the maximum values measured on the same day by the
network of the North Rhine-Westphalian State Environment Agency. In winter high CO and NO
concentrations occur in the morning and during the afternoon rush-hour. The highest
concentrations (CO = 4.3 mg m(-3), NO = 368 mu g m(-3), 30-min mean values) coincide with
the increase in the evening inversion. The maximum measured values for CO, NO and NO2 do
not, however, exceed the German air quality standards in winter and summer. (C) 1999 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Kwack, H. R. and P. D. Relf (2002). “Current Status of Human Issues in Horticulture in

Korea.” HortTechnology 12(3): 415-419.
As the level of urbanization has increased, many people in Korea have begun to recognize the
beneficial effects of plants in our immediate surroundings and involvement in horticultural
activities. Today, an increasing number of Koreans attempt to improve the quality of life and
enhance educational effectiveness through horticultural activities. Kindergarten, elementary,
middle, and high schools have initiated garden-based programs. Some universities include
courses focusing on horticulture applications to human well-being in their regular graduate
programs or in their social education curricula. A few general hospitals, psychiatric hospitals,
and rehabilitation centers have begun applying horticulture as a means of treatment. Most of the
research articles in Korea on various aspects of human issues in horticulture have been published
since the foundation of two academic societies, the Korean Horticultural Therapy Association
and the Korean Society for Plants, People, and Environment. These articles are primarily focused
on the areas of school gardening, healing gardens, and psychological or physiological effects of
horticultural activities. For the future development of human issues in horticulture in Korea,
several areas need to be enhanced including: interdisciplinary studies of horticulture and social
education; development of different skills, techniques,and scales to validate the effects of
horticultural therapy, healing gardens, and gardening as a teaching tool in public education; and
an organization empowered to certify horticultural therapists.

Kweon, B. S., R. S. Ulrich, et al. (2008). “Anger and stress – The role of landscape posters
in an office setting.” Environment and Behavior 40(3): 355-381.
Anger and stress management have become important issues in the modem workplace. One out
of four American workers report themselves to be chronically angry, which has been linked to
negative outcomes such as retaliatory behavior, revenge, interpersonal aggression, poor work
performance, absenteeism, and increased turnover. We hypothesized that people who work in
office environments decorated with aesthetically engaging art posters would experience less
stress and anger in response to task-related frustration. Two hundred and ten college students
were randomly assigned to different office conditions where abstract and nature paintings were
hung on the walls. Participants performed four mild anger-provoking computer tasks and then
reported their levels of state anger and stress. Results indicate that different office conditions had
a significant influence on state anger and stress for males but not for females. Males experienced
less state anger and stress when art posters were present. Through mediation analysis, we found
that increased proportions of nature paintings decreased state anger because of decreased levels
of stress.

Laboratory, U. o. I. H.-E. R. (2003, 08/06/2010). “How cities use parks to create safer
neighborhoods.” from http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/index.htm.
For those concerned that green spaces may foster crime and illegal activity, evidence now exists
that the opposite may be true.When adjacent to residential areas, green spaces have been shown
to create neighborhoods with fewer violent and property crimes and where neighbors tend to
support and protect one another. These are the findings of scientists at the Human-Environment
Research Laboratory of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who studied green space
alongside public housing in Chicago. Other researchers who are conducting similar studies
across the country are finding similar results. The factors that explain these findings emphasize
the importance of greenery in community and personal wellness.Time spent in natural
surroundings relieves mental fatigue, which in turn relieves inattentiveness, irritability, and
impulsivity, recognized by psychologists as precursors to violence. Green spaces also support
frequent, casual contact among neighbors. This leads to the formation of neighborhood social
ties, the building blocks of strong, secure neighborhoods where people tend to support,care
about,and protect one another.

Laverne, R. J. and K. Winson-Geideman (2003). “The influence of trees and landscaping

on rental rates at office buildings.” Journal of Aboriculture 29(5): 281-290.
The environmental and economic benefits of trees have been studied relative to a variety of
interests including their influence on real estate value. This study investigates the effect of trees
and landscaping on office rental rates, based on a comparison of 85 office buildings that
comprise 270 individual and unique leases in the Cleveland, Ohio, U.S., metropolitan area. Data
that describe the quantity, functionality, and quality of landscaping were gathered from each of
the buildings including landscape maturity, the percentage of ground cover (trees, turf,
pavement, etc.), and functional attributes (building shade, noise buffer, space definition,
recreation, visual screen, and aesthetics). Multiple regression analysis in the form of a hedonic
equation was conducted to isolate the economic effects of landscaping. Office attribute data
including lease information, physical attributes, and distance variables were used to calibrate the
basic model, and landscaping data were added to the hedonic equation to determine if individual
and/or interactive variables had any effect on contracted rental rates. The individual analysis of
the variables showed a strong positive effect for those buildings with good landscaping aesthetics
and building shade provided by trees. Conversely, landscaping that provides a good visual screen
produced significant negative impacts on rental rates.

Lewis, C. A. (1996). Green Nature/Human Nature: The Meaning of Plants in Our Lives,
Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
In Green Nature/Human Nature Charles A. Lewis describes the psychological, sociological, and
physiological responses of people to vegetation in cities and forests, as well as in horticultural
therapy programs in hospitals, geriatric institutions, physical rehabilitation centers, drug
rehabilitation programs, and correctional institutions. He presents an evolutionary basis for the
human attraction to plants. People-plant interactions are presented from two perspectives:
participatory, in which the individual is involved in planting and maintaining the vegetation, and
observational, in which the individual bears no responsibility for establishing or maintaining the
vegetation. In what amounts to a straightforward catalog of well-documented and tangible
benefits, Lewis brings the latest and best research into plant/human interaction to bear on
questions of how green nature is intertwined with the human psyche and how that interaction can
lead to enhanced well-being and an appreciation of the human dimension in environmental
concerns.

Lewis, M. (2002) How cities use parks for economic development.

Parks provide intrinsic environmental, aesthetic, and recreation benefits to our cities. They are
also a source of positive economic benefits.They enhance property values, increase municipal
revenue, bring in homebuyers and workers, and attract retirees. At the bottom line, parks are a
good financial investment for a community. Understanding the economic impacts of parks can
help decision makers better evaluate the creation and maintenance of urban parks.

Ling, C. and A. Dale (2011). “Nature, place and the creative class: Three Canadian case
studies.” Landscape and Urban Planning 99(3-4): 239-247.
In the natural world, the transfer of resources between landscape features such as the corridors
and patches that make up the mosaic of ecological niches is increased where those boundaries
are more complex. This article explores this as an analogue for the relationship between natural
landscapes and human communities and the possible link between those landscapes greater
human diversity and innovation. Using Canadian case study research this article explores the
potential link between landscape and human creativity. The case studies are all examples of
human communities with higher than average populations of the creative class and with noted
landscapes that have influenced the nature and direction of development. We explore the
possibility that there is a link between landscape and creativity and consider how this may reflect
the potential for cultural diversity and thus the sustainable community development.

Lohr, V. I. and C. H. Pearson-Mims (2000). “Physical Discomfort May Be Reduced in the

Presence of Interior Plants.” HortTechnology 10(1): 53-58.
A well-known research report showed that being in a hospital room with a view of trees rather
than a view of a building was linked to the use of fewer pain-reducing medications by patients
recovering from surgery. The experiment reported here was designed to further examine the role
of plants in pain perception. We found that more subjects were willing to keep a hand submerged
in ice water for 5 min if they were in a room with plants present than if they were in a room
without plants. This was found to be true even when the room without plants had other colorful
objects that might help the subject focus on something other than the discomfort. Results from a
room assessment survey confirmed that the room with colorful, nonplant objects was as
interesting and colorful as the room with plants present, but the presence of plants was perceived
as making the air in the room fresher.

Lohr, V. I. and C. H. Pearson-Mims (2005). “Children’s Active and Passive Interactions

with Plants Influence Their Attitudes and Actions toward Trees and Gardening as Adults.”
HortTechnology 15(3): 472-476.
A nationwide phone survey of attitudes toward urban trees, participation in civic or educational
activities, and memories of childhood experiences with gardening and nature was conducted with
2004 adults in large urban areas. We analyzed the influence of 11 childhood experiences and five
adult demographic characteristics on three items: “Trees in cities help people feel calmer,” “Do
trees have a particular personal, symbolic, or spiritual meaning to you?” and “During the past
year, have you participated in a class or program about gardening?” Growing up next to natural
elements such as flower beds, visiting parks, taking environmental classes, and gardening during
childhood were associated with stronger adult attitudes and more actions. Growing up next to
urban elements, such as large buildings, had a small, but opposite, influence. Demographics
played a role in adult attitudes and actions. While both passive and active interactions with plants
during childhood were associated with positive adult values about trees, the strongest influence
came from active gardening, such as picking flowers or planting trees. These results indicate that
horticultural programs for children raised in urban surroundings with few or no plants can be
effective in fostering an appreciation for gardening in adults.

Lohr, V. I. and C. H. Pearson-Mims (2005). “Urban Residents Rate the Benefits of Trees in
Cities Highly and Are Unconcerned with Problems Associated with Trees.” HortScience
40(4): 1136-a-.
In a survey, residents of the largest metropolitan areas in the continental United States rated the
social, environmental, and practical benefits from trees in urban areas highly. They ranked the
ability of trees to shade and cool surroundings highest. The potential of trees to help people feel
calmer was ranked second highest. Survey respondents were not very concerned about potential
problems with trees in cities, and felt that trees should be planted in cities regardless of any
annoyance. Practical problems with trees, such as causing allergies, were bigger concerns than
were financial issues. Responses varied slightly, based on childhood background and current
demographic factors. For example, people who grew up with a garden near their home or
actively worked with plants during childhood were more likely to appreciate the potential
benefits of trees than were those who did not have such early experiences. People who strongly
agreed that trees were important to their quality of life and those who did not strongly agree
ranked the tree benefits and problems similarly, however. Those who strongly agreed that trees
were important to their quality of life rated the benefits of trees more highly than people who did
not strongly agree.

Lohr, V. I. and P. D. Relf (2000). “An Overview of the Current State of Human Issues in
Horticulture in the United States.” HortTechnology 10(1): 27-33.
Throughout history, plants have been used to benefit people. In the United States, formal
research to document the impacts of plants on people was not published until the 1970s, when
papers from social and medical scientists began to appear. In the 1990s, symposia, including the
first on “The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development,” brought
people together from around the world to share and expand their knowledge in this emerging
field. Symposium participants have included researchers in the social sciences and plant
sciences, practitioners in horticultural therapy, teachers in colleges and public gardens, industry
representatives applying the knowledge, and more. This has formed the basis for current
activities in research, teaching, and practice throughout the United States. Examples from
research that now documents a variety of beneficial impacts of plants on people are discussed.

MacDonald, J. A. (2007) How cities use parks for climate change management.
The urban heat island effect, and its mostly negative consequences of modified temperature,
wind, precipitation, and air quality patterns, is the primary instigator of local climate change.
Continued urbanization of the global population will only hasten further change.The increasing
impact of urban heat islands on local climates may eventually translate to more widespread
climate change, possibly global, if left unchecked. Parks are the first and best line of defense
against these changes. Urban parks cool and clean the air, improve and modify local wind
circulations, and better regulate precipitation patterns.Well-vegetated parks, in a variety of forms
and sizes, mitigate the impact of the urban heat island and minimize local climate change.
Reduced impact of the urban heat island may prolong or even prevent more widespread global
climate change as cities continue to increase in both size and number.

Maco, S. E. and E. G. McPherson (2003). “A practical approach to assessing structure,

function and value of street tree population in small communities.” Journal of Aboriculture
29(2): 84-97.
This study demonstrates an approach to quantify the structure, benefits, and costs of street tree
populations in resource-limited communities without tree inventories. Using the city of Davis,
California, U.S., as a model, existing data on the benefits and costs of municipal trees were
applied to the results of a sample inventory of the city’s public and private street trees. Results
indicate that Davis maintained nearly 24,000 public street trees that provided $1.2 million in net
annual environmental and property value benefits, with a benefit–cost ratio of 3.8:1. The city can
improve long-term stability of this resource by managing maintenance, new plantings, and stand
rejuvenation on a city zone basis.

Mansfield, C., S. K. Pattanayak, et al. (2005). “Shades of Green: Measuring the value of
urban forests in the housing market.” Journal of Forest Economics 11(3): 177-199.
Urban areas can contain public parks, protected forests, unprotected (or undeveloped) forest
areas, and trees growing around a house or in the neighborhood surrounding the house. Each
type of forest cover provides different amenities to the homeowner and to society at large. In
particular, while trees on a parcel of land or in a neighborhood may add value for homeowners,
the ecological value of these trees as habitat is far less than large, unbroken parcels of forest. We
explore different definitions of forest cover and greenness and assess the relative value of these
various types of forest cover to homeowners. Using data from the Research Triangle region of
North Carolina, we test the hypothesis that trees on a parcel or in the neighborhood around that
parcel are substitutes for living near large blocks of forest. The findings have implications for
land-use planning efforts and habitat conservation in particular.

Martin, C. A. and L. B. Stabler (2004). “Urban horticultural ecology: Interactions between

plants, people and the physical environment.” Expanding Roles for Horticulture in
Improving Human Well-Being and Life Quality(639): 97-101.
Growing interest in the ecology of cities is providing a unique opportunity for horticultural
scientists to study plant processes in an environmental setting that is foreign to most ecologists.
Past studies in urban plant ecology have been limited to inventories and distribution of the plants
present or have focused on areas of remnant native vegetation and impacts of urbanization on
those remnant patches. Classic ecological pedagogy depicts exotic species as invaders, and
human manipulations of the geo-surface as disturbance events. The real essence of urban
vegetation as a system that has been carefully designed and is intensively managed to serve
human interests has been overlooked. While the concepts of human/plant interactions are
common and inherent to horticultural research, they may present a difficult obstacle to be
overcome for those trained in conventional ecological circles. In conjunction with the Central
Arizona Phoenix Long Term Ecological Research initiative, we have approached plant
ecological studies in an and urban system as an interacting triad of plants, people, and the
physical environment. People arrange and manage plants in cities for aesthetic as well as
practical purposes. Plant viability is predicated on horticultural practices, and the anthropogenic
environment in which landscape plants grow can be physiologically stressful. At the same time,
the arrangement of plants affects the biophysical environment of the city and the quality of life of
the people living there. We propose that a better understanding of urban plant ecology is attained
using a landscape horticultural perspective, one that is familiar with the interactions between
plants, people, and the physical environment. Understanding the ecology of urban plants might
lead to design and management strategies that maximize benefits associated with plants in cities
and improve human well being and quality of life.

Matsuo, E. (2000). “Education, Research, and Use of Human-Horticulture Relationships in

Japan and Korea.” HortTechnology 10(1): 14-17.
Plants and horticulture play an integral role in the cultural heritage of eastern societies. Plants are
deemed as important in many ways besides being a source of food and shelter. The present study
summarizes information on research and trends in the value and application of horticulture
collected from professionals in Asian countries, focusing on the work in human-horticulture
relationships in Korea and Japan.

Matsuoka, R. H. (2010). “Student performance and high school landscapes: Examining the
links.” Landscape and Urban Planning In Press, Corrected Proof.
High school students today are experiencing unprecedented levels of school-related stress. At the
same time, a growing body of research has linked views of nature with restoration from mental
fatigue and stress reduction. How important are such views for students while they are at school?
This study investigated 101 public high schools in southeastern Michigan to examine the role
played by the availability of nearby nature in student academic achievement and behavior. The
analyses revealed consistent and systematically positive relationships between nature exposure
and student performance. Specifically, views with greater quantities of trees and shrubs from
cafeteria as well as classroom windows are positively associated with standardized test scores,
graduation rates, percentages of students planning to attend a four-year college, and fewer
occurrences of criminal behavior. In addition, large expanses of landscape lacking natural
features are negatively related to these same test scores and college plans. These featureless
landscapes included large areas of campus lawns, athletic fields, and parking lots. All analyses
accounted for student socio-economic status and racial/ethnic makeup, building age, and size of
school enrollment.

