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Received May 25, 2004; accepted November 6, 2004; published online April 1, 2005
Summary A simple measure of the amount of foliage pres- According to the Holdridge life zone system, tropical dry
ent in a forest is leaf area index (LAI; the amount of foliage per forests are located in areas that have a biotemperature greater
unit ground surface area), which can be determined by optical than 17 °C, an annual precipitation of 500–2000 mm and a po-
estimation (gap fraction method) with an instrument such as tential evapotranspiration ratio of 1–2 (ratio of mean potential
Plant Canopy Analyzer estimates the amount of radiation that as effective leaf area index (LAI e in Equation 1). Finally, the
infiltrates the canopy. The instrument is composed of five con- LAI e values that have been calibrated with the leaf area from
centric silicon rings with fields of view centered between 7° the litter traps are referred to as LAI. We calculated LAI as
and 68° (average 35°), and it measures diffuse sky radiation (Leblanc and Chen 2001):
(< 490 nm to minimize scattering effects) through a hemi-
spherical lens. Although true LAI is solely a measure of fo- LAI e(1 – α)
LAI = PAI (1 – α) = (1)
liage, tree trunks and branches also intercept incoming light Ω
and contribute to the measurements taken with optical instru-
ments such as the LAI-2000 (Kucharik et al. 1998). In general, where α is the ratio of WAI to PAI and Ω refers to a clumping
these optical instruments cannot discriminate between foliar index of the foliage at all scales (Leblanc and Chen 2001,
and woody components of the canopy. Fournier et al. 2003). We acknowledge that branch geometry
Data on LAI from the tropics is sparse compared with tem- and architecture are as important as foliage in determining
perate and boreal environments. In the entire global LAI data- light interception by the canopy (Chen and Black 1991, Ku-
base, only 8% of the studies are from tropical regions (Asner et charik et al. 1998), and that if clumping at the crown level is
al. 2003) and temporal LAI studies from T-dfs are even significant, optical estimates of LAI may be underestimated
scarcer. Yet quantification of temporal changes in LAI in T-dfs (Fournier et al. 2003). It has been estimated that, without any
is important for understanding tropical ecosystem processes degree of leaf grouping, a tree would be unable to sustain an
(Maass et al. 1995). Techniques for calibrating optical esti- LAI greater than 6.0 because of self-shading (Russell et al.
mates differ according to canopy type (i.e., needle, broadleaf, 1989). However, because of the number of species with vary-
mixed). With some exceptions, few studies have investigated ing branch geometries (up to 100 or more woody species ha – 1
the relationship between LAI determined by semi-direct tech-
Table 1. Description of the successional stages in the Santa Rosa sector of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (200–300 m elevation), adapted
from Arroyo-Mora 2002 and Kalácska et al. 2004.
Stage Canopy Height Basal area Stem density Species density Description
(m) (m2 ha –1) (0.1 ha – 1) (spp. ( 0.1 ha) –1)
Early 1 Stratum 7.5 ± 2.2 11.7 ± 5.4 112 ± 64 15 ± 7 – Predominantly deciduous trees
– Many shrubs, small trees with grasses
and bare soil
– Heterogeneous canopy
Intermediate 2 Strata 10.3 ± 3.4 30.1 ± 6.5 130 ± 35 29 ± 5 – Upper layer of canopy composed of fast-
growing deciduous species
– Lianas and shade-tolerant species form
second layer
– Both deciduous and evergreen species
Late 2 Strata 15.0 ± 2.2 30.1 ± 6.5 107 ± 42 29 ± 7 – Shade-tolerant species
– Little light reaches the canopy floor
– Evergreen species with overlapping tree
crowns in upper canopy that form a con-
tinuous layer
Leaf litter
Specific leaf area
In September 2002 (peak of rainy season), standard 0.5 × 0.5-m
In August 2003, 15 leaves were collected from all plants with a
mesh leaf litter traps were placed in one of each of the early, in-
diameter at breast height ≥ 5 cm in the three plots where the lit-
termediate and late successional plots (30 traps per plot for a
ter traps had been located. The areas of the leaves were mea-
total surface area of 7.5 m2 per plot) where LAI-2000 measure-
sured with a Li-Cor 3000A portable leaf area meter before
ments were being taken. In each plot, the 30 traps were placed
in 10 offset rows of three to maximize the area covered. Leaf they were dried at 80 °C to constant mass. Subsequently, the
litter was collected at monthly intervals except in October until leaves were weighed and specific leaf area (SLA) was calcu-
the sites were leafless (end of the dry season, April 2003) for a lated for each species (Appendix 1). For the unknown category
total of five collections (on November 23, December 15, Janu- (those species for which we had no SLA values), we used a
ary 4, February 3 and March 3). In the late successional plot, general leaf mass/leaf area (L m /L a) relationship calculated
not all the trees lost their entire foliage, but leaf cover was at its from the 63 species listed in Appendix 1: L a = 0.0119L m +
minimum during the final collection. From each trap, the litter 0.0028 (r 2 = 0.86, P < 0.001).
