Music History Objectives:

- Recognizing musical eras through style characteristics

- Bringing abstract music into focus through understanding the historical context and idealogical
background behind the musical experience
- Watching the effect of the fall on music as man grows further alienated from God
- Tracing the relationship between the printed page and the musical performance
- Developing a sensitivity towards the quality of a piece of music through listening to good music
- Learning basic music history terminology
- Understanding where the music came from that we use in church
- Analyzing the structure of pieces to understand compositional techniques

Lecture topics:
Week 1# Where did music come from? through organums
Week 2# Notre Dame masters through Dufay
Week 3# Ockeghem through the madrigalists (music listening test)
Week 4# Lassus through the Reformation
Week 5# Gabrielis through beginning of opera
Week 6# Musical dialects in opera, Church music (music listening test)
Week 7# Affections Theory, Sinfonia, Sonata, Concerto
Week 8# Bach
Week 9# Midterm
Week 10# Bach (music listening test)
Week 11# Handel through Scarlatti
Week 12# transition, beginning of Haydn
Week 13# Haydn, String quartet (music listening test)
Week 14# Mozart
Week 15# PRISM Seminar
Week 16# End of Mozart and Haydn Symphonies
Week 17# Beethoven (music listening test)
Week 18# Final

Assignments:
- One class presentation ten minutes in length on a piece of music that the student will perform
individually or with a group at the end of the presentation. The student will be graded on the length and
quality of their presentation as well as their performance. 60 points (more information in Appendix 2)
- 20 hours of music listening. (approx.1 hour and 15 minutes a week) I will ask for your music listening
time every week. The goal is not only to get the time in little by little, but also to train your ears to hear
the different style characteristics, timbres, and compositional techniques. 300 points
- On music listening tests, identify a minimum of ten works to be able to take the final exam. Extra
points will count as extra credit toward your overall grade in the class. There will be five tests with five
works each. Listening tests cannot be made up. 100 points

 - Quizzes will be over the terms mentioned in the previous class time on days with no music listening
test. Quizzes cannot be made up. 140 points

Midterm and Final Exam: Listening to clips of music and recognizing the era they were written in
and being able to name at least three characteristics of the era. Defining musical terms. Being able to
place composers in a time line or era. Recognizing forms connected to different musical genres. 400
points

 OVERVIEW
Ancient Music
Greeks, modes, dichotomy of music (good and evil) , and ancient Israel, psalm singing
Characteristics: Heterophony

The Middle Ages (400 AD - 1400 AD)

Octaves, perfect fourths and fifths, dominance of vocal music, the relationship of syllables to
notes, notation, Gregorian chants, the Mass, szekvencias, psalm singing, minstrels, Minnesingers,
Troubadours, Ars Nova, Machaut, Landini, Crusades, Frottola, thirds in England
Characteristics: Gregorian chants, music dominated by the church, complicated rhythms

The Renaissance (1400 - 1600)

Sacred vs. secular, chords, dominance of singing, the advent of the choral, and psalm singing in the
vernacular, Guillaume Dufay, Ockeghem, Joaquin Des Pres, Thomas Tallis, Palestrina, Roland de
Lassus,, William Byrd, St. Marks, madrigals, the Dutch tradition (Willaert) and the Italian
(Gesualdo), chromaticism, dance music and the advent of purely instrumental music
Characteristics: counterpoint, beautiful melodic lines, word picture painting in madrigals,

The Baroque era (1600 - 1750)

Seven chords, Opera, Monteverdi, the invention of the recitativo and aria, basso continuo, the early
generation and second wave, Handel, Bach, Vivaldi, the Lutheran tradition of worship and pietism,
the suit, Scarlatti, cantata, oratorio, concerto, sonata da chiasa, sonata da kamara, the affections
theory
Characteristics: counterpoint, rise of instrumental music, dance music, the affections theory

The Classical Era (1750 - 1830)

Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, (growing antipathy between composer and performer) symphony,
sonata, string quartet, concerto, cadenza, the dynamic view, opera, Vienna, shift away from
the church and wealthy people owning musicians
Characteristics: Gallant music punctuated by emotional moments, symmetry, chamber music, the
dynamic theory