Mayer, M., M. Müller, et al. (2010). “The economic impact of tourism in six German
national parks.” Landscape and Urban Planning 97(2): 73-82.
Tourism in protected areas can create considerable income for adjacent communities. Based on
face-to-face visitor surveys, the present study measures the structure, size and economic impact
of tourist expenditure in the six German national parks Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer,
Bayerischer Wald, Eifel, Müritz, Hainich and Kellerwald-Edersee. We find that mean daily
expenditure per person of national park visitors is considerably below the national averages for
tourists in Germany: day-trippers spend between EUR 7 and 13 per day (national average: EUR
28), whereas overnight visitors spend between EUR 37 and 57 (national average: EUR 120). The
proportion of visitors with high national park affinity varies between a maximum of almost 46%
in Bayerischer Wald and a minimum of nearly 11% in Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer. Between
49% and 51% of tourist expenditure is captured as direct and indirect income. The total impact
of tourism ranges between EUR 525 million in Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer and EUR 1.9
million in Kellerwald-Edersee, reflecting the national parks’ distinct trajectories as tourist
destinations. In order to increase the economic benefits accruing from national parks regional
policy could aim at a qualitative upgrading of tourist services, increased marketing of the unique
national park label and the promotion of a diverse regional supply base.

McDaniel, A. and D. Relf (1998). “Master Gardener Judges in State and National
Horticulture Career Development Events.” HortTechnology 8(1): 71-74.
Master Gardeners (MGs) have proven to be effective judges for vocational horticulture student
demonstrations of industry skills in 1996 Virginia and National FFA competitions. In a survey,
the MG judges indicated a wide variety of backgrounds, with many being first-year MGs having
no prior experience in judging or youth programs. Overall, they rated the student performance as
better than expected and their own judging standard as neither lenient nor rigorous. Training is a
critical part of their effectiveness as judges, and it was found that multiple formats are needed.
Overall, most rated judging the FFA events as a very appropriate match to the MG educational
goals, and there was a 100% affirmative response to the questions would they accept an
invitation to judge again and would they encourage other MGs to volunteer as judges for FFA
horticulture events.

McFarland, A. L., T. M. Waliczek, et al. (2008). “The Relationship Between Student Use of
Campus Green Spaces and Perceptions of Quality of Life.” HortTechnology 18(2): 232-238.
Researchers have found that students’ perception of their overall academic experience and the
campus environment is related to academic accomplishment. Additionally, studies have found
that the designed environment of the university can influence the degree of stress students may
feel. The main objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between undergraduate
university student use of campus green spaces and their perceptions of quality of life at a
university in Texas. A total of 2334 students or 10% of the undergraduate student body received
e-mails with information regarding the incentive for participation and instructions on accessing
an online survey. The survey included questions that related to student use of campus green
spaces, overall quality of life statements, an instrument to measure the quality of life of
university students, and demographic questions. A total of 373 surveys was collected and
analyzed to compare levels of quality of life of university students and the level of usage of
campus green spaces. Demographic information collected allowed controlling for student grade
classification, gender, and ethnicity. Frequency statistics determined that, on average, more than
half the students were ranked as “high-users” of the campus green spaces, and very few students
were considered “low-users.” Frequency statistics also determined that most students rated their
overall quality of life and quality of life of university students positively. Additionally, this study
found that undergraduate student use of campus green spaces and perceptions of quality of life
were related to each other.

McFarland, A. L., T. M. Waliczek, et al. (2010). “Graduate Student Use of Campus Green
Spaces and the Impact on Their Perceptions of Quality of Life.” HortTechnology 20(1):
186-192.
Students’ perception of their overall academic experience and the campus environment is related
to academic accomplishment, and research has found that the designed environment of the
university can influence the degree of stress students may feel. Past research found that
undergraduate student use of campus green spaces and perceptions of quality of life were related
to each other. The main objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between
graduate student use of campus green spaces and their perceptions of quality of life at a
university in Texas. A total of 347 of 3279 ({approx}10%) of the graduate student body received
e-mails with information regarding the incentive for participation and instructions on accessing
an on-line survey. The survey included questions that related to student use of campus green
spaces, overall quality of life statements, an instrument to measure the quality of life of
university students, and demographic questions. A total of 79 (22.8% response rate) graduate
student questionnaires were collected and analyzed to compare perceptions of quality of life of
university students and the level of individual usage of campus green spaces. Descriptive
statistics determined that, unlike undergraduates who were primarily “high users” of campus
green spaces, graduate students were about equally split between being “low,” “medium,” and
“high users” of campus green spaces. However, graduate students still ranked their quality of life
highly. Finally, this study found that, unlike undergraduates, graduate students did not have a
statistically significant relationship between green-user scores and perception of quality of life
scores. It may be that graduate students have less time to spend in outdoor spaces, yet still meet
their quality of life needs through other means such as academic achievements.

McGuinn, C. and P. D. Relf (2001). “A Profile of Juvenile Offenders in a Vocational

Horticulture Curriculum.” HortTechnology 11(3): 427-433.
This study provides a profile of six juvenile offenders’ responses to a vocational horticulture
curriculum. The results indicate that vocational horticulture curricula may be a tool to strengthen
a delinquent individual’s bonds with society and, subsequently, evoke changes in attitudes about
personal success and perceptions of personal job preparedness. The youths in this study
increased their social bonds in all six categories addressed by the pretest and posttests, and were
motivated to think more practically about their careers. Due to the limitations on size and scope
of the study, it is exploratory in nature and provides ideas for future research and possible
assessment methods for further research.

Mcpherson, E. G. (1992). “Accounting for Benefits and Costs of Urban Greenspace.”

Landscape and Urban Planning 22(1): 41-51.
Urban greenspace provides many environmental and social services that contribute to the quality
of life in cities. Economic approaches used to estimate value of greenspace services include
travel cost, willingness to pay, hedonic pricing, and tree valuation. These methods have limited
utility for policy-makers, planners, and managers because the underlying values they estimate
only indirectly reflect the flow of multiple benefits and costs. A greenspace accounting approach
to partially address this deficiency is described using benefit-cost analysis for a proposed tree-
planting project in Tucson, AZ. The approach directly connects vegetation structure with the
spatial-temporal flow of functional benefits and costs. Prices are assigned to each cost (i.e.
planting, pruning, removal, irrigation) and benefit (i.e. cooling energy savings, interception of
particulates, stormwater runoff reduction) through direct estimation and implied valuation of
benefits as environmental externalities. The approach can be used to evaluate net economic
benefits associated with capital investments in urban forests vs. other investments in the urban
infrastructure or traditional environmental control technologies.

Mcpherson, E. G. (1993). “Monitoring Urban Forest Health.” Environmental Monitoring

and Assessment 26(2-3): 165-174.
Renewed interest in urban forestry has resulted in significant public investment in trees during
the past few years, yet comprehensive urban forest monitoring programs are uncommon.
Monitoring is an integral component of a program to sustain healthy community forests and long
term flows of net benefits. Volunteer-based monitoring will promote continued public
involvement and support in community forestry. To overcome constraints to monitoring in urban
environments, programs must be personally relevant, socially desirable, scientifically credible,
and economically feasible. A three-tiered monitoring approach is presented. Canopy cover
analysis documents net gains and losses in regional urban forest cover. Simplified detection
monitoring uses trained volunteers to better understand tree population dynamics, while intensive
monitoring characterizes urban forest functions and stressors. Implementation of an urban forest
health initiative to develop, place, and evaluate monitoring programs is advocated.
McPherson, E. G. (2001). “Sacramento’s parking lot shading ordinance: environmental
and economic costs of compliance.” Landscape and Urban Planning 57(2): 105-123.
A survey of 15 Sacramento parking lots and computer modeling were used to evaluate parking
capacity and compliance with the 1983 ordinance requiring 50% shade of paved areas (PA) 15
years after development. There were 6% more parking spaces than required by ordinance, and
36% were vacant during peak use periods. Current shade was 14% with 44% of this amount
provided by covered parking. Shade was projected to increase to 27% (95% CI 24-37%) when all
lots in the sample were 15-year-old. Annual benefits associated with the corresponding level of
tree shade were estimated to be US$ 1.8 million (CI US$ 1.5-2.6 million) annually citywide, or
US$ 2.2 million less than benefits from 50% shade (Cl US$ 1.4-2.5 million). The cost of
replacing dying trees and addressing other health issues was US$ 1.1 million. Planting 116,000
trees needed to achieve 50% shade was estimated to cost approximately US$ 20 million.
Strategies for revising parking ordinances to enhance their effectiveness are presented. Published
by Elsevier Science B.V.

McPherson, E. G. (2003). “Urban forestry – The final frontier?” Journal of Forestry

101(3): 20-25.
Forestry and urban forestry have more in common than practitioners in either field may think.
The two disciplines could each take better advantage of the other’s expertise, such as foresters’
impressive range of scientific theory and technological sophistication, and urban foresters’
experience in working with diverse stakeholders in the public arena. The wildland-urban
interface is geographic center of convergence, and the nexus of forest ecology and human
ecology will become forestry’s next frontier-where forestry and urban forestry join together to
construct healthier habitats for humans.

McPherson, E. G. and J. Muchnick (2005). “Effects of Street Tree Shade on Asphalt

Concrete Pavement Performance.” Journal of Arboriculture 31(6): 303-310.
Forty-eight street segments were paired into 24 highand low-shade pairs in Modesto, California,
U.S. Field data were collected to calculate a Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and Tree Shade
Index (TSI) for each segment. Statistical analyses found that greater PCI was associated with
greater TSI, indicating that tree shade was partially responsible for reduced pavement fatigue
cracking, rutting, shoving, and other distress. Using observed relations between PCI and TSI, an
unshaded street segment required 6 slurry seals over 30 years, while an identical one planted
with 12 crape myrtles (Lagerstroemia indica, 4.4 m [14 ft] crown diameter) required 5 slurry
seals, and one with 6 Chinese hackberry (Celtis sinensis, 13.7 m [45 ft] crown diameter) required
2.5 slurry seals. Shade from the large hackberries was projected to save $7.13/m2 ($0.66/ft2)
over the 30-year period compared to the unshaded street.

McPherson, E. G. and J. Muchnick (2005). “Effects of Street Tree Shade on Asphalt

Concrete Pavement Performance.” Journal of Arboriculture 31(6): 303-310.
Forty-eight street segments were paired into 24 highand low-shade pairs in Modesto, California,
U.S. Field data were collected to calculate a Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and Tree Shade
Index (TSI) for each segment. Statistical analyses found that greater PCI was associated with
greater TSI, indicating that tree shade was partially responsible for reduced pavement fatigue
cracking, rutting, shoving, and other distress. Using observed relations between PCI and TSI, an
unshaded street segment required 6 slurry seals over 30 years, while an identical one planted
with 12 crape myrtles (Lagerstroemia indica, 4.4 m [14 ft] crown diameter) required 5 slurry
seals, and one with 6 Chinese hackberry (Celtis sinensis, 13.7 m [45 ft] crown diameter) required
2.5 slurry seals. Shade from the large hackberries was projected to save $7.13/m2 ($0.66/ft2)
over the 30-year period compared to the unshaded street.

McPherson, E. G., K. I. Scott, et al. (1998). “Estimating cost effectiveness of residential

yard trees for improving air quality in Sacramento, California, using existing models.”
Atmospheric Environment 32(1): 75-84.
The Sacramento Municipal Utility District’s (SMUD) shade tree program will result in the
planting of 500,000 trees and has been found to produce net benefits from air conditioning
savings. In this study we assume three scenarios (base, highest, and lowest benefits) based on the
SMUD program and apply Best Available Control Technology (BACT) cost analysis to
determine if shade trees planted in residential yards can be a cost effective means to improve air
quality. Planting and maintenance costs, pollutant deposition, and biogenic hydrocarbon
emissions are estimated annually for 30 years with existing deterministic models. For the base
case, the average annual dollar benefit of pollutant uptake was $895 and the cost of biogenic
hydrocarbon emissions was $512, for a net pollutant uptake benefit of $383 per 100 trees
planted. The uniform annual payment necessary to repay planting and maintenance costs with a
10% rate of interest was $749. When high biogenic hydrocarbon emitting tree species were
replaced with low-emitters, the base case benefit-cost ratio (BCR) increased from 0.5:1 to 0.9:1.
The BCR for the ”highest” and ”lowest” benefit cases were 2.2:1 and -0.8:1, respectively.
Although SMUD plantings produce cost effective energy savings, our application of the BACT
analysis does not suggest convincing evidence that there is cost savings when only air quality
benefits are considered. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

McPherson, E. G., K. I. Scott, et al. (1998). “Estimating cost effectiveness of residential

yard trees for improving air quality in Sacramento, California, using existing models.”
Atmospheric Environment 32(1): 75-84.
The Sacramento Municipal Utility District’s (SMUD) shade tree program will result in the
planting of 500,000 trees and has been found to produce net benefits from air conditioning
savings. In this study we assume three scenarios (base, highest, and lowest benefits) based on the
SMUD program and apply Best Available Control Technology (BACT) cost analysis to
determine if shade trees planted in residential yards can be a cost effective means to improve air
quality. Planting and maintenance costs, pollutant deposition, and biogenic hydrocarbon
emissions are estimated annually for 30 years with existing deterministic models. For the base
case, the average annual dollar benefit of pollutant uptake was $895 and the cost of biogenic
hydrocarbon emissions was $512, for a net pollutant uptake benefit of $383 per 100 trees
planted. The uniform annual payment necessary to repay planting and maintenance costs with a
10% rate of interest was $749. When high biogenic hydrocarbon emitting tree species were
replaced with low-emitters, the base case benefit-cost ratio (BCR) increased from 0.5:1 to 0.9:1.
The BCR for the ”highest” and ”lowest” benefit cases were 2.2:1 and -0.8:1, respectively.
Although SMUD plantings produce cost effective energy savings, our application of the BACT
analysis does not suggest convincing evidence that there is cost savings when only air quality
benefits are considered. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
McPherson, E. G. and J. R. Simpson (2002). “A comparison of municipal forest benefits
and costs in Modesto and Santa Monica, California, USA.” Urban forestry & urban
greening 1(2): 61-74.
This paper presents a comparison of the structure, function, and value of street and park tree
populations in two California cities. Trees provided net annual benefits valued at $2.2 million in
Modesto and $805,732 in Santa Monica. Benefit-cost ratios were 1.85:1 and 1.52:1 in Modesto
and Santa Monica, respectively. Residents received $1.85 and $1.52 in annual benefits for every
$1 invested in management. Aesthetic and other benefits accounted for 50% to 80% of total
annual benefits, while expenditures for pruning accounted for about 50% of total annual costs.
Although these results were similar, benefits and costs were distributed quite differently in each
city. Variations in tree sizes and growth rates, foliation characteristics, prices, residential
property values, and climate were chiefly responsible for different benefits and costs calculated
on a per tree basis.

McPherson, E. G., J. R. Simpson, et al. (2011). “Million trees Los Angeles canopy cover and
benefit assessment.” Landscape and Urban Planning 99(1): 40-50.
The Million Trees LA initiative intends to improve Los Angeles’s environment through planting
and stewardship of 1 million trees. The purpose of this study was to measure Los Angeles’s
existing tree canopy cover (TCC), determine if space exists for 1 million additional trees, and
estimate future benefits from the planting. High-resolution QuickBird remote sensing data, aerial
photographs, and geographic information systems were used to classify land cover types,
measure TCC, and identify potential tree planting sites. Benefits were forecast for planting of 1
million trees between 2006 and 2010, and their growth and mortality were projected until 2040.
Two scenarios reflected low (17%) and high (56%) mortality rates. Numerical models were used
with geographic data and tree size information for coastal and inland climate zones to calculate
annual benefits and their monetary value. Los Angeles’s existing TCC was 21%, and ranged
from 7 to 37% by council district. There was potential to add 2.5 million additional trees to the
existing population of approximately 10.8 million, but only 1.3 million of the potential tree sites
are deemed realistic to plant. Benefits for the 1-million-tree planting for the 35-year period were
$1.33 billion and $1.95 billion for the high- and low-mortality scenarios, respectively. Average
annual benefits were $38 and $56 per tree planted. Eighty-one percent of total benefits were
aesthetic/other, 8% were stormwater runoff reduction, 6% energy savings, 4% air quality
improvement, and less than 1% atmospheric carbon reduction.