LAI-2000 calibration early (2252.9 g) stages (Table 2). The “leaves” category com-
To calibrate the LAI-2000 estimates, we first calculated total prised leaves of identified species. The “unknown” category
leaf area for the leaves of each species from the species-spe- comprised leaves of unidentified species and the “other” cate-
cific SLA values. Leaf area was then converted to LAI by di- gory comprised twigs and other non-leaf material (excluding
viding by the area covered by the traps (i.e., 7.5 m2 ). For the fruits and seeds). Of the total amount of litter, the intermediate
first time period (September), LAI is the sum of the LAI values stage had the greatest proportion of unidentified leaf matter
from each collection. For each subsequent time period, the to- (29%) followed by the early (19%) and the late (16%) stages.
tal LAI from the previous collection was subtracted. We used We found a significant difference in total mean leaf fall per
the LAI values determined for each collection from the litter trap for the three stages (Kruskal-Wallis Rank Test: F = 4.36,
traps (LAITrap) to examine the relationship with the LAI-2000 P = 0.039). In addition, we found differences in total mean leaf
estimates through least-squares linear regression. The resul- fall between the early and intermediate stages (Welch-Modi-
tant regression models, as described in the subsequent sec- fied two-sided t-test: t = –6.50, P < 0.001), the intermediate
tions, served as the calibration models for the LAI-2000 esti- and late stages (t = 4.62, P < 0.001) and the early and late
mates. stages (t = –3.22, P = 0.002).
A breakdown of the leaf component of the litter is shown in
Additional analyses Figure 2. The intermediate stage had the greatest percentage of
To test the precision of the estimated number of species cap- lianas per sample with the exception of the fourth collection, at
tured, and the mass and area of leaves in the litter traps, we which time the late stage contained the greatest percentage of
conducted a series of graphical and empirical tests. By solving lianas. In general, the percentage of unknown leaves decreased
for ∆ in Equation 2 (Steidl and Thomas 2001), we calculated with each collection. Figure 3 shows the percentage of leaf
the minimum detectable difference in mass of leaf litter col- area lost during each collection. In the early and late stages,
2
2 σ 2 Z α + Z β
2
n = (2)
∆2
n
AE% = 2
(3)
(t α CV 2 )
Results
Leaf litter traps
We collected the greatest amount of leaf litter from the inter-
mediate stage (3559.1 g) followed by the late (2950.0 g) and
Table 2. Total composition by mass (g) of the leaf litter traps from the
early, intermediate and late successional plots in Santa Rosa. Values
in parentheses indicate percentage of total.
Leaves 1763 (67) 2233 (50) 2429 (73) Figure 2. Leaf component of litter collected from the traps in the (a)
early, (b) intermediate and (c) late successional plots in Santa Rosa,
Fruits/seeds 104 (4) 275 (6) 60 (2)
sorted by trees, lianas and unknown categories. The dates of the litter
Other 249 (10) 699 (15) 286 (9)
collections are November 23, 2002; December 15, 2002; January 4,
Unknown total 490 (19) 1326 (29) 521 (16)
2003; February 3, 2003; and March 3, 2003.
1 11 16 11
2 13 14 10
3 15 18 11
4 19 18 22
5 30 37 22
Figure 3. Percentage of the total leaf area lost by the canopy in the Overall 61 55 41
early, intermediate and late successional plots per litter trap collection
(November 23, 2002; December 15, 2002; January 4, 2003; February
3, 2003; and March 3, 2003).