The Romantic Era (1830 - 1920)

Schubert, song cycles, major depression, Operas, Verdi, Wagner, the waltz, program music, the
revolutionary romantics, virtuosos, composer and performer gap, Paganini, Chopin, Liszt,
Symphonies, Brahms, Symphonic poems, ballets, national music, the Russian five, the final split
between popular music and serious music, Late Romanticism, Strauss, Mahler,
Characteristics: emotional extremes, mammoth orchestras, miniture solo pieces, nationalism

 The Twentieth Century (1920 - )
Impressionism, Debussy, Ravel, the second Viennese school, Berg, Schönberg, Webern, The
French six, Bartók, Kodály, Ives, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Hindemith,
Messiaen, Lutoslawski, The Twelve-tone scale, Neo-tonalism, Serialism, Aleatory, Minimalism
Characteristics: hopelessness, dissonance, tonalism redefined

4





 IN TRO DUCT I ON

ORIGIN OF MUSIC: Where does music come from?

The Bible
The Bible tells us that in the beginning of the world God already existed from eternity past. At first
glance, we might be tempted to think that the first kind of music might have been Adam speaking
lines of poetry to his newly created wife in Genesis 2:23, but Job 38:7 mentions angels singing at
creation. If music existed before man, we could say that man didn’t create music, but discovered the
already existing rules God had put in place. Like an explorer surveying a new continent, man would
slowly discover the acoustical rules God had built before the foundation of the world.

Israel
From what Scripture tells us, most music during Bible times focused on worship and rites of everyday
life like funerals, weddings, battles, and storytelling. Yahweh instructed Moses to teach people
through a song because they would remember it and pass it down to further generations. The meaning
of the musical notations we find in the Psalms was lost during the Exile. We cannot therefore
definitively answer the question, “What would Psalm singing have sounded like in the temple?” but
we can guess based on the traditions still alive today among Jews.

Survey of the last two thousand years of Western Music

The origin of Western music is uncertain. Scholars believe that the Gregorian chant was the product
of a number of musical styles including Greek, Hebrew, and folk music of other ethnicities. As far as
we know, all of these styles of music were basically one melody played and sung at the same time
with minor variation in each part to accommodate the idiosyncrasies of the instrument. This is called
Heterophony.

Greek influence
The Greeks have influenced Western thought in many areas including philosophy, politics, science,
and literature. Music also has inherited the terms music, melody, and symphony from the Greek
language. Greek music was probably one part sung with various instrumental accompaniments. In
their dramas, they usually had a choir or chorus that sang the refrains. Probably the most important
concept they handed down was that music can empower either the spirit or the body (flesh) and is
therefore a tool to stir up people to evil or good.

 THE MIDDLE AGES

Historians differ on when the Middle Ages began. Some say that the Middle Ages began earlier, when
Constantine in 323 A.D. made Christianity the state religion. Some would say it began when Rome
fell around the middle of the fifth century. The schism between the Eastern and Western Church
occurred in 1054. After the split, Western music went through tremendous changes.

Characteristics of Church Music: Gregorian Chant, Psalms, Hymns, and the Mass
The church dominated all serious music making in the middle ages. Monks sang plain chant (one
part) without accompaniment (A cappella) in Latin, the spiritual language of the day. The chants were
built on six note scales called hexachords that were interlocked with each other. These hexachords
were called church modes. The style of the compositions was based on the Hebrew tradition of
singing and was called the Gregorian chant. Gregory the first was the pope who stamped his name
on the style. He worked to unify liturgical music and started a singing school in Rome named it Scola
Cantorum. Music schools elsewhere developed around monasteries and church centers.