McPherson, G., J. R. Simpson, et al. (2005). “Municipal forest benefits and costs in five US
cities.” Journal of Forestry 103(8): 411-416.
Increasingly, city trees are viewed as a best management practice to control stormwater, an
urban-heat-island mitigation measure for cleaner air, a CO2-reduction option to offset emissions,
and an alternative to costly new electric power plants. Measuring benefits that accrue from the
community forest is the first step to altering forest structure in ways that will enhance future
benefits. This article describes the structure, function, and value of street and park tree
populations in Fort Collins, Colorado; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Bismarck, North Dakota; Berkeley,
California; and Glendale, Arizona. Although these cities spent $13-65 annually per tree, benefits
ranged from $31 to $89 per tree. For every dollar invested in management, benefits returned
annually ranged from $1.37 to $3.09. Strategies each city can take to increase net benefits are
presented.
Meyer, M. H., B. K. Behe, et al. (2001). “The Economic Impact and Perceived
Environmental Effect of Home Lawns in Minnesota.” HortTechnology 11(4): 585-590.
Six hundred homeowners, equally divided among rural, suburban, and urban areas in Minnesota
responded to a 1999 phone survey on their lawn size, maintenance practices, and the perceived
environmental impact of their lawns. The average lawn size was estimated to be 0.62 acres (0.25
ha), with an estimated 872,660 total acres (353,427 ha) in home lawns in Minnesota. Annual
spending on lawn care per home was about $200, with an estimated $150 million spent annually
in Minnesota. Participants reported low maintenance practices and pesticide use. A majority
thought fertilizers and pesticides were harmful to the environment and public health.
Respondents felt strongly that the government has a right to regulate fertilizers and pesticides in
public park and lawn areas, but were divided with regard to the appropriateness of regulation on
private property. Many (78.9%) disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement that their
lawn was harmful to the environment. Most (60%) felt their lawn could have an effect on the
environment and 71% felt they personally could make a difference in the environment by how
they maintained their lawn.

Mitchell, R. and F. Popham (2008). “Effect of exposure to natural environment on health

inequalities: an observational population study.” The Lancet 372(9650): 1655-1660.
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an
independent effect on health and health-related behaviours. We postulated that income-related
inequality in health would be less pronounced in populations with greater exposure to green
space, since access to such areas can modify pathways through which low socioeconomic
position can lead to disease. We classified the population of England at younger than retirement
age (n=40 813 236) into groups on the basis of income deprivation and exposure to green space.
We obtained individual mortality records (n=366 348) to establish whether the association
between income deprivation, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality (circulatory
disease, lung cancer, and intentional self-harm) in 2001–05, varied by exposure to green space
measured in 2001, with control for potential confounding factors. We used stratified models to
identify the nature of this variation. The association between income deprivation and mortality
differed significantly across the groups of exposure to green space for mortality from all causes
(p<0·0001) and circulatory disease (p=0·0212), but not from lung cancer or intentional self-
harm. Health inequalities related to income deprivation in all-cause mortality and mortality from
circulatory diseases were lower in populations living in the greenest areas. The incidence rate
ratio (IRR) for all-cause mortality for the most income deprived quartile compared with the least
deprived was 1·93 (95% CI 1·86–2·01) in the least green areas, whereas it was 1·43 (1·34–1·53)
in the most green. For circulatory diseases, the IRR was 2·19 (2·04–2·34) in the least green areas
and 1·54 (1·38–1·73) in the most green. There was no effect for causes of death unlikely to be
affected by green space, such as lung cancer and intentional self-harm. Populations that are
exposed to the greenest environments also have lowest levels of health inequality related to
income deprivation. Physical environments that promote good health might be important to
reduce socioeconomic health inequalities.

Mok, J. H., H. C. Landphair, et al. (2006). “Landscape improvement impacts on roadside

safety in Texas.” Landscape and Urban Planning 78(3): 263-274.
Environmental psychologists suggest that appropriately landscaped roadside scenes may have a
reducing influence on travel-related stress or may improve attention, yet there is very little data
available that establishes the nature of the relationship between roadside landscaping and driver
safety. Traditional transportation researchers suggest that aesthetic enhancements are a
problematic component of the roadside landscape because of the severity of vehicle/tree
collisions and a perception that roadside aesthetics can distract the driver causing safety risk.
Costly planning processes arise as members of the local communities debate with public utility
and transportation management staff on the subject of appropriate roadside landscaping.
To test the effect of landscape improvements on driver performance, this study used a
comparison of before-and-after crashes as a quantitative measure of roadside greening.
Researchers examined 61 road sections in Texas that were landscape designed as either urban
arterials or state highways. The hypothesis tested was to determine whether landscape-improved
sections of the roadway were safer compared to the same road section before landscape
improvements at 10 sites were very well controlled as study sites. The findings of this study
show a significant decrease in crash rate after landscape improvements were implemented at the
95% confidence level on 10 urban arterial or highway sites in Texas. The contribution of this
study is to further investigate the effect that landscape features are having on driver behavior
which appear to be associated with positive changes in safety result from design. However, these
findings need further research to verify a relationship between driver’s visual perception
according to travelway corridor landscape treatments. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Moore, R. (2003) How cities use parks to help children learn.

Childhood is a holistic process, different for each individual child. Many children do not learn
effectively exclusively within a classroom. They need alternative, hands-on learning
environments to match their varied learning styles. Test-driven education mandates often do not
emphasize children’s emotional and social needs and opportunities for creativity. This limits the
development of unique talents and the fulfillment of individual lives, and deprives society of
practical, problem-solving intelligence. City parks, greenways, and naturalized school grounds
can be a crucial antidote to these unhealthy trends. They can motivate young people to learn
through the natural environment (which includes learning about the natural environment),
bringing environmental education into the mainstream of state-mandated instructional programs.
The informal learning, non-formal programs, and formal instruction associated with parks can
reinforce each other, enhancing academic achievement.

Nali, C., L. Crocicchi, et al. (2004). “Plants as indicators of urban air pollution (ozone and
trace elements) in Pisa, Italy.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 6(7): 636-645.
A biennial integrated survey, based on the use of vascular plants for the bioindication of the
effects of tropospheric ozone, was performed in the area of Pisa ( Tuscany, Central Italy). It also
investigated the distribution of selected trace elements in plants and the data were compared with
those obtained from the use of passive samplers, automatic analysers of ozone and lichen
biodiversity. Photochemically produced ozone proved to be present during the warm season,
with maximum hourly means surpassing 100 ppb: the use of supersensitive tobacco Bel-W3
confirmed the value of detailed, cost-effective, monitoring surveys. Trials with clover clones
demonstrate that sensitive plants undergo severe biomass reduction in the current ozone regime.
The mean NC-S ( clover clone sensitive to ozone): NC-R ( resistant) biomass ratio ranged from
0.7 ( in 1999) to 0.5 ( in 2000). The economic impact of these reductions deserves attention. The
data obtained using passive ozone samplers exceeded those obtained using an automatic
analyser. The mapping of epiphytic lichen biodiversity was not related to the geographical ozone
distribution as can be seen from the tobacco’s response. Lettuce plants grown under standardized
conditions were used positively as bioaccumulators of trace elements: Pb was abundantly
recovered, but a large portion of this element was removed by washing.

Nassauer, J. I. (1995). “Culture and Changing Landscape Structure.” Landscape Ecology

10(4): 229-237.
Culture changes landscapes and culture is embodied by landscapes. Both aspects of this dynamic
are encompassed by landscape ecology, but neither has been examined sufficiently to produce
cultural theory within the field. This paper describes four broad cultural principles for landscape
ecology, under which more precise principles might be organized. A central underlying premise
is that culture and landscape interact in a feed-back loop in which culture structures landscapes
and landscapes inculcate culture. The following broad principles are proposed:
1. Human landscape perception, cognition, and values directly affect the landscape and are
affected by the landscape.
2. Cultural conventions powerfully influence landscape pattern in both inhabited and apparently
natural landscapes.
3. Cultural concepts of nature are different from scientific concepts of ecological function.
4. The appearance of landscapes communicates cultural values.
Both the study of landscapes at a human scale and experimentation with possible landscapes,
landscape patterns invented to accommodate ecological function, are recommended as means of
achieving more precise cultural principles.

Newell, R. G. and R. N. Stavins (2000). “Climate change and forest sinks: Factors affecting
the costs of carbon sequestration.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
40(3): 211-235.
The possibility of encouraging the growth of forests as a means of sequestering carbon dioxide
has received considerable attention, partly because of evidence that this can be a relatively
inexpensive means of combating climate change. But how sensitive are such estimates to specific
conditions? We examine the sensitivity of carbon sequestration costs to changes in critical
factors, including the nature of management and deforestation regimes, silvicultural species,
relative prices, and discount rates. (C) 2000 Academic Press.

Newell, R. G. and R. N. Stavins (2000). “Climate change and forest sinks: Factors affecting
the costs of carbon sequestration.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
40(3): 211-235.
The possibility of encouraging the growth of forests as a means of sequestering carbon dioxide
has received considerable attention, partly because of evidence that this can be a relatively
inexpensive means of combating climate change. But how sensitive are such estimates to specific
conditions? We examine the sensitivity of carbon sequestration costs to changes in critical
factors, including the nature of management and deforestation regimes, silvicultural species,
relative prices, and discount rates. (C) 2000 Academic Press.

Niu, H., C. Clark, et al. (2010). “Scaling of Economic Benefits from Green Roof
Implementation in Washington, DC.” Environmental Science & Technology 44(11): 4302-
4308.
Green roof technology is recognized for mitigating stormwater runoff and energy consumption.
Methods to overcome the cost gap between green roofs and conventional roofs were recently
quantified by incorporating air quality benefits. This study investigates the impact of scaling on
these benefits at the city-wide scale using Washington, DC as a test bed because of the proposed
targets in the 20−20−20 vision (20 million ft2 by 2020) articulated by Casey Trees, a nonprofit
organization. Building-specific stormwater benefits were analyzed assuming two proposed
policy scenarios for stormwater fees ranging from 35 to 50% reduction for green roof
implementation. Heat flux calculations were used to estimate building-specific energy savings
for commercial buildings. To assess benefits at the city scale, stormwater infrastructure savings
were based on operational savings and size reduction due to reduced stormwater volume
generation. Scaled energy infrastructure benefits were calculated using two size reductions
methods for air conditioners. Avoided carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide (NOx), and sulfur dioxide
emissions were based on reductions in electricity and natural gas consumption. Lastly,
experimental and fugacity-based estimates were used to quantify the NOx uptake by green roofs,
which was translated to health benefits using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency models.
The results of the net present value (NPV) analysis showed that stormwater infrastructure
benefits totaled $1.04 million (M), while fee-based stormwater benefits were $0.22−0.32 M/y.
Energy savings were $0.87 M/y, while air conditioner resizing benefits were estimated at $0.02
to $0.04 M/y and avoided emissions benefits (based on current emission trading values) were
$0.09 M-0.41 M/y. Over the lifetime of the green roof (40 years), the NPV is about 30−40% less
than that of conventional roofs (not including green roof maintenance costs). These considerable
benefits, in concert with current and emerging policy frameworks, may facilitate future adoption
of this technology.

Nowak, D. J. and D. E. Crane (2002). “Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in
the USA.” Environmental Pollution 116(3): 381-389.
Based on field data from 10 USA cities and national urban tree cover data, it is estimated that
urban trees in the coterminous USA currently store 700 million tonnes of carbon ($14,300
million value) with a gross carbon sequestration rate of 22.8 million tC/yr ($460 million/year).
Carbon storage within cities ranges from 1.2 million tC in New York, NY, to 19,300 tC in Jersey
City, NJ. Regions with the greatest proportion of urban land are the Northeast (8.5%) and the
southeast (7.1%). Urban forests in the north central, northeast, south central and southeast
regions of the USA store and sequester the most carbon, with average carbon storage per hectare
greatest in southeast, north central, northeast and Pacific northwest regions, respectively. The
national average urban forest carbon storage density is 25.1 tC/ha, compared with 53.5 tC/ha in
forest stands. These data can be used to help assess the actual and potential role of urban forests
in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. Published by Elsevier
Science Ltd.

Nowak, D. J. and G. M. Heisler (2005). “Trees in the city: Measuring and valuing the
urban forest.” NE Forest Science Review 4: 1-6.
Trees do more than just provide aesthetic benefits, they provide important cooling effects, reduce
the urban heat-island effect, reduce incident UV rays and help keep pavement and parked cars
cooler. In addition, in properly planted barriers, they can reduce wind and traffic sounds. They
can actually reduce air pollution and absorb carbon dioxide (CO2 ), the predominant greenhouse
gas. Given current concerns about global climate change increasing temperatures, anything that
helps to ameliorate the urban heat-island effect and reduce atmospheric CO2 levels certainly
merits attention and action. However, for the greatest benefits to occur from planting trees, two
important details need to be right: species choice and location.

Nowak, D. J., R. A. Rowntree, et al. (1996). “Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover.”
Landscape and Urban Planning 36(1): 49-57.
Measurement of city tree cover can aid in urban vegetation planning, management, and research
by revealing characteristics of vegetation across a city. Urban tree cover in the United States
ranges from 0.4% in Lancaster, California, to 55% in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Two important
factors that affect the amount of urban tree cover are the natural environment and land use.
Urban tree cover is highest in cities that developed in naturally forested areas (31%), followed by
grassland cities (19%) and desert cities (10%), but showed wide variation based on individual
city characteristics. Tree cover ranged from 15 to 55% for cities in forested areas, 5 to 39% for
those in grassland areas, and 0.4 to 26% for cities developed in desert regions, Park and
residential lands along with vacant lands in forested areas generally have the highest tree cover
among different land uses. Methods of measuring urban tree cover are presented as are planning
and management implications of tree-cover data.

Nowak, D. J., R. A. Rowntree, et al. (1996). “Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover.”
Landscape and Urban Planning 36(1): 49-57.
Measurement of city tree cover can aid in urban vegetation planning, management, and research
by revealing characteristics of vegetation across a city. Urban tree cover in the United States
ranges from 0.4% in Lancaster, California, to 55% in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Two important
factors that affect the amount of urban tree cover are the natural environment and land use.
Urban tree cover is highest in cities that developed in naturally forested areas (31%), followed by
grassland cities (19%) and desert cities (10%), but showed wide variation based on individual
city characteristics. Tree cover ranged from 15 to 55% for cities in forested areas, 5 to 39% for
those in grassland areas, and 0.4 to 26% for cities developed in desert regions, Park and
residential lands along with vacant lands in forested areas generally have the highest tree cover
among different land uses. Methods of measuring urban tree cover are presented as are planning
and management implications of tree-cover data.

Nurse, J., D. Basher, et al. (2010). “An ecological approach to promoting population mental
health and well-being — A response to the challenge of climate change.” Perspectives in
Public Health 130(1): 27-33.
Climate change can be viewed as human-induced change to climate and depletion of natural
systems. It potentially the biggest global health threat of the 21st century.1 It is predicted to have
wide-ranging impacts upon human mental health and well-being, through changes and
challenges to people’s environment, socioeconomic structures and physical security. Even the
most conservative estimates of the health impacts are extremely alarming. Increasingly, the
causes of poor human health and environmental damage are related. This implies that there are
common solutions. For example, there are co-benefits to human health and biodiversity from
mitigating and adapting to climate change (e.g. promoting active transport and reducing car use
reduces CO2 emissions, benefits our environment and reduces morbidity and mortality
associated with a sedentary lifestyle). This article outlines how climate change impacts upon
mental health and well-being. It introduces ecological concepts, applies these to public health
and outlines their implications in transforming the way that we prioritize and deliver public
health in order to promote both environmental and human health. Evidence, from psychology
and neuroscience, suggests that the perception of being disconnected from our inner selves, from
each other and from our environment has contributed to poor mental and physical health. We
argue that we must transform the way we understand mental health and well-being and integrate
it into action against climate change. We describe a Public Health Framework for Developing
Well-Being, based on the principles of ecological public health.

Oberndorfer, E., J. Lundholm, et al. (2007). “Green roofs as urban ecosystems: Ecological
structures, functions, and services.” Bioscience 57: 823-833.
Green roofs (roofs with a vegetated surface and substrate) provide ecosystem services in urban
areas, including improved storm-water management, better regulation of building temperatures,
reduced urban heat-island effects, and increased urban wildlife habitat. This article reviews the
evidence for these benefits and examines the biotic and abiotic components that contribute to
overall ecosystem services. We emphasize the potential for improving green-roof function by
understanding the interactions between its ecosystem elements, especially the relationships
among growing media, soil biota, and vegetation, and the interactions between community
structure and ecosystem functioning. Further research into green-roof technology should assess
the efficacy of green roofs compared to other technologies with similar ends, and ultimately
focus on estimates of aggregate benefits at landscape scales and on more holistic cost-benefit
analyses.