With 30 traps, the overall estimates of leaf mass and leaf
area were acceptable in terms of uncertainty (Tables 3 and 4),
stage, most foliage was lost in March before the final collec- disregarding the different seasons. The late stage provided the
tion. In the early and intermediate stages, there was a small best estimate (8 and 12% uncertainty in leaf mass and leaf
second peak of leaf area loss in November, comprising leaves area, respectively) because the canopy was more uniform than
of both lianas and trees. In the late stage, the leaf area lost in- at the other stages. Nevertheless, this approach for estimating
creased with each collection to a maximum in February and LAITrap was less precise during the transition from the wet to
Table 4. Precision (% error) of estimates of the mass of leaf litter collected in the early, intermediate and late successional stages in Santa Rosa,
and the precision (% error) of estimates of leaf area calculated from the leaf litter for the three stages.
Collection Early stage Intermediate stage Late stage
Mass of leaf litter Leaf area Mass of leaf litter Leaf area Mass of leaf litter Leaf area
(% error) (% error) (% error) (% error) (% error) (% error)
1 34 34 19 40 16 18
2 20 28 20 21 18 22
3 18 21 32 32 16 27
4 21 19 10 18 14 16
5 39 38 19 29 11 12
Overall 13 12 12 17 8 12
Table 5. Plant area index (PAI) from the LAI-2000 measurements, percent woody area index (WAI) where WAI = 0.40 ± 0.27 for the early stage,
1.07 ± 0.43 for the intermediate stage and 0.40 ± 0.14 for the late stage, corresponding percent leaf contribution (%LAI), effective leaf area esti-
mates from the LAI-2000 (LAI e), leaf area index from the litter traps (LAITrap) and percent underestimation of leaf area by the LAI-2000. All PAI
and LAI e estimates have an uncertainty of ± 0.11 which include errors in the measurements (0.1) and error propagation in the calculations (0.01).
The best relationship between LAITrap(y) and LAIe from the early stage has many gaps in the canopy compared with the in-
LAI-2000(x) was in the late stage (y = 3.42x – 4.58, r 2 = 0.92, termediate and late stages. Compared with the other stages, the
F = 45.19, P < 0.05, five sample times) followed by the early late stage is a more uniform closed canopy, with species that
(y = 1.84x – 1.08, r 2 = 0.82, F = 13.71, P < 0.05, six sample are well known and relatively easy to identify. Also, the litter
times) and intermediate stages (y = 1.79x – 0.698, r 2 = 0.76, in the late stage plots was less decomposed and therefore eas-
F = 9.66, P = 0.05, five sample times). When all sample points ier to identify, whereas in the early and intermediate stages, the
from the three stages are combined, the relationship is y = litter material was torn or fragmented by wind or was partially
2.12x – 1.55 (r 2 = 0.78, F = 49.75, P < 0.05, 16 sample times). decomposed. In the early stage plots, there was a high wind
factor and an increased drought effect because of the open can-
Seasonal LAI opy. In the intermediate stage, when the leaves fell, they some-
By using the above relationships, LAI e was converted to LAI times became trapped in a mass of lianas and branches and so
for each of the eight LAI-2000 data collections. Seasonal vari- were in poor condition when they finally reached the ground,
ation in LAI for the three stages is illustrated in Figure 6. The resulting in more material from the intermediate stage being
data were fitted to a third-order polynomial to illustrate graph- classified as unknown.
ically the seasonality of LAI. Solving for the derivative of the In the late stage, the high proportion of liana foliage in the
polynomial functions gave the months where LAI was at its fourth collection (Figure 2) indicates that this stage has a
minimum and maximum. Seasonal variation in LAI differed closed and uniform canopy that protects the crowns from the
among the three stages (Figure 6): the minima for the three desiccating effects of wind until February, when soil water de-
stages were mid-February, mid-March and the beginning of clined and the canopy became more open to the wind. Once the
March, respectively, whereas maximum LAI values were canopy lost about 30% of total leaf biomass, the lianas began
reached during the beginning of November for the early stage, to lose their leaves. Because of the drought and wind, the ma-
the end of November for the intermediate stage and mid-No- jority of the lianas in the late stage plots lost the greatest pro-
vember for the late stage. portion of their leaf biomass during the driest time of the year,
rather than losing leaf biomass in smaller proportions at a
more constant rate from the rainy season to the climax of the
Discussion dry season. Contrary to past research, Andrade et al. (2005)
Greater leaf biomass was collected in the intermediate stage found that, in Panama, as the dry season progresses, lianas tap
than in the early or late stage (Table 2), a difference attribut- into progressively deeper water sources—a pattern not ob-
able to the pioneer species and lianas that dominate this sec- served in large trees. Lianas have been shown to have deeper
ondary successional stage. The late stage is dominated by root systems than the surrounding trees (Jackson et al. 1995).