The three main kinds of compositions during this time were Psalms, Hymns, and the much longer
Mass. According to tradition, Ambrosias Aurelius, the bishop of Milan, introduced hymn singing.
Hymns were iambic pentameter verses with simple folk tunes. (Iambic pentameter simply means a
pattern of unstressed and stressed syllables.) Psalms were more closely tied to the Jewish tradition.
Hebrew poetry is usually made up of two thoughts that complete each other. They can be contrasting,
synonyms, or a continuation of thought. The structure of Psalm is Initium, Tenor note, Meditatio,
Initium, Tenor, Terminatio. An important player in Psalm singing was the Praecentor. He led the
congregation by singing the opening lines. When the Praecentor led with a question, the people in the
pews answered. This was called responsive singing. Another mode of singing Psalms was
Antiphonal. Two groups of equal weight answered each other. A third way was simply for everyone
to sing together.

Compositions to be sung at mass were the most serious undertaking a composer could venture. The
main movements of the mass are Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus-Benedictus, and Agnus Dei. Other
movements could be added to or taken out as the occasion required. Syllabic and melismatic
passages balance each other out. Syllabic means one note per syllable, whereas Melismatic means
more than one note per syllable. Movements like the Kyrie have few words and would most likely
have more melismatic passages. Whereas the Credo which had more words would most likely be
syllabic.
For long melismatic passages, people would add words to make them syllabic then add more notes, or
even other parts to the melody. This process of adding words and notes was called Tropisation. A
kind of distinctive song emerged from tropisation called Sequentia. The structure of the Sequentia is
a bb’ cc’ dd’ etc. Sequentias were wildly popular and grew to about 5000 in number. Unlike the
Gregorian style, because of its repetitious form, the sequentia was easier to remember. The church
finally outlawed them in the Council of Trent in the fifteenth century. Today only five Sequentias
exist.

 The Perspective of the Middle Ages in Relation to Music

How did people of the Middles Ages view their music? They viewed music as just one of the kinds of
harmony that God created. Musica Mundana referred to the music of the created universe. Musica
Humana referred to the harmonious human body. Finally, Musica Instrumentalis referred to audible
music made by instruments. They also had a dualistic view of music like the Greeks. They believed
that Christian music should be based on theory to mirror God’s orderliness. They called it Scientia or
science showing its kinship to God’s other creation. The theory of church music was based on
hexachords or church modes. Music of folk origin was considered worldly and called Usus.
At first, there were no ways of notating music, but around the eighth or ninth century the first
Neuma markings emerged. These were signs that gave the general direction of the melody. The
system we know today started with a man named Arezzo Guido. The lines he used to notate music
denoted a distance of a third, but he only used four lines. The f and c cleft and the quadrant rhythm
system are also associated with his name.
Usus of the middle ages started to emerge when knights did not have to fight as much. In the
Medieval world, society was made of three layers: the peasant who farmed the land, the knight who
fought enemies, and the feudal lord who owned the peasant’s land and used the revenue to provide
protection through hiring knights. When invaders lessened after about the 1000, the nobility had the
time and money to enjoy the arts. Music makers included traveling musicians, called Troubadours in
southern France, Trouveres in Northern France, and Minnesingers in central German speaking lands.
They would travel from one court to another, stopping in towns for fairs and were paid by the local
citizens. They would sing of love, heroic acts, or the wonders of nature. The major kinds of songs
were Chansons (love songs), Alba (lovers that must separate at dawns light), Pastorela (love of the
lower social classes), Chanson de gets (long stories recounting noble deeds), and Tenso (an argument
about politics or moral issues, usually a duet).The form of these songs was Ballade, Virelai, Rondeau,
or Sequentia. Troubadours accompanied themselves on lutes, violins, or harps.
Knights, or often the nobility themselves, would write a poem and sing for special occasions.
They wrote about two kinds of love. One was a kind of idealistic love without touching the object of
that love. This was called Hohe meine. The other kind of love song was fairly graphic and was
usually illicit. The church sided with the untouched love because it supported the picture of Mary they
preferred and further enforced celibacy. The Reformers did not agree with this view or the
predicament it lead to among the devout. In real Christian marriages, ideal love and physical love are
not separate entities. Christian love between a man and a woman is not platonic.