Paoletti, E. (2009). “Ozone and urban forests in Italy.” Environmental Pollution 157(5):
1506-1512.
Ozone levels along urban-to-rural gradients in three Italian cities (Milan, Florence, Bari) showed
that average AOT40 values at rural and suburban sites were 2.6 times higher than those
determined at urban sites. However, O-3 also exceeded the European criteria to protect forest
health at urban sites, even when the standards for human health protection were met. For
protecting street trees in Mediterranean cities, the objectives of measurement at urban sites
should extend from the protection of human health to the protection of vegetation as well. A
review of forest effects on O-3 pollution and of O-3 pollution on forest conditions in Italian cities
showed that it was not possible to distinguish the effect of O-3 in the complex mixture of urban
pollutants and stressors. A preliminary list of tree species for urban planning in the
Mediterranean area shows the average tree capacity of O-3 removal and VOC emission. (C)
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Park, S. and R. H. Mattson (2009). “Ornamental indoor plants in hospital rooms enhanced
health outcomes of patients recovering from surgery.” Journal of Alternative &
Complementary Medicine 15(9): 975-980.
Background: Clinical trials have not been reported concerning the health benefits of viewing
indoor plants on stress and recovery of surgical patients within a hospital setting. Using various
medical and psychologic measurements, this study performed a randomized clinical trial with
surgical patients to evaluate whether plants in hospital rooms have therapeutic influences.
Methods: Ninety (90) patients recovering from a hemorrhoidectomy were randomly assigned to
either control or plant rooms. With half the patients, live plants were placed in their rooms during
postoperative recovery periods. Data collected for each patient included length of hospitalization,
analgesics used for postoperative pain control, vital signs, ratings of pain intensity, pain distress,
anxiety and fatigue, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Form Y-1, the Environmental Assessment
Scale, and the Patient’s Room Satisfaction Questionnaire. Results: Viewing plants during the
recovery period had a positive influence linking directly to health outcomes of surgical patients.
Patients in hospital rooms with plants and flowers had significantly more positive physiologic
responses evidenced by lower systolic blood pressure, and lower ratings of pain, anxiety, and
fatigue than patients in the control room. Patients with plants also felt more positively about their
rooms and evaluated them with higher satisfaction when compared with patients in similar rooms
without plants. Based on patients’ comments, plants brightened up the room environment,
reduced stress, and also conveyed positive impressions of hospital employees caring for patients.
Conclusions: Findings of this study confirmed the therapeutic value of plants in the hospital
environment as a noninvasive, inexpensive, and effective complementary medicine for surgical
patients. Health care professionals and hospital administrators need to consider the use of plants
and flowers to enhance healing environments for patients.

Park, S.-H. and R. H. Mattson (2008). “Effects of Flowering and Foliage Plants in Hospital
Rooms on Patients Recovering from Abdominal Surgery.” HortTechnology 18(4): 563-568.
Using various medical and psychological measurements, this study performed a randomized
clinical trial with surgical patients to evaluate if plants in hospital rooms have therapeutic
influences. Ninety patients recovering from an appendectomy were randomly assigned to
hospital rooms with or without plants. Patients in the plant treatment room viewed eight species
of foliage and flowering plants during their postoperative recovery periods. Data collected for
each patient included length of hospitalization, analgesics used for postoperative pain control,
vital signs, ratings of pain intensity, pain distress, anxiety, and fatigue, the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory Form Y-1, the Environmental Assessment Scale, and the Patient’s Room Satisfaction
Questionnaire. Patients in hospital rooms with plants and flowers had significantly fewer intakes
of postoperative analgesics, more positive physiological responses evidenced by lower systolic
blood pressure and heart rate, lower ratings of pain, anxiety, and fatigue, and more positive
feelings and higher satisfaction about their rooms when compared with patients in the control
group. Findings of this research suggested that plants in a hospital environment could be
noninvasive, inexpensive, and an effective complementary medicine for patients recovering from
abdominal surgery.

Park, S.-H. and R. H. Mattson (2009). “Therapeutic Influences of Plants in Hospital Rooms
on Surgical Recovery.” HortScience 44(1): 102-105.
Medical and psychological measurements of surgical patients were tested to determine the
influence of plants and flowers within hospital rooms. Eighty female patients recovering from a
thyroidectomy were randomly assigned to either control or plant rooms. Patients in the plant
room viewed 12 foliage and flowering plants during their postoperative recovery periods. Data
collected for each patient included length of hospitalization, analgesics used for postoperative
pain control, vital signs, ratings of pain intensity, pain distress, anxiety and fatigue, the State-
Trait Anxiety Inventory Form Y-1, the Environmental Assessment Scale, and the Patient’s Room
Satisfaction Questionnaire. Patients in hospital rooms with plants and flowers had significantly
shorter hospitalizations, fewer intakes of analgesics, lower ratings of pain, anxiety, and fatigue,
and more positive feelings and higher satisfaction about their rooms when compared with
patients in the control group. Findings of this research suggest the therapeutic value of plants in
the hospital environment as an effective complementary medicine for surgical patients.
Parsons, R., L. G. Tassinary, et al. (1998). “The view from the road: Implications for stress
recovery and immunization.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 18(2): 113-140.
A considerable body of folklore and scientific research alludes to the efficacy of the vernacular
environment to influence both aesthetic experience and general well-being. To examine
explicitly whether stress recovery and/or immunization varies as a function of the roadside
environment, 160 college-age participants, both male and female, viewed one of four different
video-taped simulated drives through outdoor environments immediately following and
preceding mildly stressful events. Overall, it was anticipated that participants who viewed
artifact-dominated drives, relative to participants who viewed nature-dominated drives, would
show greater autonomic activity indicative of stress (e.g. elevated blood pressure and
electrodermal activity), as well as show altered somatic activity indicative of greater negative
affect (e.g. elevated electromyographic (EMG) activity over the brow region and decreased
activity over the cheek region). In addition, it was expected that participants who viewed nature-
dominated drives would experience quicker recovery from stress and greater immunization to
subsequent stress than participants who viewed artifact-dominated drives. The overall pattern of
results is consistent with both hypotheses and the findings are interpreted to support postulating a
sympathetic-specific mechanism that underlies the effect of nature on stress recovery and
immunization. (C) 1998 Academic Press.

Pataki, D. E., R. J. Alig, et al. (2006). “Urban ecosystems and the North American carbon
cycle.” Global Change Biology 12(11): 2092-2102.
Approximately 75-80% of the population of North America currently lives in urban areas as
defined by national census bureaus, and urbanization is continuing to increase. Future trajectories
of fossil fuel emissions are associated with a high degree of uncertainty; however, if the activities
of urban residents and the rate of urban land conversion can be captured in urban systems
models, plausible emissions scenarios from major cities may be generated. Integrated land use
and transportation models that simulate energy use and traffic-related emissions are already in
place in many North American cities. To these can be added a growing dataset of carbon gains
and losses in vegetation and soils following urbanization, and a number of methods of validating
urban carbon balance modeling, including top down atmospheric monitoring and urban
‘metabolic’ studies of whole ecosystem mass and energy flow. Here, we review the state of our
understanding of urban areas as whole ecosystems with regard to carbon balance, including both
drivers of fossil fuel emissions and carbon cycling in urban plants and soils. Interdisciplinary,
whole-ecosystem studies of the socioeconomic and biophysical factors that influence urban
carbon cycles in a range of cities may greatly contribute to improving scenarios of future carbon
balance at both continental and global scales.

Pataki, D. E., R. J. Alig, et al. (2006). “Urban ecosystems and the North American carbon
cycle.” Global Change Biology 12(11): 2092-2102.
Approximately 75-80% of the population of North America currently lives in urban areas as
defined by national census bureaus, and urbanization is continuing to increase. Future trajectories
of fossil fuel emissions are associated with a high degree of uncertainty; however, if the activities
of urban residents and the rate of urban land conversion can be captured in urban systems
models, plausible emissions scenarios from major cities may be generated. Integrated land use
and transportation models that simulate energy use and traffic-related emissions are already in
place in many North American cities. To these can be added a growing dataset of carbon gains
and losses in vegetation and soils following urbanization, and a number of methods of validating
urban carbon balance modeling, including top down atmospheric monitoring and urban
‘metabolic’ studies of whole ecosystem mass and energy flow. Here, we review the state of our
understanding of urban areas as whole ecosystems with regard to carbon balance, including both
drivers of fossil fuel emissions and carbon cycling in urban plants and soils. Interdisciplinary,
whole-ecosystem studies of the socioeconomic and biophysical factors that influence urban
carbon cycles in a range of cities may greatly contribute to improving scenarios of future carbon
balance at both continental and global scales.

Patterson, T. M. and D. L. Coelho (2009). “Ecosystem services: Foundations, opportunities,

and challenges for the forest products sector.” Forest Ecology and Management 257(8):
1637-1646.
The ecosystem service concept has been proposed as a meaningful framework for natural
resource management. In theory it holds concomitant benefit and consequence for the forest
product sector. However, numerous barriers impede practitioners from developing concrete and
enduring responses to emerging ecosystem service markets, policies, and initiatives. Principle
among these barriers is that the ecosystem service concept has a complex history, numerous
definitions in use, and an astounding diversity in rationale and application. This article provides a
conceptual review of ecosystem services and its economic foundations, distinguishes among
several current definitions of the term and their relatedness to strategies in practical application,
discusses diverse approaches to valuation, and explores potential for future relevance in forest
product and other sectors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Pauleit, S. (2003). “Urban street tree plantings: indentifying the key requirements.”
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Municipal Engineer 156(1): 43-50.
Trees fulfil important aesthetic, social and environmental functions in urban areas. However, tree
life is increasingly under stress, leading to poor vitality and tree decline, particularly in urban
streets. The requirements for healthy tree life are broadly known. Criteria for the design of
planting sites in streets, choice of tree species and maintenance requirements are outlined in the
paper. However, a European survey reveals the wide variance of tree planting and management
practice. UK cities and towns performed poorly against criteria such as level of expenditure for
trees, street tree quality and site preparation. Evidently, trees are very much undervalued and
only an afterthought in the process of planning, design and management of streets. There is an
urgent need to develop and apply comprehensive concepts for sustainable urban forests and
specifically for street tree plantings. Standards for site planning, as well as increased knowledge
of suitable tree species and tree quality standards are key to achieving this goal. Information on
best practice needs to be more widely disseminated. The European pilot survey was a first step
towards establishing an information network across Europe to collect the information needed for
this purpose. There is a need for close collaboration between civil engineers and landscape
architects from a very early stage to integrate tree plantings into the design of streets, in order to
maximise their benefits and avoid potential conflicts with traffic and utilities.

Pauleit, S. and F. Duhme (2000). “Assessing the environmental performance of land cover
types for urban planning.” Landscape and Urban Planning 52(1): 1-20.
Urban planning and decision-making for sustainable development urgently need data of high
spatial resolution to establish the relationship between the socio-economic performance of the
urban system and its different sub-units (i.e. housing schemes, commercial and industrial
developments, services) on the one hand and their environmental impacts of these subunits on
the other. To achieve this task, a system was developed to delineate urban land cover units. The
approach was tested for the city of Munich. The units delineate the fine-grained pattern of urban
built-up and open spaces. The typology was based on established categories of zoning and
development plans. In addition, the units were delineated on an aggregated scale to generate a
synoptic understanding of the urban “metabolism” for different “strategic” levels of urban
planning. A case study on urban hydrology is presented to characterize aspects of the metabolism
of the urban system. Additional case studies covered urban climates, energy demand for space
heating and carbon dioxide emissions. Results showed that the cover units and types had distinct
environmental features. Furthermore the causal links with urban physical and land use features
were investigated. Based on the hydrological case study, environmental targets and standards to
promote sustainable development are proposed. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Payton, S., G. Lindsey, et al. (2008). “Valuing the benefits of the urban forest: a spatial
hedonic approach.” Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 51(6): 717-736.
This paper measures the benefits of the urban forest by examining its effect on housing prices. A
Geographic Information System is used to develop a measure of the urban forest, the Normalised
Difference Vegetation Index, from satellite imagery and to construct other variables from a
variety Of Sources. Spatial hedonic housing price models for the Indianapolis/Marion County
area are estimated. The models indicate that greener vegetation around a property has a positive,
significant effect on housing price, holding everything else constant. This effect is dominated by
measures at the neighborhood level. These findings indicate that property owners value the urban
forest, Lit least in part, by the premium they pay to live in neighborhoods with greener, denser
vegetation. These findings also indicate that public action to maintain and enhance the urban
forest may be warranted. Planners and urban foresters can use these findings to inform public
and policy debates over urban forestry programs and proposals.

Pearson-Mims, C. H. and V. I. Lohr (2000). “Reported Impacts of Interior Plantscaping in

Office Environments in the United States.” HortTechnology 10(1): 82-86.
Interiorscaping has been prevalent in office environments in the United States since the 1960s.
Historically, proponents of interior plantings have cited numerous benefits, including improved
employee morale, increased productivity, and reduced absenteeism when plants are added to the
workplace, despite little scientific research to support these claims. Contemporary research is
beginning to document some of these purported benefits of interior plantings on human comfort,
well-being, and productivity. If researchers continue to provide concrete evidence that
interaction with plants is directly linked to improved human health and well-being, this
information will provide further justification for the use of interior plants in a variety of indoor
work settings. With an ever-increasing emphasis by business managers on minimizing costs, it is
important for industry professionals to provide quantifiable justification for the inclusion of
plants in modern work environments.

Predny, M. L. and D. Relf (2000). “Interactions between Elderly Adults and Preschool
Children in a Horticultural Therapy Research Program.” HortTechnology 10(1): 64-70.
This report examines the behavior of elderly adults and preschool children during horticultural
therapy (HT) activities to determine if combining intergenerational groups would complement or
detract from the HT goals for each group separately. During a 10-week observation period, data
were collected on video documenting attendance, participation time and pattern during separate
age group and intergenerational activities. These data were used to determine if interactions
changed over time or in response to different activities. Participation appeared to be affected by
activity design, difficulty level, individual ability, and availability of assistance from volunteers.
Children’s participation during separate age group activities appeared to be affected mainly by
the difficulty level and activity design. Elderly adults’ participation during separate age group
activities appeared to be affected by individual ability limitation and availability of assistance.
Children’s intergenerational participation scores appeared to show an increase in the category of
“working with direct assistance”, while elderly adults’ intergenerational scores appeared to show
an increase in the categories of “no participation” and “independent participation”. In part, the
change in intergenerational participation appeared to be due to a decrease in assistance available
from volunteers for each individual. For some individuals, the introduction of intergenerational
groups appeared to detract from personal participation in horticulture activities. If the goal of the
HT is directly related to the individual’s activity in horticulture (i.e., increased self-esteem from
successfully designing and building a terrarium), the intergenerational element appears to reduce
the potential for that benefit. The percentage of total social interaction time between the
generations during activities increased over time. The intergenerational activities involving
plant-based activities seemed to be more successful at increasing intergenerational exchange than
the craft-type activities. Therefore, horticulture may be a useful activity for programs with a goal
of increased intergenerational interaction.

Raanaas, R. K., G. G. Patil, et al. (2010). “Effects of an Indoor Foliage Plant Intervention
on Patient Well-being during a Residential Rehabilitation Program.” HortScience 45(3):
387-392.
Effects of an indoor plant intervention in a Norwegian rehabilitation center were assessed in a
quasi-experiment. During a 2-year period, coronary and pulmonary patients (N = 282) completed
self-report measures of health, subjective well-being, and emotion on arrival, after 2 weeks, and
at the end of a 4-week program. The intervention involved the addition of indoor plants for the
second year. On average, patient physical and mental health improved during the program, but
the addition of plants did not increase the degree of improvement. Subjective well-being did,
however, increase more in patients who went through their program after the addition of plants,
although the effect was only apparent in the pulmonary patients. The patients reported more
satisfaction with indoor plants and the interior generally after the intervention. Room for the
intervention to affect outcomes may have been limited by the well-designed interior and the
center’s location in a scenic mountain area, but these favorable features of the context apparently
did not negate the potential for indoor plants to contribute to patient well-being.