shade-tolerant species, some of which do not lose leaves. The Andrade et al. (2005) suggest that the architecture of the lianas
enhances their stem water storage capacity relative to their ca- November collection, more leaves were collected in Novem-
pacity for transpiration. These observations provide a plausi- ber.
ble explanation for the leaf retention pattern that we observed The leaf fall pattern in the intermediate stage differs tempo-
in this study. rally from the early and late stages (Figure 3). In the early
The late successional stage is the most uniform in canopy stage, the canopy is open and exposed to wind. In addition, the
architecture. The early and the intermediate stages are hetero- root systems of trees in the early stage are often shallower than
geneous in comparison; the early stage because of the numer- those of the semi-evergreen species of the late stage, and there-
ous gaps in the canopy and the intermediate stage because of fore experience a faster loss of soil water than trees in the other
the increased woody matter from the lianas. This heterogene- stages (Sobrado 1991). The majority of the vegetation in the
ity is partially responsible for the weak relationships between early stage is from the pioneer guild, together with a few spe-
the PAI and LAITrap estimates in the early and intermediate cies from the intermediate guild; as a result, the majority of the
stages. foliage is lost early in the transition season. In the late stage,
The predominance of foliage in the litter collected in the lit- there is a mix of vegetation from both the intermediate and
ter traps in this study (Table 2) is similar to the results of other shade-tolerant guilds. There was less disparity in the amount
studies (Morellato 1992, Scott et al. 1992, Muoghalu et al. of foliage collected by the individual traps during this stage,
1993, Haase et al. 1999, Sundarapandian and Swamy 1999). indicating a more homogeneous canopy. In the intermediate
The total litter fall in this study (3.0–4.75 Mg ha –1 year –1) is stage, the percent of foliage lost increased with each collec-
consistent with values reported in other T-dfs but lower than tion. The variability expressed by the different stages reflects
values reported for wetter forests (Table 6). differences in species’ composition and microclimate (Bull-
The variation in litter fall observed is expected because dif- ock and Solís-Magallanes 1990).
ferences in species composition, successional stage and micro- The uncertainty in the estimation of leaf mass and leaf area
climate greatly affect litter fall patterns (Sundarapandian and was higher for the early and intermediate stages than for the
Swamy 1999). Although most studies report a significant peak late stage in the transition season. One way to reduce the un-
in leaf fall during the dry season, in certain areas, a smaller certainty is to increase the number of traps or to increase the
peak in litter fall has been noted at the end of the wet season size of the traps. Both solutions are time consuming, however,
(Proctor et al. 1983, Muoghalu et al. 1993) and is attributed to and it is doubtful if the increased effort would significantly re-
wind, heavy rain and periodicity of leaf fall following environ- duce the uncertainty. Nevertheless, we consider the results ac-
mental parameters. We observed a similar small second peak ceptable for our objectives and useful for understanding the
at the end of the wet season for the early and intermediate seasonal variation of LAI in three stages of T-df regeneration.
stages (Figure 3). This peak in litter fall in the wet season may Specific leaf area has been used extensively to calculate to-
be related to a short period of water stress just before the onset tal leaf area from litter traps (Neumann et al. 1989, Chason et
of the wet season. Although more species were represented in al. 1991, Maass et al. 1995, Bouriaud et al. 2003). Few studies,
the December collection for both stages compared with the however, have documented the relationship between LAI from
the SLA of leaf litter and optical estimates of LAI. In the stud- year, the intermediate stage phenological cycle was indistin-
ies where such a relationship is reported, unless the study site guishable from either the early or the late stage. This asynch-
is dominated by a single species (e.g., Bouriaud et al. 2003), ronicity in LAI could have important implications at the
Waring and Dr. Stephan Schnitzer for comments and suggestions on Fernandes, R.F., F. Butson, S.G. Leblanc and R. Latifovic. 2003.
an earlier version of the manuscript. Landsat-5 TM and Landsat 7 ETM+ based accuracy assessment of
leaf area index products for Canada derived from SPOT-4 VEGE-
TATION data. Can. J. Remote Sens. 29:241–258.
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Appendix 1
Table A1. Specific leaf area for 63 plant species from Santa Rosa National Park. Abbreviations: SLA = specific leaf area; and CV = coefficient of
variation.
Table A1 Cont’d. Specific leaf area for 63 plant species from Santa Rosa National Park. Abbreviations: SLA = specific leaf area; and CV = coeffi-
cient of variation.