The Birth of Parts: Organum

How did part singing begin? We are not sure as there is no record, but probably the first part began
with higher pitched boys voices singing an octave higher than the other priests. This may have cause
stronger overtones that lead to men singing the fifth or the fourth above the original pitch. The first
Organums which emerged about the eleventh century may simply have been a single part moving
parallel to the Gregorian melody. The word Organum was derived from the Greek word for organ.
The one interval that composers avoided was the tritone, because they believed it was the Devil’s
interval. (With good reason! It sounds bad.)The bottom part of an organum was called the Vox

 Principalis or later the Cantus because it was derived from the original Gregorian melody. The
composed top part was called the Vox Organalis or Duplum.
Three kinds of Organums emerged: the parallel, the free style, and the melismatic. The Parallel
Organum was simply a parallel part that moved with the melody line. The Free Style Organum could
move parallel or in an opposite direction. The composer made sure that the important notes or endings
were always primes, fourths, fifths, or octaves because they thought thirds were dissonant. The
Melismatic Organum had a slow moving bottom line, called the tenor, from the word to hold: tenere.
The Vox Organalis would sing melismatic passages, while the tenor would hold the note. A final form
was the Discantus, a part that moved opposite of the cantus as counter point or note against note.
The first centre of part singing was Notre Dame school in Paris. The first composers whom we
know be name are Leoninus (Leonin) and Perotinus (Perotin). Leoninus worked in the cathedral
school between 1163 and 1190. His works were preserved in a book called Magnus Liber Organi (The
Great Book of Organums). His specialty was for writing two part Organums. Perotinus worked in the
school between 1165 -1200. He wrote three and four part organum. He called the four parts
quadruplum, triplum, duplum, and tenor respectively. These parts could cross or overlap and could
vary from each other in rhythm.

Conductus, Motet, and Canon

Two new kinds of musical forms were the Conductus and the Motet. The Conductus (related to the
word Conductor) was the music that the priest walked down the aisle to. It was unique because it was
not based on the mass text or on a Gregorian chant melody. The conductus gave space to the
composer to write whatever he pleased. The Motet (from the word ‘mo’, which literally means ‘word’
in French) originally came from Clausulas. Clausulas were parts of already existing, multi-part
compositions written in the discantus form that could be switched with other parts of the same piece.
Eventually they gained a life of their own. The primary Discantus part would be assigned new words
and be renamed the Motetus. If there were other parts, they would also receive different words even
in a different language. Motets became popular all over Europe. They were used in secular settings as
well as in church.
The notation system for rhythm was not very advanced at this point, was forced to develop to
meet the needs of a growing practice. There were Menzuras or measures that showed how time was
divided in a piece. There were two kinds of notes Longa and Brevis, long and short. Depending on
the menzuras, the length of a short or long note could vary. Perfecta timing was three because it
represented the Holy Trinity. Four or two beats in a measure was considered Imperfecta.
Another musical form that came into being around this time was the round or canon. In a canon
the melody itself serves as its own discantus. The English canon, “Summer is a Cumin In” is the first
known canon. Unlike continental Europe, the English loved to use thirds.

Ars Antiqua and Ars Nova

The next generation of composers used the derogatory term of Ars Antiqua to describe the
compositional style of the twelfth century. In contrast, they thought of themselves as Ars Nova or
new art. The Ars Nova period lasted from around 1320 to about 1380.