Rappe, E. and A.-M. Evers (2001). “The Meaning of Growing Plants: Contributions to the
Elderly Living in Sheltered Housing.” HortTechnology 11(2): 268-272.
In this qualitative research conducted in Finland, 12 residents in sheltered housing for aged
people were interviewed to explore the meanings they associate with the growing of plants.
Growing plants had both individual and social meanings for the interviewees. The individual
meanings were categorized into three groups: one’s own growing skills, the continuity of time,
and creating experiences. The category “one’s own growing skills” was coded into three
subcategories: individual settings and growing methods, interpretation of the plants’ needs and
responses, and adaptation to current situation. The social meanings identified in the data were
also divided into three categories: significant acts undertaken for other people, indications about
the gardener, and the feeling of togetherness. The results of the research suggest that growing
plants may have an effect on the well-being of the elderly who have a rural background and are
living in institutional settings, especially for those aspects threatened by institutional
environments: autonomy, a sense of control, identity, and the opportunity to form social
relationships.

Raza, S. H., M. S. R. Murthy, et al. (1991). “Effect of vegetation on urban climate and
healthy urban colonies.” Energy and Buildings 15(3-4): 487-491.
The role of plants in developing a healthy atmosphere is very desirable in the context of
deteriorating environment resulting from increased urbanization, industrialization and improper
environmental management. This investigation has attempted to screen plants for their ability to
improve the design and development of healthy environments around buildings and urban
centres of Hyderabad. Ability index values were computed on the basis of canopy area,
physiological characters of trees growing in polluted environments, pollution stress and
population load. Azadirachta indica, Pithecolobium dulce and Cassia fistula are suggested for
plantations around buildings and urban centres for minimizing pollution. Certain susceptible
trees like Pongamia glabra and Polyalthia longifolia have been suggested in the diagnosis and
investigation of air quality through biological means.

Relf, D., A. R. McDaniel, et al. (1992). “Attitudes toward Plants and Gardening.”
HortTechnology 2(2): 201-204.
Recently there has been an increased interest in the role of plants in human well-being and in the
general public’s perception of the value of plants. Knowing the nature and extent of the value of
plants to people can affect the way plants are used in public and private landscapes, the amount
of money invested in the establishment and maintenance of plants, and the satisfaction derived
from the plantings. In conjunction with the annual National Gardening Association consumer
market study, a question was asked to determine if observations from previous, limited studies
were applicable to a wide range of American households.

Relf, P. D. (1995). “The significance of horticulture-human interaction to the horticulture

industry and researchers.” Horticulture in Human Life, Culture, and Environment(391):
89-100.
Research to understand the interaction between people and plants will have a direct influence on
the development of environmentally sound and humanly healthful urban landscapes; the
understanding of the role of greenspace in interior as well as exterior settings; the involvement of
school children in gardening; and the use of cut flowers, pot plants, and food crops to improve
human life quality. This increased understanding of what people expect from plants and the
garden can directly influence horticultural products and techniques.
Coupled with communications to make the public aware of the findings, this research will
increase the appreciation and use of plants, thus the benefits that people gain from plants.
Research results will serve as a powerful marketing tool to increase the demand for horticultural
products and services, leading to an increase in the number of jobs in the industry and,
ultimately, the demand and funding for traditional horticultural research and education.
Rexhausen, J. and A. Dubey (2007). The economic impact of the Cincinnati zoo & botanical
garden on greater Cincinnati, Economics Ceter for Education & Research, University of
Cincinnati.
The Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden is one of the premier recreational and cultural
attractions in the Cincinnati Tri-state region, creating adventure through its exhibits and special
events, conveying knowledge through its educational programs, conserving nature through its
conservation efforts and serving community through various programs. In addition to its
international reputation as an environmental and educational institution, it creates economic
benefits for numerous households and businesses in the Greater Cincinnati community through
its employment and business activity.This report estimates the economic impact of the Zoo on
Greater Cincinnati’s employment, household earnings, and business sales for 2006. The impact
of The Cincinnati Zoo on Greater Cincinnati is multi-faceted. Through its spending, its
contracted services, and spending by visitors from outside the area, it benefits the regional
economy. Through its plant and animal exhibits, programs, special events, and continuing
development, it has an impact on the surrounding community in many other ways.

Richard, M. and P. Frank (2008). “Effect of exposure to natural environment on health

inequalities: an observational population study.” Lancet 372(9650): 1655-1660.
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an
independent effect on health and health-related behaviours. We postulated that income-related
inequality in health would be less pronounced in populations with greater exposure to green
space, since access to such areas can modify pathways through which low socioeconomic
position can lead to disease. We classified the population of England at younger than retirement
age (n=40?813?236) into groups on the basis of income deprivation and exposure to green space.
We obtained individual mortality records (n=366?348) to establish whether the association
between income deprivation, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality (circulatory
disease, lung cancer, and intentional self-harm) in 2001?05, varied by exposure to green space
measured in 2001, with control for potential confounding factors. We used stratified models to
identify the nature of this variation. The association between income deprivation and mortality
differed significantly across the groups of exposure to green space for mortality from all causes
(p&lt;0·0001) and circulatory disease (p=0·0212), but not from lung cancer or intentional self-
harm. Health inequalities related to income deprivation in all-cause mortality and mortality from
circulatory diseases were lower in populations living in the greenest areas. The incidence rate
ratio (IRR) for all-cause mortality for the most income deprived quartile compared with the least
deprived was 1·93 (95% CI 1·86?2·01) in the least green areas, whereas it was 1·43 (1·34?1·53)
in the most green. For circulatory diseases, the IRR was 2·19 (2·04?2·34) in the least green areas
and 1·54 (1·38?1·73) in the most green. There was no effect for causes of death unlikely to be
affected by green space, such as lung cancer and intentional self-harm. Populations that are
exposed to the greenest environments also have lowest levels of health inequality related to
income deprivation. Physical environments that promote good health might be important to
reduce socioeconomic health inequalities. None.

Rishbeth, C. and N. Finney (2006). “Novelty and nostalgia in urban greenspace: Refugee
perspectives.” Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie 97(3): 281-295.
This paper investigates migrants’ perceptions and experiences of urban greenspaces. The
research used innovative participatory and visual (photography) methods and the 12 week
programme included visits to 10 greenspaces in Sheffield. The participants were all asylum
seekers and refugees from Asia and Africa. This paper discusses how and why the participants
engaged or disengaged with local greenspace in the short and medium term. In particular, the
importance of memory and nostalgia in participants’ experiences; the significance of plants; the
novelty of visiting British ‘parks’; and the role of greenspace in enhancing the quality of life of
immigrants are explored. The paper concludes that a positive impression of the local
environment and meaning-ful participation in it can be a useful component of integration into a
new society. Furthermore, recognition of landscape elements or characteristics can provide a
conceptual link between former and new homes. However, for this refugee group many physical
and psychological barriers must be overcome if the full benefits of urban public open space are
to be realised.

Rivel, D. (2005, 08/06/2010). “How cities use parks for arts and cultural programs.” from
http://www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/index.htm.
Urban parks have always been an important setting for arts and cultural programs. During the
late 19th century, parks commonly hosted musical events. By the beginning of the 20th century,
dance, theatre, and even the new medium of film began to be represented in parks programming.
Today, there is a tremendous flowering of artistic and cultural activity in urban parks, from
large-scale performing arts festivals to long-term residencies with arts organizations. Parks and
the arts have become mutually beneficial: the arts can play an essential role in revitalizing a park,
and parks in turn can help solve problems faced by artists and arts organizations. Since parks are
the democratic spaces of a city, where communities can come together to express their identities,
the marriage of parks and the arts makes perfect sense. Parks can be a vital place for the cultural
expression of a community and a city.

Ryan, R. M., N. Weinstein, et al. (2010). “Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in
nature.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 30(2): 159-168.
Five studies utilizing survey, experimental, and diary methods assessed the effects of being
outdoors on subjective vitality. In Study 1, we used a vignette method to examine whether being
outdoors was associated with vitality, above and beyond the influences of physical activity and
social interactions. Study 2 explored the effects of being outdoors on vitality through an
experimental design contrasting indoor and outdoor walks. In Study 3. participants were exposed
to photographic scenes of either nature or buildings. Results showed that only the nature scenes
enhanced subjective vitality. Studies 4 and 5 used a diary methodology to examine within-person
variations in subjective energy as a function of being outdoors, again controlling for physical and
social activity. Being outdoors was associated with greater vitality, a relation that was mediated
by the presence of natural elements. Limitations of these studies are discussed, as well as their
implications for research on energy and vitalization. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ryan, R. M., N. Weinstein, et al. (2010). “Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in
nature.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 30(2): 159-168.
Five studies utilizing survey, experimental, and diary methods assessed the effects of being
outdoors on subjective vitality. In Study 1, we used a vignette method to examine whether being
outdoors was associated with vitality, above and beyond the influences of physical activity and
social interactions. Study 2 explored the effects of being outdoors on vitality through an
experimental design contrasting indoor and outdoor walks. In Study 3, participants were exposed
to photographic scenes of either nature or buildings. Results showed that only the nature scenes
enhanced subjective vitality. Studies 4 and 5 used a diary methodology to examine within-person
variations in subjective energy as a function of being outdoors, again controlling for physical and
social activity. Being outdoors was associated with greater vitality, a relation that was mediated
by the presence of natural elements. Limitations of these studies are discussed, as well as their
implications for research on energy and vitalization.

Sagoff, M. (2008). “On the economic value of ecosystem services.” Environmental Values
17(2): 239-257.
The productive services of nature, such as the ability of fertile soil to grow crops, receive low
market prices not because markets fail but because many natural resources, such as good
cropland, are abundant relative to effective demand. Even when one pays nothing for a service
such as that the wind provides in pollinating crops, this is its ‘correct’ market price if the supply
is adequate and free. The paper argues that ecological services are either too ‘lumpy’ to price in
incremental units (for example, climatic systems), priced competitively, or too cheap to meter.
The paper considers counter-examples and objections.

Sallis, J. F., P. R. Nader, et al. (1993). “Correlates of Physical-Activity at Home in Mexican-

American and Anglo-American Preschool-Children.” Health Psychology 12(5): 390-398.
Twenty-two potential correlates of children’s physical activity were examined. Two hundred and
one Mexican-American and 146 Anglo-American families with 4-year-old children were studied.
Children’s physical activity was directly observed in the evening at home on 4 visits for 1 hr
each time. Anglo-American children and male children were found to be more active.
Demographic variables explained 11% of the variance in children’s physical activity. After
adjusting for demographics, 3 children’s variables and 6 social-family variables did not account
for significantly more variance. Five environmental variables accounted for 11% additional
variance. Variables observed concurrently with physical activity, such as time spent outdoors and
prompts to be active, were highly associated with children’s physical activity.

Sellmer, J. C. (2010). “Bringing Nature Home: How Native Plants Sustain Wildlife in Our
Gardens.” HortTechnology 20(1): 257-.
Bringing Nature Home is the first book that this reviewer has found on the market to provide a
discussion on how by using native plants in the home landscape, we can support the native fauna
in the garden, landscape, and surrounding community. The book consists of 14 chapters with the
first seven chapters providing arguments against non-native plants. Chapters 8 through 10 begin
the discussion of biodiversity and approaches for using natives in the landscape. Chapters 11
through 13 provide insight into what native plants to use to attract native insects that feed upon
those plants. The final chapter provides answers to common tough questions surrounding the
debate about the use of native and non-native plants in the home landscape. The appendices
consist of three sections with the first listing native plants classified by type (e.g., shade and
specimen trees, shrub and understory trees, conifers, vines, grasses, herbaceous perennials) with
wildlife value for general regions across the country (e.g., Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, Southwest,
and Pacific Northwest). Appendix two is a table of butterflies and moths and their hosts, and
appendix three provides some unpublished data from the author’s research on insect herbivory
on woody native and alien species in his backyard and published work by his graduate student on
early successional perennials.
Sellmer, J. C. (2010). “Bringing Nature Home: How Native Plants Sustain Wildlife in Our
Gardens.” HortTechnology 20(1): 257-.
Bringing Nature Home is the first book that this reviewer has found on the market to provide a
discussion on how by using native plants in the home landscape, we can support the native fauna
in the garden, landscape, and surrounding community. The book consists of 14 chapters with the
first seven chapters providing arguments against non-native plants. Chapters 8 through 10 begin
the discussion of biodiversity and approaches for using natives in the landscape. Chapters 11
through 13 provide insight into what native plants to use to attract native insects that feed upon
those plants. The final chapter provides answers to common tough questions surrounding the
debate about the use of native and non-native plants in the home landscape. The appendices
consist of three sections with the first listing native plants classified by type (e.g., shade and
specimen trees, shrub and understory trees, conifers, vines, grasses, herbaceous perennials) with
wildlife value for general regions across the country (e.g., Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, Southwest,
and Pacific Northwest). Appendix two is a table of butterflies and moths and their hosts, and
appendix three provides some unpublished data from the author’s research on insect herbivory
on woody native and alien species in his backyard and published work by his graduate student on
early successional perennials.

Shafer, C. S., B. K. Lee, et al. (2000). “A tale of three greenway trails: user perceptions
related to quality of life.” Landscape and Urban Planning 49(3-4): 163-178.
Urban sprawl and renewed concern for the environment have helped create new policies and
initiatives designed to enhance community quality of life. Among these are transportation
enhancements mandated in ISTEA and TEA21. Funding through transportation enhancements
has helped to spur the designation and development of greenway trails with the intent of
fostering alternative transportation and generally making cities more livable. This paper presents
research conducted on three greenway trails in Texas. The research was based on the human
ecosystem concept and was intended to determine if and how such greenway facilities were
contributing to quality of life and how people might perceive such contributions based on the
way they used the trail (e.g. for transportation or recreation). Results indicated that most people
used greenway h-ails for recreation but that trails differed in user types and activities based on
location and policy. Users felt that these urban greenway trails were contributing most to
community quality of life through resident health/fitness, the natural areas they provide, better
land use and resident pride. They felt that they contributed least to diversifying industry, business
development and access to shopping areas or public transportation. Those who used trails for
transportation scored trails as contributing more toward reducing pollution, reducing
transportation costs and providing better access to work than did those who used trails only for
recreation. Implications for understanding use and users in the designation; design and
development of urban greenway trails are discussed. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Shashua-Bar, L. and M. E. Hoffman (2002). “The Green CTTC model for predicting the
air temperature in small urban wooded sites.” Building and Environment 37(12): 1279-
1288.
An analytical model, the Green CTTC (cluster thermal time constant) model, for predicting
diurnal air temperature inside an urban wooded site, is the object of this study. The proposed
model is based on the same principles as the CTTC model, developed earlier by M.E. Hoffman
and colleagues, with the addition of vegetation effects. It is shown that the tree thermal effect can
be evaluated either as the shade effect partly offset by the convection component of the tree
radiation balance or, equivalently, as the combined effect of evapotranspiration and the change in
the plant heat storage. In this paper, the former approach is adopted. Simulations for testing the
validity of the Green CTTC model were carried out on summer data of 11 small urban wooded
sites in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area near the Mediterranean sea coast. Results show a
satisfactory fit, with average root-mean-square-error < 0.5 K for all studied sites and time
intervals at 09:00, 15:00, and 18:00 h (summer time). The CTTC values and the convection
parameters were estimated from the empirical data, using a novel procedure. The proposed
model, which can be enlarged to encompass the cases of groves and lawns, is an appropriate tool
for assessment of the climatic impact of trees and other greeneries on urban design alternatives.
(C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sherman, S. A., J. W. Varni, et al. (2005). “Post-occupancy evaluation of healing gardens in