 As the Crusades had swept many in Europe to the Holy Land, it also brought back memories of the
Greek and Roman culture from which Europe originated. This rebirth of interest in the past caused a
new wave of artists, poets, and scholars to rejuvenate the intellectual world. This movement was
called the Renaissance. Music did not enter this period of rebirth until the fifteenth century, but
Guillaume de Machaut the greatest composer of the Ars Nova era showed many telltale signs of
dawning change.
One of these changes is the very fact that we know his name. Unlike previous composers who
claimed God’s glory to be the sole end of composing, Machaut did not even pretend to hide from the
spotlight of fame. Machaut was a Frenchmen born around 1300. He worked as a secretary for John of
Luxembourg while in Paris. His final job was as the Canon of the Rheims cathedral. Machaut was not
afraid to write secular works as well as sacred. He published secular motets, ballades, rondos, and
virelais.
Machaut was also the first composer to compose a complete mass in four parts. This does not
mean that previous composers did not write whole masses, but rather that Machaut had a unifying
theme that tied the movements together. Another important composing technique of the Ars Nova was
hoquetus (hiccup). This means that a particular note, idea, or short phrase would be passed from one
part to another.
Philippe de Vitry was another composer of this time period. Although only a few of his works
remain, we get an intriguing glance into a special kind of motet he composed called the Isometric
motet. A series of notes called the Color are sung to a rhythm called the Talea that is shorter than the
note series. The rhythm keeps being repeated until the the rhythm and original notes meet at the
lowest common multiple. This melody game goes on in the tenor while the other parts weave around
it.
The Ars Nova also brought an innovation in the notation of rhythm. A number of smaller
rhythmical notations completed the composer’s arsenal. The use of time signatures and bar lines
started to grow as composers used more time signatures with two or multiples thereof. Time
signatures included Perfect and Imperfect, Tempus, and Prolatcio. The composers also used
multiple colors in their music to distinguish parts. This technique was called Coloring. Because the
meter was better defined, composers could use syncopation. Because of the complex nature of
musical change, the composers had to be the elite.
As France experienced the throws of the Ars Nova, a movement of secular music was advancing
in Italy called Trecento, which literally means 300. As the Renassaince started to show its first fruits
in poetry (Petrarch and Boccaccio) and painting (Giotto), the royal courts enjoyed a fresh style of
music. Three new forms of music emerged: the Madrigal, the Caccia, and the Ballata. The Madrigal
was nothing like the madrigal of the fifteenth century. It was a poem written in the vernacular with a
refrain sung by a man with a vocal or instrument accompaniment. The Caccia (literally hunt) was a
song describing a hunt, a busy market, or a battle. The top two parts were a canon. The third part,
usually an accompanying instrument, acted as a supporting bass part. The Ballata was a strophic (all
stanzas sung to the same music) dance song based off the French model.
The greatest composer of this era was Francesco Landini. He was born around 1325 and died in
1397. He worked as organist at the San Lorenzo cathedral in Florence despite being blind. He coined
a cadence called the Landini Cadence that used the submediant to lead to tonic. He liked to compose
Ballatas. The Trecento style in general had more thirds, and started to have function tendencies. The
musical form is clearer and has more definite cadence points. The Italians describe this music as
Dolce il novo(sweet).

 THE RENAISSANCE
Between the fourteenth and fifteenth century, in contrast to continental Europe, English music was
more heavily influenced by thirds and had clearer tonal functions. The faux bourdon (false bass)
technique was a third and a sixth added to the melody creating first inversion chords. This emphasis
on thirds and sixth would be an important element in the development of Renaissance music.

Dunstable and Dufay

John Dunstable (1380-1450) was a leading composer who pioneered a number of important
compositional techniques that made for more coherence between the mass movements.

(1) The Tenor Mass technique. The composer has the tenor sing a preexisting melody (otherwise
known as the Cantus Firmus) in every movement. Many composers from the Renaissance
favored the Cantus Firmus or tenor mass form.
(2) The Motto technique. One melody or motto was sung at the beginning of each movement.
(3) Dunstable’s use of duet and tutti passages made the overall form of the piece clearer. The duet
parts were more elaborate, and the tutti parts were simpler.

Dunstable and a Frenchman named Guillaume Dufay (1400-1474) worked together in the court of
the prince of Bedford. Dufay is credited with taking many English compositional techniques across
the channel into continental Europe. He added a part below the tenor called the tenor bass. He was
also the first composer to use a worldly chaconne as the cantus firmus. Another popular song among
composers to use as cantus firmus was the L’homme armé french drinking song. Church music as
well as the church itself was in spiritual decline.

Ockeghem, Italian Composers, and Josquin de Prez

The next important composer was Ockeghem (he died twenty years after Dufay) who was from the
German plains. His music was truly polyphonic. Polyphonic means that each part is equal to each
other and is a melodic line in itself. The parts can imitate each other, drop out or come back in. The
overall emphasis is in the linear melodic line of each individual part. Homophonic in contrast is a
single melody that the other parts support vertically. Ockeghem music was well thought out; each
part was truly equal and at the same time the overall form of his pieces is breathtakingly balanced.
His output was quite small compared to other composers, but each work was polished to perfection.
One of the kinds of pieces he liked to compose was motets. The motet had taken on new dimensions
since its birth during the Ars Nova period. It simply encompassed any kind of religious multiple part,
vocal piece that was not a mass.
At the same time, Italian secular composers Bartolo Tromboncino and Marchetto Cara were
writing music in a very different style called Frottola. Meaning literally light or froth, these vocal
works though multi voice were strongly homophonic and emphasized the text. Most were an abba
rhyme scheme with a reprise. (1470-1530)

10

 Ockeghem’s greatest pupil was Josquin des Prez (1450-1521). Josquin started his studies with
the Flemish contrapuntal style and later traveled to Rome and Milan where he absorbed the
homophonic singing melodies of popular music. Josquin was able to fuse the two into multiple well
formed melodic lines going at the same time. He also used short melodic phrases or ideas which were
thrown around from part to part. He also wrote solmization masses, where the main melody line was
drawn from the initials of a name. An example would be Hercules Dux Ferrarie (one of Josquin’s
employers) put into solmization was Re–Ut–Re–Ut–Re–Fa–Mi–Re or in letter names D–C–D–C–D–
F–E–D. Joaquin wrote a mass using this as his main melodic idea. Another clever mass writing style
he employed was making each part a mensuration or fifth canon, otherwise known as canonic
masses. Josquin also wrote motets, chansons, and frottolas.
Printing music was just invented around the time Joaquin reached his composing zenith. His
works went far and wide over Europe and his memory was preserved through the beginning of the
Baroque era.

Instrumental Music
During the1530’s and 40’s, instrumental music started to gain momentum. As dance music became
popular, instrumentalist multiplied and became professional. Because vocal music had dominated the
scene for a millennium, instrumentalist would have to make big strides to catch up, but that is exactly
what happened. In Northern Europe, people preferred keyboard instruments whereas in the South they
preferred the lute. There were also consorts or families of instruments like the viol or string consort.
Sometimes different consorts played together. The first notations strictly for instrumentalist were the
Tabulatura, which showed the hand position of the lutist instead of the pitch of the notes.
Instrumentalist aspired to conquer vocal music. When they transposed vocal works(called
Intavolacio), it was by no means note for note, but rather a melody frame adapted to fit the given
instruments idiosyncrasies.
Pieces written for multiple voices were reduced to the lute accompanying a soloist. The lute
played the harmony in a pattern typical to the instrument while the vocalist was free to decorate his
part. The organ could also improvise on known congregational songs. Ricercar, fantasia, canzona
were polyphonic works for instruments imitating vocal polyphony. Preludiums, intonacios, toccatas,
and praembulum were shorter introductions to longer pieces. The instrumentalist was given a chance
to show off his virtuosity with fast passages and techniques unique to his instrument.
A music form that instrumentalists dominated was dance music. Usually one melody or chord
progression was repeated throughout the dance, giving the instrumentalist plenty of opportunities to
add variations. A slow even dance like the Allemande was usually followed by a fast Courante in
three with the same chord progressions and a similar melody making one the variation of the other.

Regionally Dialectical Music

Different regions of Europe produced different dialects of music. Paris was the centre of the
Chanson, a mimicking, illustrative song. Jannequin was the leading composer of this dialect. In
German speaking areas the Tenor Lied or song was perfected by guilds and was used primarily in
church settings. Brittain’s specialty is their choirs. There is a saying that English grass is beautiful
because they have been cutting it for five hundred years. Their composers and performers were