a pediatric cancer center.” Landscape and Urban Planning 73(2-3): 167-183.
This study evaluates three healing gardens surrounding a pediatric cancer center. All gardens
contained seating, flowers and plants, but varied in size, features, and in user groups’ access to
them. A post-occupancy evaluation (POE) yielded a dataset of 1400 garden-users for whom
demographic information, activities, and length-of-stay were recorded. Results indicate
differential usage patterns across gardens, user category (patient, visitor, or staff), and age (adults
and children). The largest garden with most direct patient access was the most used. Staff mostly
used the gardens to walk-through or to sit and eat, rarely interacting with features intended for
active engagement. Despite patient and child-friendly designs, the overwhelming majority of
visitors were adults who mostly engaged in sedentary activities. Children who did use the
gardens interacted with garden features significantly more than adults. Although patient rooms
are situated at ground-level around the gardens to promote window views of the gardens, the
findings suggest an inverse relationship between patient window use and the number of people in
the gardens. Finally, preliminary data suggest that emotional distress and pain are lower for all
groups when in the gardens than when inside the hospital. Provisional design implications of
these findings are discussed. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Shibata, S. and N. Suzuki (2001). “Effects of Indoor Foliage Plants on Subjects’ Recovery
from Mental Fatigue.” North American Journal of Psychology 3(3): 385-396.
We investigated the effects of foliage plants on participants’ task performance, fatigue, and
mood. Two room conditions (one in which plants were arranged in the room and the other
without plants) were created. Undergraduate students (M=33, F=37) performed 2 sessions of a
key response task under one of the two room conditions. As for task performance, Plant _
Session interaction was significant (p< .05). The task scores in the first session did not show any
significant difference between plant and no plant conditions. Although it was not significant, the
scores in the second session showed higher scores under the plant condition than in the no-plant
condition. The plant condition and the no- plant condition did not show any differential effects
on the deterioration of task scores in each session. Though the plants affected task scores, they
did not show any effects on subjects’ moods or fatigue. It was concluded that the presence of the
plant might have influenced recovery from mental fatigue.
Shibata, S. and N. Suzuki (2002). “Effects of the foliage plant on task performance and
mood.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 22(3): 265-272.
In this study we investigate the effect of leafy plants on subjects’ task performance and mood. As
independent variables, two types of tasks and several room arrangements were used. There was
an association or a sorting task and the room was arranged either with the plant placed in front of
the subjects, to the side of the subjects, or with no plant placed in the room. Gender was also
considered a’s a variable for analysis. Undergraduate students (F = 63, M = 83) performed either
the association task or the sorting task under one of the three room arrangements. The association
task was to create no more than 30 words for 20 different items. The sorting task was to sort 180
index cards into Japanese syllabary order.
As for the task performance, Room x Gender interaction was significant in the scores of the
association task (p < 0.05). Male subjects working without plants performed worse than female
subjects under the same conditions (p < 0.01). Moreover, the task performances of the male
subjects using the front arrangement were higher than that of the male subjects working without
plants (p < 0.10). It was concluded that,the presence of the plants affected the association task
more than the sorting task, and male subjects more than female subjects. It was also suggested
that the presence of the leafy plants might affects creative work positively. (C) 2002 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Shibata, S. and N. Suzuki (2004). “Effects of an indoor plant on creative task performance
and mood.” Scandinavian Journal Of Psychology 45(5): 373-381.
In this study, we investigated the effect of an indoor plant on task performance and on mood.
Three room arrangements were used as independent variables: a room with (1) a plant, or (2) a
magazine rack with magazines placed in front of the participants, or (3) a room with neither of
these objects. Undergraduate students (M= 35, F= 55) performed a task of associating up to 30
words with each of 20 specified words in a room with one of the three room arrangements. Task
performance scores showed that female participants performed better in view of the plant in
comparison to the magazine rack (p < 0.05). Moreover, mood was better with the plant or the
magazine rack in the room compared to the no object condition (p < 0.05). However, the
difference in task performance was highly influenced by the evaluation about the plant or the
magazine rack. It is suggested that the compatibility between task demand and the environment
is an important factor in facilitating task performances.

Shoemaker, C. A., K. Randall, et al. (1992). “Relationships between Plants, Behavior, and
Attitudes in an Office Environment.” HortTechnology 2(2): 205-206.
The effects of plants in the workplace on the opinions and attitudes of workers was assessed.
Attitudes of employees regarding plants were favorable, and most surveyed agreed that plants in
the office made it a more desirable place to work. Office workers were aware of the benefits,
such as improving air quality, that plants provide. No behavioral changes in response to the
addition of plants to the office environment were demonstrated. There were no significant
differences between gender, position in the corporation, and age regarding perceptions of plants
in the office environment.

Shoemaker, C. A., P. D. Relf, et al. (2000). “Social Science Methodologies for Studying
Individuals’ Responses in Human Issues in Horticulture Research.” HortTechnology 10(1):
87-93.
Many of the research questions that have been posed regarding the effects of plants on people
can only be answered using methodologies from the social sciences. Lack of familiarity with
these methods and their underlying concepts has limited the role that horticulturists have taken in
this research. Horticulturists, because of their particular sensitivity to the various aspects of
plants and the nature of the ways that people interact with plants, must be involved in this type of
research to generate the information that is needed by horticultural industries. This paper reviews
many of the common methods that have been used in research on human issues in horticulture
and presents examples of studies that have been conducted using these techniques. Quantitative
and qualitative methods are discussed.

Sim, W.-K. (2000). “The First Symposium of the Korean Society for Plants, People and
Environment.” HortTechnology 10(1): 38-39.
The Korean Society for Plants, People and Environment held its first International Symposium
on Plant and People Interactions in Human Health and Quality of Life in May 1998. Three
speakers, invited from abroad, were among those who made presentations. A summary is
presented.

Simpson, J. R. and E. G. McPherson (1998). “Simulation of tree shade impacts on

residential energy use for space conditioning in Sacramento.” Atmospheric Environment
32(1): 69-74.
Tree shade reduces summer air conditioning demand and increases winter heating load by
intercepting solar energy that would otherwise heat the shaded structure. We evaluate the
magnitude of these effects here for 254 residential properties participating in a utility sponsored
tree planting program in Sacramento, California. Tree and building characteristics and typical
weather data are used to model hourly shading and energy used for space conditioning for each
building for a period of one year. There were an average of 3.1 program trees per property which
reduced annual and peak (8 h average from 1 to 9 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time) cooling energy
use 153 kWh (7.1%) and 0.08 kW (2.3%) per tree, respectively. Annual heating load increased
0.85 GJ (0.80 MBtu, 1.9%) per tree. Changes in cooling load were smaller, but percentage
changes larger, for newer buildings. Averaged over all homes, annual cooling savings of $15.25
per tree were reduced by a heating penalty of $5.25 per tree, for net savings of $10.00 per tree
from shade. We estimate an annual cooling penalty of $2.80 per tree and heating savings of
$6.80 per tree from reduced wind speed, for a net savings of $4.00 per tree, and total annual
savings of $14.00 per tree ($43.00 per property). Results are found to be consistent with previous
simulations and the limited measurements available. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Smardon, R. C. (1988). “Perception and aesthetics of the urban environment: Review of the
role of vegetation.” Landscape and Urban Planning 15(1-2): 85-106.
This paper is a review of the role that urban vegetation plays in regard to human behavior and the
perception of urban environments. This includes a review of the functions or benefits of urban
vegetation to human use-economic benefits, instrumental or physiological functions and
perceptual functions including visual, sensory benefits and symbolic aspects. The second part of
the paper reviews the roles of urban vegetation in performing these various functions at different
environmental scales and in different contexts. Finally, there is a review of means to assess
change in the quality of urban vegetation in the environment as well as using vegetation to
improve urban environmental perceptual quality.
Sorace, A. (2001). “Value to wildlife of urban-agricultural parks: A case study from Rome
urban area.” Environmental Management 28(4): 547-560.
Urban-agricultural parks could have some advantages to wildlife because of less intensive
agricultural procedures, absence of hunting pressure, and reduced human disturbance. In this
study, the breeding and wintering bird communities and the small mammal community in an
urban-agricultural park of Rome were compared to those of a close urban park and a close
agricultural, area just outside the city, The aim was to assess the best destination and
management of wildlife in natural areas at the urban-rural interface, Richness and diversity of
bird communities were higher in the urban-agricultural park. Due to habitat features and
probably human disturbances, but not to urbanization, predation, and competition factors, the
urban park drastically reduces the abundance of decreasing open-land bird species. Abundance
of these species was not significantly different in the urban-agricultural park and in the
agricultural area. In the urban-agricultural and urban park, bird and mammal pest species were
more abundant than they were in the agricultural area. Regarding decreasing abundance of small
mammal species, no significant difference among the study areas was observed. Urban-
agricultural park is a better choice than urban park for wildlife. Thus, a higher number of
preserved urban natural areas should be devoted to urban-agricultural parks. However, to
increase the abundance of open-land species and in general wildlife, a less intensive management
of cultivated and pasture patches is necessary.

Stephenson, W. R. and H. G. Merriam (1975). “Some effects of urban impact on the

structure of lichen communities on trees in three deciduous woodlot types.” Urban Ecology
1(2-3): 311-323.
Variations in the corticolous lichen communities growing on the dominant tre species in certain
woodlots were related in degree of exposure to the airborne pollutant complex from an urban
center of one half million people (Ottawa, Canada). Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), Red Maple
(Acer rubrum), and Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera) woodlots were studied. Percent cover
of all lichens, percent occurrence of dominant lichens, species number, and McIntosh’s diversity
indices were used to compare lichen communities among comparable woodlots with different
degrees of exposure and with controls considered to be relatively free of urban influence. Lichen
communities showed negative responses to urban influence of low intensity by reduced lichen
cover, and, at higher intensities, in species composition and diversity. Local woodlot specific
pollutants gave additive effects. The value of lichen community variations as indicators of
pollutant impact on deciduous forest systems is discussed.

Stoneham, J. A., A. D. Kendle, et al. (1995). “Horticultural therapy: Horticulture’s

contribution to the quality of life of disabled people.” Horticulture in Human Life, Culture,
and Environment(391): 65-75.
Traditionally, the term horticultural therapy has been associated with plant cultivation as a tool
of occupational therapy. Today, a broader range of definitions are recognized, ranging from plant
cultivation to the appreciation of landscape. The level of interest in the subject is illustrated by a
diversity of concerned professions from architects to providers of care and support for people
with disabilities.
Research at the University of Bath ranged from techniques of plant cultivation to landscape
designs suitable for a wide range of people, including those with learning difficulties, physical
disabilities, and the frail and the elderly. The underlying aim was to encourage active and/or
passive involvement with plants, to produce systems successful enough to give therapists
confidence in using horticulture as a therapeutic tool or to provide settings where people are able
to develop their own interests and improve their quality of life.
Demographic trends in Britain have resulted in an increase in the proportion of elderly people in
the population and most significantly in the very old. In later years the research at Bath focused
on the design and modification of landscape and gardens for older people. Current research at the
Research Institute for Care of the Elderly is progressing this work by exploring older people’s
attitudes to, and preferences for, the outdoor environment. Work at Reading University is also
exploring the influences of contact with nature on human psychological well-being, and the role
urban landscapes can play in promoting environmental care and enabling sustainable
development.
There is increasing interest in the benefits of landscapes and plants to children, both as part of the
education curriculum and as an agent for improved social, psychological and physical
development. Current research at Learning through Landscapes is looking at the design, use and
management of school grounds for children with special needs.

Stoneham, J. A., A. D. Kendle, et al. (1995). “Horticultural therapy: Horticulture’s

contribution to the quality of life of disabled people.” Horticulture in Human Life, Culture,
and Environment(391): 65-75.
Traditionally, the term horticultural therapy has been associated with plant cultivation as a tool
of occupational therapy. Today, a broader range of definitions are recognized, ranging from plant
cultivation to the appreciation of landscape. The level of interest in the subject is illustrated by a
diversity of concerned professions from architects to providers of care and support for people
with disabilities.
Research at the University of Bath ranged from techniques of plant cultivation to landscape
designs suitable for a wide range of people, including those with learning difficulties, physical
disabilities, and the frail and the elderly. The underlying aim was to encourage active and/or
passive involvement with plants, to produce systems successful enough to give therapists
confidence in using horticulture as a therapeutic tool or to provide settings where people are able
to develop their own interests and improve their quality of life.
Demographic trends in Britain have resulted in an increase in the proportion of elderly people in
the population and most significantly in the very old. In later years the research at Bath focused
on the design and modification of landscape and gardens for older people. Current research at the
Research Institute for Care of the Elderly is progressing this work by exploring older people’s
attitudes to, and preferences for, the outdoor environment. Work at Reading University is also
exploring the influences of contact with nature on human psychological well-being, and the role
urban landscapes can play in promoting environmental care and enabling sustainable
development.
There is increasing interest in the benefits of landscapes and plants to children, both as part of the
education curriculum and as an agent for improved social, psychological and physical
development. Current research at Learning through Landscapes is looking at the design, use and
management of school grounds for children with special needs.

Sullivan, W. C., F. E. Kuo, et al. (2004). “The fruit of urban nature – Vital neighborhood
spaces.” Environment and Behavior 36(5): 678-700.
What makes a neighborhood space vital? This article explores the possibility that the presence of
trees and grass may be one of the key components of vital neighborhood spaces. We report on
758 observations of individuals in 59 outdoor common spaces in a residential development.
Twenty-seven of the neighborhood common spaces were relatively green, whereas 32 were
relatively barren. Results indicate that the presence of trees and grass is related to the use of
outdoor spaces, the amount of social activity that takes place within them, and the proportion of
social to nonsocial activities they support. The findings improve and broaden our understanding
of the physical characteristics that influence social contact among neighbors and provide
evidence that nature plays an important role in creating vital neighborhood spaces.

Tait, R. J., T. J. Allen, et al. (2009). “An electronic tree inventory for arboriculture
management.” Knowledge-Based Systems 22(7): 552-556.
The integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology into mobile devices provides
them with an awareness of their physical location. This geospatial context can be employed in a
wide range of applications including locating nearby places of interest as well as guiding
emergency services to incidents. In this research, a GPS-enabled Personal Digital Assistant
(PDA) is used to create a computerised tree inventory for the management of arboriculture.
Using the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), GPS information and arboreal image data are
sent to a web-server. An office-based PC running customised Geographical Information
Software (GIS) then automatically retrieves the GPS tagged image data for display and analysis
purposes. The resulting application allows an expert user to view the condition of individual
trees in greater detail than is possible using remotely sensed imagery. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All
rights reserved.

Taylor, A. F. and F. E. Kuo (2009). “Children With Attention Deficits Concentrate Better
After Walk in the Park.” Journal of Attention Disorders 12(5): 402-409.
Objective: In the general population, attention is reliably enhanced after exposure to certain
physical environments, particularly natural environments. This study examined the impacts of
environments on attention in children with ADHD. Method: In this within subjects design, each
participant experienced each of three treatments (environments) in single blind controlled trials.
Seventeen children 7 to 12 years old professionally diagnosed with ADHD experienced each of
three environments-a city park and two other well-kept urban settings-via individually guided
20-minute walks. Environments were experienced 1 week apart, with randomized assignment to
treatment order. After each walk, concentration was measured using Digit Span Backwards.
Results: Children with ADHD concentrated better after the walk in the park than after the
downtown walk (p = .0229) or the neighborhood walk (p = .0072). Effect sizes were substantial
(Cohen’s d = .52 and .77, respectively) and comparable to those reported for recent formulations
of methylphenidate. Conclusion: Twenty minutes in a park setting was sufficient to elevate
attention performance relative to the same amount of time in other settings. These findings
indicate that environments can enhance attention not only in the general population but also in
ADHD populations. “Doses of nature” might serve as a safe, inexpensive, widely accessible new
tool in the tool kit for managing ADHD symptoms. (J. of Att. Dis. 2009; 12(5) 402-409)

Taylor, A. F., F. E. Kuo, et al. (2001). “Coping with add – The surprising connection to
green play settings.” Environment and Behavior 33(1): 54-77.
Attention Restoration Theory suggests that contact with nature supports attentional functioning,
and a number of studies have found contact with everyday nature to be related to attention in
adults. Is contact with everyday nature also related to the attentional functioning of children?
This question was addressed through a study focusing on children with Attention Deficit
Disorder (ADD). This study examined the relationship between children’s nature exposure
through leisure activities and their attentional functioning using both within- and between-
subjects comparisons. Parents were surveyed regarding their child’s attentional functioning after
activities in several settings. Results indicate that children function better than usual after
activities in green settings and that the “greener” a child’s play area, the less severe his or her
attention deficit symptoms. Thus, contact with nature may support attentional functioning in a
population of children who desperately need attentional support.