11

 excellent. Three big names in composing were John Tavener, Thomas Tallis, and William Byrd.
With changes in the state religion, composers were called on to write services instead of masses.
English vocal works had vocal parts that were melodic in themselves, full sounding together without
using a lot of imitation.
Italian music was starting to point towards to the baroque era. As frottolas had already pointed the
way, the gist of secular vocal music was to paint the text. This was called Madrigalism. Two of the
earliest composers of madrigals were not Italians but Flemish, Jacob Arcadelt and Adrian Willaert.
These composers focused more on making the words understandable than on the overall from of the
piece. The mood of the piece can also change to fit the flow of thought. Composers developed a
language of musical idioms to communicate or symbolize certain ideas to the audience. One such
device was chromaticism. Composers used this device to symbolize uncertainty and fear. Cipriano
de Rore, Don Carlo, and Gesualdo de Venosa were the three Italians that perfected this style.
Gesualdo especially was an interesting character. Supposedly, one night he caught his wife cheating
on him with another man and killed them both.

Lasso and Palestrina

A composer of church music who used some of these same techniques to depict the uncertainties of
the future was Orlando di Lasso (1532-1594). He was a prolific writer who was at home with many
styles including German, French, and Italian music. He felt no scruples in writing secular as well as
sacred music.
The madrigalists were the opposite of the well ordered, balanced sound of the Renaissance. What
was the change in thinking that brought about the divide? One kind of music was focused on man and
his feelings whereas the music of the church was focused on the arts perfecta (perfect art)
representing the glories of an unchanging, sovereign God. Palestrina(1525-1594) was a champion of
this kind of church music. As a young man he wrote madrigals, but felt ashamed of them later
because of their worldly nature. Instead he perfected the art of writing masses and motets and other
church related a cappella vocal music. In his day, many looked up to him as a standard of quality
composing.

Palestrina’s harmonious style had five components.

(1) Intonation. Palestrina purposefully wrote things that could be sung in tune. An example would be
he never wrote a jump larger than a minor sixth upwards other than an octave and nothing larger
than a fifth downwards.
(2) Melodic momentum. Palestrina knew how to write a melody that was going somewhere within a
certain balanced system. If the melody jumped, it would then walk in the opposite direction.
(3) Consonance. The sum sound of all the parts moving together was consonance. To make the sound
varied and interesting, Palestrina threw in dissonance of three kinds: passing tones(dissonance on
weak beats), suspensions (dis. on strong beats), and Cambiata.
(4) Rhythm. Palestrina was very careful to not put dotted rhythms next to each other and still have a
building momentum with balance.
(5) Continuous weave. Like a piece of fine woven linen, Palestrina created the parts in such a way
that when one was resting the next would take up the theme or melody. This made for seamless
music except for rare moments when all the parts declare a line together.

12

 In summary, the four greatest composers at the end of the Renaissance were Palestrina, Lassus
(French), Victoria (Spanish), and Byrd (English). Victoria had a similar style to Palestrina and
worked in Spain.

The Reformation
At the time of the Reformation, Luther and others were calling for a change in the church. The
Council of Trent (1545-1563) met to discuss reforms. Instead of ruling in favor of Luther, they chose
Palestrina as their standard of what they thought church music should be. This turned out to be a
mistake because most common people could not remember the long complicated melodies they heard
in mass. Luther chose short, memorable tunes to teach his doctrines in the vernacular. This may have
been one of the greatest factors in his success in reaching much of Germany. Whereas few could read,
everyone could carry a hymn tune around in their pocket to sing when they were working in the
fields. One of the frustrated church leaders of the time is quoted to have said, “We can burn his books,
but the people keep singing his songs.” Because Luther’s hymn were aimed at getting the whole
church congregation singing, they were limited in their note range and rhythm. In the future they
would make sturdy building blocks for some of the most profound pieces of music man has written.
At this time Frenchman John Calvin was preaching similar reforms in Geneva Switzerland. He
also encouraged singing in the vernacular, but only the Psalms. Accordingly, a couple of poets and
musicians created a metricized version of the Psalms set to newly written tunes. Their compiled work
was called the Geneva Psalter.