Taylor, A. F., F. E. Kuo, et al. (2002). “Views of nature and self-discipline: Evidence from
inner city children.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 22(1-2): 49-63.
Children growing up in the inner city are at risk of academic underachievement, juvenile
delinquency, teenage pregnancy, and other important negative outcomes. Avoiding these
outcomes requires self-discipline. Self-discipline, in turn, may draw on directed attention, a
limited resource that can be renewed through contact with nature. This study examined the
relationship between near-home nature and three forms of self-discipline in 169 inner city girls
and boys randomly assigned to 12 architecturally identical high-rise buildings with varying
levels of nearby nature. Parent ratings of the naturalness of the view from home were used to
predict childrens performance on tests of concentration, impulse inhibition, and delay of
gratification. Regressions indicated that, on average, the more natural a girls view from home,
the better her performance at each of these forms of self-discipline. For girls, view accounted for
20% of the variance in scores on the combined self-discipline index. For boys, who typically
spend less time playing in and around their homes, view from home showed no relationship to
performance on any measure. These findings suggest that, for girls, green space immediately
outside the home can help them lead more effective, self-disciplined lives. For boys, perhaps
more distant green spaces are equally important. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Taylor, A. F., A. Wiley, et al. (1998). “Growing up in the inner city – Green spaces as places
to grow.” Environment and Behavior 30(1): 3-27.
Children growing up in the inner city are at risk for a range of negative developmental outcomes.
Do barren, inner-city neighborhood spaces compromise the everyday activities and experiences
necessary for healthy development? Sixty-four urban public housing outdoor spaces (27 low
vegetation, 37 high vegetation) were observed on four separate occasions. Overall, inner-city
children’s everyday activities and access to adults appeared remarkably healthy; of the 262
children observed, most (73%) were involved in some type of play, and most groups of children
(87%) were supervised to some degree. In relatively barren spaces, however, the picture was
considerably less optimistic: Levels of play and access to adults were approximately half as
much as those found in spaces with more trees and grass, and the incidence of creative play was
significantly lower in barren spaces than in relatively green spaces.

Ulrich, R. S. (1984). “View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery.”
Science 224(4647): 420-421.
Records on recovery after cholecystectomy of patients in a suburban Pennsylvania hospital
between 1972 and 1981 were examined to determine whether assignment to a room with a
window view of a natural setting might have restorative influences. Twenty-three surgical
patients assigned to rooms with windows looking out on a natural scene had shorter
postoperative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses’ notes, and
took fewer potent analgesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a
brick building wall.

Ulrich, R. S. (1986). “Human Responses to Vegetation and Landscapes.” Landscape and

Urban Planning 13(1): 29-44.
The rapidly expanding research record concerning aesthetic, emotional and physiological
response to visual landscapes is summarized, with emphasis on aesthetic preferences for views
containing trees and other vegetation. The survey is set within a conceptual perspective
suggesting that affective responses such as aesthetic preference are central to a landscape
observer’s thoughts, conscious experience and behavior. Substantial progress has been made in
developing models that relate aesthetic responses to specific visual properties of environments.
When aesthetic preferences are compared for urban and unspectacular natural views, American
and European adult groups evidence a strong tendency to prefer nature. However, liking for
urban scenes usually increases when trees and other vegetation are present. Views of nature,
compared to most urban scenes lacking natural elements such as trees, appear to have more
positive influences on emotional and physiological states. The benefits of visual encounters with
vegetation may be greatest for individuals experiencing stress or anxiety. Recent research
demonstrates that responses to trees and other vegetation can be linked directly to health, and in
turn related to economic benefits of visual quality.

Ulrich, R. S., R. F. Simons, et al. (1991). “Stress Recovery during Exposure to Natural and
Urban Environments.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 11(3): 201-230.
Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an
encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or
restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses
regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature
are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects
first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six
different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental
presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological
measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive
measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal
measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were
exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised
the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component;
however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the
urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban
settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both
the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention,
which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention
or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory
that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional
state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied
by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties
appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.

Ulrich, R. S., R. F. Simons, et al. (2003). “Effects of environmental simulations and

television on blood donor stress.” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 20(1):
38-47.
This study used an experimental design and multiple measures to ascertain whether stress in
healthcare consumers undergoing a procedure known to be stressful – blood donation – would be
affected by modest changes in a clinic environment. Four different environmental conditions
were presented to 872 blood donors (68% males; 32% females; mean age = 40.4 years) using
wall-mounted television monitors: a videotape of nature settings (Nature); a tape of urban
environments (Urban); daytime television (Television); or a blank monitor (No Television).
Findings from physiological measures (blood pressure, pulse rate) provided a pattern of evidence
that the environmental conditions had significantly different effects on donor stress. Consistent
with arousal/stimulation theory, the blood-pressure and pulse-rate findings converged to indicate
that stress was lower during No Television than Television, and during Low Stimulation (No
Television + Nature) than High Stimulation (Television + Urban). In line with evolutionary
theory, pulse rates were markedly lower during Nature than Urban. An important clinical
implication of the findings is that the common practice of playing uncontrollable daytime
television in healthcare waiting areas where stress is a problem may actually have stressful, not
stress-reducing, influences on many patients/consumers. Healthcare environments should tend to
be more restorative and supportive for stressed outpatients when Nature is prominently present,
and environmental stimulation levels are low rather than high and intrusive.

vanWilgen, B. W., R. M. Cowling, et al. (1996). “Valuation of ecosystem services.”

Bioscience 46(3): 184-189.
Presents a case study from the South African fynbos ecosystems, stating that watershed
ecosystems provide quantifiable benefits that can justify management expenditure. Information
regarding the invasion of alien plants and their affect on water sources in the mountain
catchment areas of the Western Cape Province, South Africa; Economics of water and catchment
management.

Wagner, J. E., V. A. Luzadis, et al. (1998). “A role for economic analysis in the ecosystem
management debate.” Landscape and Urban Planning 40(1-3): 151-157.
Ecosystem management’s underpinnings have been biological in nature-the concern for
ecosystem integrity, health, and resilience. This intent has been translated into a similar societal
goal. However, its philosophy is still evolving biologically and socially. Since the geographic
boundaries of an ecosystem may probably cross many different ownership types, this leaves
landowners wondering how this new management approach will affect them. We discuss the role
of economics within the ecosystem management debate. In addition, we also examine three
existing economic analytical techniques that can be used to analyze ecosystem management,
discuss the contributions of these techniques and their limitations, and identify three key points
that an economic analysis should address. Finally, we survey five examples of ecosystem
management in practice on United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service lands. (C)
1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
Waliczek, T. M., R. D. Lineberger, et al. (1998). “Studying Children’s Perceptions of
Garden Benefits Using the Internet.” HortScience 33(3): 504-c-.
A survey was designed to investigate children’s perceptions of the benefits of gardening and is
posted on the KinderGARDEN Web page within the Aggie Horticulture network. The
KinderGARDEN Web page was developed as a resource for parents and teachers to help them
incorporate the garden into the home and school lives of children. The Web site additionally
attracts young visitors with a “Fun Page.” The “Fun Page” has descriptions of garden activities
that children can experiment with at home or school, garden literature for children and garden
Web links. The survey is included on this page. Children respond to the survey via e-mail. The
survey requests information about the type of gardening situations in which each respondent
participates, the number of children with whom they generally garden, what they feel they learn
from gardening and what benefits they feel they gain from gardening. Children responded
positively on the value of the garden to their recreation, while also mentioning educational,
environmental, aesthetic, social and economic benefits in the survey. Results showed that 81% of
children felt they were learning about the environment by working in the garden. Fifty-four
percent of children mentioned that the garden taught them about plants and plant-related
concepts. Other benefits children mentioned as important to them included recreation and/or
“having fun” (31%) and socialization with friends and family (15%).

Waliczek, T. M., R. D. Lineberger, et al. (2000). “Using a Web-based Survey to Research

the Benefits of Children Gardening.” HortTechnology 10(1): 71-76.
A survey, targeting adults working with youth in garden situations, was designed for delivery on
the KinderGARDEN World Wide Web site. The goal of this survey was to investigate adults
who are actively involved in gardening with children in school, community or home gardens on
their perceptions of the benefits of children participating in gardening. Three hundred-twenty
completed surveys were returned via e-mail during a period of 9 months. Fourteen questions
were included on the survey requesting information concerning what types of gardening
situations in which children were participants and the demographics of the children involved in
gardening. Results of the study cover 128,836 children (youth under 18 years old) involved in
gardening, primarily with teachers in school gardens. The children involved were generally 12
years of age or under and were growing food crops. Adults gardening with children reported
benefits to children’s self-esteem and reduction in stress levels. Adults were also interested in
learning more about the psychological, nutritional and physical benefits of gardening.
Comparisons between those adults involved in gardening found that parents’ and teachers’ ideas
differed concerning the most important aspects of the gardening experience. Parents viewed food
production as most important while teachers thought socializing and learning about plants were
most important.

Warber, S. L., M. D. Fetters, et al. (2003). “Environmental ethics: Finding a moral compass
for human-plant interaction (Reprinted from Creating a sustainable future: Living in
harmony with the Earth, 2001).” Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 9(2): 100-
105.
With the increasing demand for plant products as medicine, we need a set of principles to guide
our actions. Medical ethics, which until now has focused only on human concerns, must expand
to include notions about the relationship of humans and plants. This paper presents an overview
of 3 major environmental ethical models: anthropocentric, pragmatic, and ecocentric. The
conflicts and inadequacies of these models are examined. We present for the first time the ethical
principles for gathering plants as taught by an indigenous Native North American healer,
Keewaydinoquay Peschel (Anishinaabe). Her principles are applied to 2 well-known medicinal
plant cases: goldenseal, an endangered species, and the Pacific yew, the source of paclitaxel, a
novel anticancer treatment. The actions of individuals, corporations, and government are
examined in light of indigenous gathering ethics. Suggestions are made for incorporating these
ethics into the practice of complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine.

Ward Thompson, C. (2011). “Linking landscape and health: The recurring theme.”
Landscape and Urban Planning 99(3-4): 187-195.
This paper traces evidence of the influence of the landscape on people’s health, from ancient
times to the present day, noting how access to nature and attractive green spaces has been a
recurring theme in descriptions of therapeutic environments and associated healthy lifestyles. It
describes how the theme of health in the picturesque debates of eighteenth century England
(including such concepts as [`]active curiosity’) was taken up and developed in arguments for the
nineteenth century urban park movement in England and North America. Recent theories on the
mechanisms behind health benefits of nature and access to landscape are compared with claims
made in the nineteenth century and earlier. The importance of access to the landscape appears to
be as relevant as ever in the context of modern urban lifestyles but the need for better evidence
and understanding remains.

Werner, J. E. B., J. Raser, et al. (1996). A study of the economic impacts of trees and
forests in the commercial districts of New York City and New Jersey, New York Street
Tree Consortium, Inc.
Trees New York (TNY) and Trees New Jersey (TNJ) conducted this research to generate
quantifiable data and subjective valuation as related to trees and urban forests in commercial
areas within the region. It was hypothesized that over the years there had been a steady loss of
forest cover in commercially zoned suburban areas, as well as in downtown urban areas. The
study examined the trends of forest loss in commercial districts within the region and sought to
quantify the public and private benefits of these forests. This was accomplished through the use
of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, existing scientific modeling techniques and
interviews.

Wilson, P., C. Coffield, et al. (2006). “Floral odor prompts positive emotional searches.”
Chemical Senses 31(5): A142-A142.
Flowers preferred by humans increase Duchenne smiling and social behavior and decrease
negative mood reports. Would a floral odor also affect emotional behavior? 123 participants (66
females) rated their own emotional state, rated the emotional response to short fear/anger videos
and reported a recent memory in either a gardenia, peppermint or Etoh condition. There is no
effect of odor on ratings of pleasantness or intensity (both odors are different from Etoh only).
Condition did not effect self-rating of mood. There is an effect of emotional response to the
fear/anger videos for positive emotion (P < 0.002) and negative emotion (P < 0.02); both
gardenia and peppermint prompt higher positive emotion than Etoh but peppermint also prompts
more negative emotion than Etoh. There is an effect of odor on social reference words in the
memory narrative (P < 0.02); gardenia prompts more than Etoh. These results support the
hypothesis that floral odor specializes in searches for positive emotion and social reference.
Wolf, K. L. (2001). “Human dimensions of the urban forest in small city business settings.”
Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, 2001 National Convention: 303-309.
Small city central business districts undergoing revitalization must carefully weigh their choices
for improvements, given limited resources. One option, an urban forest and streetscape program,
should include planning for both tree and human factors. This qualitative research specifies the
human dynamics of successful programs. Forest professionals assisting communities should
consider civic process as well as arboricultural choices and practices. Planning, implementation
and ongoing maintenance strategies often involve public and private partnerships. Each program
contributor has different capacities for tree installation and care. Appropriate technical choices
must be accompanied by personal commitment. Finally, implementation of the tree program
must acknowledge the needs of all interests in the district.

Wolf, K. L. (2004). “Nature in the Retail Environment: Comparing Consumer and

Business Response to Urban Forest Conditions.” Landscape Jrnl. 23(1): 40-51.
Most research addressing public response to the urban forest has occurred in residential settings;
little is known about consumer response to trees in retail places. This study evaluated both
potential shoppers’ and business people’s preferences and perceptions of trees in inner-city
business districts. Trees are highly preferred by both groups, although business people express
slightly lower liking for visual categories containing trees. Differences in attitudes regarding tree
benefits and annoyances were found, with business people rating tree benefits significantly lower
than shoppers. Research outcomes suggest best practices for urban forest planning and
stewardship in neighborhood retail environments of large cities.

Wolf, K. L. (2004). ” Trees and business district preferences: a case study of Athens,
Georgia, U.S.” Journal of Aboriculture 30(6).
As a National Main Street program participant, Athens, Georgia, U.S., has included streetscape
tree plantings in economic development efforts. The Main Street program assists downtown
merchant groups with physical improvements planning in order to create vital retail
environments. If comprehensively managed, the urban forest can be a beneficial long-term
improvement. Nonetheless, business people and merchants often have negative perceptions about
trees (such as debris and reduced sign visibility) and may influence local policy and budget
support for urban forest programs. This study utilized an on-site survey to elicit preference and
perceptual response from visitors of the Athens central business district. The presence of a full-
canopy forest was found to be associated with higher visual quality ratings of the retail district.
District visitors also perceived the streetscape canopy to be an integral amenity of the city’s
shopping environment. Quantitative and qualitative research outcomes are reported.

Wolf, K. L. (2005). “Business District Streetscapes, Trees, and Consumer Response.”

Journal of Forestry 103: 396-400.
A multistudy research program has investigated how consumers respond to the urban forest in
central business districts of cities of various sizes. Trees positively affect judgments of visual
quality but, more significantly, may influence other consumer responses and behaviors. Survey
respondents from all regions of the United States favored trees in business districts, and this
preference was further reflected in positive district perceptions, patronage behavior, and product
pricing. An overview of the research is provided, with implications for the economics of local
communities.
Wolf, K. L. (2005). “Trees in the small city retail business district: Comparing resident and
visitor perceptions.” Journal of Forestry 103(8): 390-395.
Many small cities and towns are located near resource lands, and their central business districts
serve both residents and visitors. Such quasi-rural retail centers face competitive challenges from
regional shopping malls, online purchasing, and big box discount retailers. District merchants
must strategically enhance their market position to prevent outshopping. Streetscape trees are a
physical improvement that can be used to attract and welcome consumers. A national survey
evaluated public perceptions, patronage behavior intentions, and product willingness-to-pay in
relationship to depictions of trees in retail settings. Results suggest that consumer behavior is
positively associated with the urban forest on multiple cognitive and behavioral dimensions.
Forest amenities of both wildland and built environments can be used to strengthen local
economies.

Wolf, K. L. (2006). “Assessing public response to freeway roadsides – Urban forestry and
context-sensitive solutions.” Highway Facility Design 2006(1984): 102-111.
Social science methods can be used to assess how the public values context-sensitive solutions.
The roadside landscape is a public lands resource that has many functions and provides many
benefits. Diverse stakeholders may have varied expectations for roadside design. The urban
forest is often a contested component of the urban roadside. Two research surveys based on
landscape assessment literature were used to assess and quantify public preferences and
perceptions with regard to trees in highspeed and freeway roadsides. One photo questionnaire
was distributed in urban areas nationally and the other in Washington State. To elicit public
attitudes about visual quality and community image, each survey included design visualizations
constructed with digitally edited photographs. Research results were consistent across both
studies. Respondents judged images with increasing amounts of roadside vegetation, including
trees, to have a higher amenity value. The presence of more extensive community greening was
associated with positive consumer inferences and greater willingness to pay for goods and
services. There was little variation in responses across respondent demographics. Results provide
an empirical basis for flexible highway design and promote planning options for roadside urban
forests that address multiple stakeholder interests.

Wolf, K. L. (2006). “Assessing public response to freeway roadsides – Urban forestry and
context-sensitive solutions.” Highway Facility Design 2006(1984): 102-111
167.
Social science methods can be used to assess how the public values context-sensitive solutions.
The roadside landscape is a public lands resource that has many functions and provides many
benefits. Diverse stakeholders may have varied expectations for roadside design. The urban
forest is often a contested component of the urban roadside. Two research surveys based on
landscape assessment literature were used to assess and quantify public preferences and
perceptions with regard to trees in highspeed and freeway roadsides. One photo questionnaire
was distributed in urban areas nationally and the other in Washington State. To elicit public
attitudes about visual quality and community image, each survey included design visualizations
constructed with digitally edited photographs. Research results were consistent across both
studies. Respondents judged images with increasing amounts of roadside vegetation, including
trees, to have a higher amenity value. The presence of more extensive community greening was
associated with positive consumer inferences and greater willingness to pay for goods and
services. There was little variation in responses across respondent demographics. Results provide
an empirical basis for flexible highway design and promote planning options for roadside urban
forests that address multiple stakeholder interests.

Wolf, K. L. (2008). “Community Context and Strip Mail Retail Public Response to the
Roadside Landscape.” Transportation Research Record(2060): 95-103.
Strip malls (or mini-malls) are a common land use, historically promoted by U.S. zoning
practices that concentrate retail and commercial development in a narrow band along urban
arterials and major streets. They are an entry-level retail niche offering opportunity for
independent, start-up businesses that serve a limited market. Communities have begun to
question land uses that enable efficient ingress and egress of vehicles in retail and commercial
districts but give little attention to multimodal motility. Some communities are redeveloping
small mall zones on the basis of “complete street” principles, expanding landscape plantings, and
redeveloping the character of a business district. This stud), assessed public response to one
element of small mail (re)development: landscape and vegetation. Prior studies indicated that
consumer behavior is positively associated with city trees (urban forest) on multiple cognitive
and behavioral dimensions. In mail surveys depicting varied roadside treatments, residents of
three major cities in the Pacific Northwest were asked to indicate preferences and perceptions
about proposed changes. Survey stimulus materials addressed visual quality, retail perceptions,
patronage behavior, wayfinding, and willingness to pay for goods and services. Combined
econometrics and psychometrics indicated that respondents prefer landscaped roadsides and
report positive retail behavior, such as willingness to pay 8.8% more for goods and services in
well-landscaped malls. Redevelopment and roadside management guidelines are proposed based
on the research results, with implications for the economics of local communities.

Wolf, K. L. and L. E. Kruger (2010). “Urban Forestry Research Needs: A Participatory

Assessment Process.” Journal of Forestry 108(1): 39-44.
New research initiatives focusing on urban ecology and natural resources are underway Such
programs coincide with increased local government action in urban forest planning and
management, adivities that are enhanced by scientific knowledge. This project used a
participatory stakeholder process to explore and understand urban forestry research and
technology transfer needs in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The approach can
be readily used for any geographic region or metropolitan area. A two-phase, abbreviated Delphi
process was conducted, inviting input from urban forestry professionals, academics, and agency-
based managers. Research issues were identified and prioritized within three themes: urban
forest resource, resource management, and community framework. The results serve as a
stakeholder relevant research framework to guide science proposals for funding initiatives of
regional and national levels. Notable is major support by respondents for a better understanding
of the transactional dynamics of human systems and urban natural resources.

Xiao, Q., E. G. McPherson, et al. (2007). “Hydrologic processes at the urban residential
scale.” Hydrological Processes 21(16): 2174-2188.
In the face of increasing urbanization, there is growing interest in application of microscale
hydrologic solutions to minimize storm runoff and conserve water at the source. In this study, a
physically based numerical model was developed to understand hydrologic processes better at
the urban residential scale and the interaction of these processes among different best
management practices (BMPs). This model simulates hydrologic processes using an hourly
interval for over a full year or for specific storm events. The model was applied to treatment and
control single-family residential parcels in Los Angeles, California. Data collected from the
control and treatment sites over 2 years were used to calibrate and validate the model. Annual
storm runoff to the street was eliminated by 97% with installation of rain gutters, a driveway
interceptor, and lawn retention basin. Evaluated individually, the driveway interceptor was the
most effective BMP for storm runoff reduction (65%), followed by the rain gutter installation
(28%), and lawn converted to retention basin (12%). An 11 m(3) cistern did not substantially
reduce runoff, but provided 9% of annual landscape irrigation demand. Simulated landscape
irrigation water use was reduced 53% by increasing irrigation system efficiency, and adjusting
application rates monthly based on plant water demand. The model showed that infiltration and
surface runoff processes were particularly sensitive to the soil’s physical properties and its
effective depth. Replacing the existing loam soil with clay soil increased annual runoff discharge
to the street by 63% when climate and landscape features remained unchanged. Copyright (c)
2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Xiao, Q., E. G. McPherson, et al. (2007). “Hydrologic processes at the urban residential
scale.” Hydrological Processes 21(16): 2174-2188.
In the face of increasing urbanization, there is growing interest in application of microscale
hydrologic solutions to minimize storm runoff and conserve water at the source. In this study, a
physically based numerical model was developed to understand hydrologic processes better at
the urban residential scale and the interaction of these processes among different best
management practices (BMPs). This model simulates hydrologic processes using an hourly
interval for over a full year or for specific storm events. The model was applied to treatment and
control single-family residential parcels in Los Angeles, California. Data collected from the
control and treatment sites over 2 years were used to calibrate and validate the model. Annual
storm runoff to the street was eliminated by 97% with installation of rain gutters, a driveway
interceptor, and lawn retention basin. Evaluated individually, the driveway interceptor was the
most effective BMP for storm runoff reduction (65%), followed by the rain gutter installation
(28%), and lawn converted to retention basin (12%). An 11 m(3) cistern did not substantially
reduce runoff, but provided 9% of annual landscape irrigation demand. Simulated landscape
irrigation water use was reduced 53% by increasing irrigation system efficiency, and adjusting
application rates monthly based on plant water demand. The model showed that infiltration and
surface runoff processes were particularly sensitive to the soil’s physical properties and its
effective depth. Replacing the existing loam soil with clay soil increased annual runoff discharge
to the street by 63% when climate and landscape features remained unchanged. Copyright (c)
2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Yang, D. S., S. V. Pennisi, et al. (2009). “Screening Indoor Plants for Volatile Organic
Pollutant Removal Efficiency.” HortScience 44(5): 1377-1381.
Twenty-eight ornamental species commonly used for interior plantscapes were screened for their
ability to remove five volatile indoor pollutants: aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene and toluene),
aliphatic hydrocarbon (octane), halogenated hydrocarbon [trichloroethylene (TCE)], and terpene
({alpha}-pinene). Individual plants were placed in 10.5-L gas-tight glass jars and exposed to
{approx}10 ppm (31.9, 53.7, 37.7, 46.7, and 55.7 mg{middle dot}m-3) of benzene, TCE,
toluene, octane, and{alpha} -pinene, respectively. Air samples (1.0 mL) within the glass
containers were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy 3 and 6 h after exposure to
the test pollutants to determine removal efficiency by monitoring the decline in concentration
over 6 h within sealed glass containers. To determine removal by the plant, removal by other
means (glass, plant pot, media) was subtracted. The removal efficiency, expressed on a leaf area
basis for each volatile organic compound (VOC), varied with plant species. Of the 28 species
tested, Hemigraphis alternata, Hedera helix, Hoya carnosa, and Asparagus densiflorus had the
highest removal efficiencies for all pollutants; Tradescantia pallida displayed superior removal
efficiency for four of the five VOCs (i.e., benzene, toluene, TCE, and{alpha} -pinene). The five
species ranged in their removal efficiency from 26.08 to 44.04 {micro}g{middle dot}m-
3{middle dot}m-2{middle dot}h-1 of the total VOCs. Fittonia argyroneura effectively removed
benzene, toluene, and TCE. Ficus benjamina effectively removed octane and{alpha} -pinene,
whereas Polyscias fruticosa effectively removed octane. The variation in removal efficiency
among species indicates that for maximum improvement of indoor air quality, multiple species
are needed. The number and type of plants should be tailored to the type of VOCs present and
their rates of emanation at each specific indoor location.

Yang, D. S., S. V. Pennisi, et al. (2009). “Screening Indoor Plants for Volatile Organic
Pollutant Removal Efficiency.” HortScience 44(5): 1377-1381.
Twenty-eight ornamental species commonly used for interior plantscapes were screened for their
ability to remove five volatile indoor pollutants: aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene and toluene),
aliphatic hydrocarbon (octane), halogenated hydrocarbon [trichloroethylene (TCE)], and terpene
({alpha}-pinene). Individual plants were placed in 10.5-L gas-tight glass jars and exposed to
{approx}10 ppm (31.9, 53.7, 37.7, 46.7, and 55.7 mg{middle dot}m-3) of benzene, TCE,
toluene, octane, and{alpha} -pinene, respectively. Air samples (1.0 mL) within the glass
containers were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy 3 and 6 h after exposure to
the test pollutants to determine removal efficiency by monitoring the decline in concentration
over 6 h within sealed glass containers. To determine removal by the plant, removal by other
means (glass, plant pot, media) was subtracted. The removal efficiency, expressed on a leaf area
basis for each volatile organic compound (VOC), varied with plant species. Of the 28 species
tested, Hemigraphis alternata, Hedera helix, Hoya carnosa, and Asparagus densiflorus had the
highest removal efficiencies for all pollutants; Tradescantia pallida displayed superior removal
efficiency for four of the five VOCs (i.e., benzene, toluene, TCE, and{alpha} -pinene). The five
species ranged in their removal efficiency from 26.08 to 44.04 {micro}g{middle dot}m-
3{middle dot}m-2{middle dot}h-1 of the total VOCs. Fittonia argyroneura effectively removed
benzene, toluene, and TCE. Ficus benjamina effectively removed octane and{alpha} -pinene,
whereas Polyscias fruticosa effectively removed octane. The variation in removal efficiency
among species indicates that for maximum improvement of indoor air quality, multiple species
are needed. The number and type of plants should be tailored to the type of VOCs present and
their rates of emanation at each specific indoor location.

Younis, A., M. Qasim, et al. (2008). “Case Study: Impact of a Well-Planned Landscape in
Delivering Quality of Life to City Dwellers.” Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Horticultural Practices and Therapy for Human Well-Being(775): 147-154.
The quality of life in the cities is constantly declining due to increasing urbanization,
industrialization and mechanization. Noise, dust, gaseous pollution and summer peak
temperature are major problems in urban areas. The value of green spaces within the urban fabric
is increasingly being rediscovered. The present study was conducted to explore the possibilities
of sustainable establishment of landscape in accordance with the perception of the people’s and
local conditions. Planting design was made considering soil condition, local environment and
people’s choice. The design received a quick response from the community and had great impact
on the Faisalabad environment. All the wasteland in the interior city has been greatly improved
and it helped to curb pollution, enhance biodiversity and beautify the city at the same time. The
results of the present study showed that 71% of the respondents mentioned that the landscape
enhanced the beauty of the area, 17.5% opined that it controls pollution. Regarding the types of
plants they liked in the central spine, 45% chose flowering plants followed by 33.3% shrubs. In
road-side green spaces 51.7% wished to see shady trees followed by flowering plants (25%). In
squares, 50% of the respondents chose flowering plants while 30.8% liked seasonal plants.

Yu, W.-W., D.-L. Ling, et al. (2010). “Comparison of the Effects of Plant Parables on the
Promotion of Spiritual Benefits in Students with Differing Horticultural Backgrounds.”
HortTechnology 20(3): 568-573.
Research on the restorative benefits of nature primarily has focused on the spiritual benefits of
wilderness areas, but other areas, such as cities, have not been studied. Horticultural activities
have the potential to promote spiritual health, but most participants are not aware of this benefit.
To improve this situation and to increase evidence of the benefits of therapeutic horticulture, this
study suggests treating plant parables as trigger cues, which would allow an approach to
interaction with plants through metaphysical imagination, resulting in an improvement in
spiritual health from horticultural activities. The purpose of this study was to understand
participants’ beliefs of the spiritual benefits of horticultural activities, and to see if these beliefs
were enhanced after reading plant parables. This study surveyed subjects with different
horticultural backgrounds, and measured their opinions regarding belief in the spiritual benefits
of horticultural activities, before and after reading the parables. The results indicated that before
reading the plant parables, neither group of subjects with different horticultural backgrounds
agreed with the spiritual benefits of horticultural activities; however, after reading the plant
parables, the belief of participants with formal horticultural education backgrounds increased
significantly (P [&le;] 0.001). The increase was not significant in subjects without formal
horticultural education backgrounds.

Zampini, J. W. (1992). “Down to Earth Benefits of People-Plant Interactions in Our

Community.” HortTechnology 2(2): 177-179.
This past year, Lake County Nursery (LCN) committed itself to shaping the future of our world
through beautification. In September LCN, the Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources, the Cleveland
Electric Illuminating Co., and CLEAN-LAND, OHIO cohosted a Beautification Stewards
Conference at Lake Erie College. The conference’s theme was “How to Increase Tax Revenues
and Lessen Crime by the Proper Planting of Trees and Flowering Plants.” A group of nationally
known speakers made presentations to attendees from across the United States. The following
will retrace how we became a catalyst for people-plant interactions through beautification in our
community in the past decade.

Zheng, B., Y. Zhang, et al. “Preference to home landscape: wildness or neatness?”

Landscape and Urban Planning In Press, Corrected Proof.
This study explores students’ preferences toward natural and wild versus clean and neat
residential landscapes using preference survey data. Based on the rating scores of four housing
landscape designs, multinomial logit models were used to explore the potential influential factors
on people’s preferences, especially the wildness or neatness of the home landscape. The results
suggest that students in agricultural economics, horticulture, and social sciences are more
inclined to choose a neat, well-kept environment around their homes. In contrast, wildlife science
students prefer more natural landscapes. This study also found that senior students and students
from large cities also prefer well-maintained and artificial landscapes. Also, students who are
members of an environmental group, and those whose parents have a better education, are more
likely to choose a more natural landscape. The results would provide additional information for
planners, developers, engineers, architects and foresters in building more livable communities
which are aesthetically appealing but also ecologically sound.

Zheng, B., Y. Zhang, et al. (2011). “Preference to home landscape: wildness or neatness?”
Landscape and Urban Planning 99(1): 1-8.
This study explores students’ preferences toward natural and wild versus clean and neat
residential landscapes using preference survey data. Based on the rating scores of four housing
landscape designs, multinomial logit models were used to explore the potential influential factors
on people’s preferences, especially the wildness or neatness of the home landscape. The results
suggest that students in agricultural economics, horticulture, and social sciences are more
inclined to choose a neat, well-kept environment around their homes. In contrast, wildlife science
students prefer more natural landscapes. This study also found that senior students and students
from large cities also prefer well-maintained and artificial landscapes. Also, students who are
members of an environmental group, and those whose parents have a better education, are more
likely to choose a more natural landscape. The results would provide additional information for
planners, developers, engineers, architects and foresters in building more livable communities
which are aesthetically appealing but also ecologically sound.

Zuckerman, M., R. S. Ulrich, et al. (1993). “Sensation Seeking and Reactions to Nature
Paintings.” Personality and Individual Differences 15(5): 563-576.
Two studies were done comparing the preferences of high and low sensation seekers for nature
paintings representing different styles. The paintings had been previously rated for qualities of
complexity and tension. Factor analyses established five stylistic categories among the paintings.
In both studies high sensation seekers had a relatively greater liking for high tension paintings
whereas the lows had a relatively greater liking for low tension paintings. In both studies high
sensation seekers had a relatively greater liking for expressionist style paintings, and in the
second study the lows had a greater preference for the realistic, low tension pastoral scenes than
the high sensation seekers. Men liked complex, high tension, realistic paintings more than
women did. Complexity did not interact with personality, but was subordinate to other qualities
of the paintings. High sensation seekers like tension evoking paintings and are more tolerant of
ambiguity in style than low sensation seekers.

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