Venetian Experiment
In Venice, the Gabrieli family were experimenting with the acoustics of St. Mark’s cathedral. The
uncle Andrea, and the nephew Giovanni imitated the Palestrina style, but placed groups of singers and
instrumentalists at different points in the cathedral to create dynamic effects. The groups would join
on the same chord to help insure intonation stability. The high and low, loud and quiet, distant and
close were contrasted with each other. The term Concerto started to be used in German and Italian
lands around this time. It meant multiple instrument groups working together. When written in a
score, it denoted the fact that more instruments should join. The musicians were therefore divided into
the soloist and tutti players. This term would make its way from its original sacred setting to become
a secular musical term denoting two groups competing with each other. Another important musical
term that was born in Venice was the Sonata. It originally meant simply a piece written for
instruments (not vocal).

13

 THE BAROQUE ERA

In the 1600 and 1700’s, composers were rebelling against the standard set by Palestrina. They used
what they knew of Greek music tradition as an excuse. They believed Greek music was homophonic,
used chromatic elements, and was more expressive. They found the high church music to be too
theoretical for practical purposes. Their solution was to build their music on what they knew of the
Greeks.
The Camerata Firenze was established to produce musical dramas based on the Greek pattern.
The Camerata included aristocrats, writers, and musicians. Peri and Caccini wrote the first Drama
per Musica around 1598, but sadly it was lost. One problem they faced was how to write music that
used enough words to make the story intelligible, but didn’t bore the audience. The solution was
Recitativos. The singer would sing many syllables on a few notes as if talking. The recitativo was
rubato in rhythm. In contrast the ritornelli, where the choir joined, were highly metrical. To balance
the recitativos, the composer could write arias (strophic songs with refrains).

Opera
Claudio Monteverdi wrote the first surviving opera titled Orfeo (1607). The story was taken from
Greek mythology about a flutist who could tame wild animals with his playing. He loses his bride to
death and goes to the underworld to reclaim her. Monteverdi used ideas from Dante’s Divine Comedy
like the the words, “Abandon hope all ye who enter here!” written above the gate of hell.
The sheet music the musicians played out of to accompany the singers was just a skeleton of
information: the bass line with numbers above it indicating the inversions (figured bass) and the
singers’ melodic line. With but a few exception this shorthand was all that the composer supplied to
the instrumentalist. Instrumentalists of the day were so fluent in this musical language that they made
up their own melody and harmony and were able to adjust to a bigger or smaller instrument ensemble.
Basso Continuo is the term referring to the continuous bass line that acted as the main support of the
harmony. Different instruments played the part depending on the mood or dynamic level required.
Either the harpsichord or organ would play with the lute or harp. Sometimes a bassoon or cello would
join the ensemble. This time period also produced well trained singers who could add tasteful
ornaments to underline the emotion of the given piece.
Monteverdi coined certain musical sounds to symbolize certain ideas. For instance, he used the
trombone and the Regal organ to symbolize the underworld or hell. Mozart used trombones to signify
the spiritual world in the Magic flute in Sarastro’s aria and a composer as late as Ravel used
trombones to depict the catacombs in his orchestration of “Pictures at an Exhibition” by Mussorgsky.
An important moment in the opera is when Orfeo tried to convince Caron, the lord of the
underworld, to take him across the river to the land of the dead. To impress Caron, Orfeo sings his
most virtuosic song with different concerto instruments accompanying. At this point in the score,
Monteverdi chose to write out all of the parts including the ornaments for the singer. It gives us a
window into just how much the instrumentalist and singers were adding to the bare bones of the sheet
music.
In 1637, the first opera houses opened in Venice. After that, opera house started popping up all
over Italy. Performances became a social event for the aristocrats and a spectacle for the common

14

 people. Another important opera, The Coronation of Poppea was written in 1642 and Monteverdi died
in 1643.

Musical Dialects in Opera

Opera houses started to spring up around Europe catering to regional tastes. The French preferred a
more thoughtful, elegant, and sophisticated drama production. They also liked dance movements
thrown in among the singing. Two of the French opera’s most important contributions were the
Overture and the recitativo accompagnato. The French overture began with a grave section that was
full of dotted rhythms and had heavy beats. It continued with a lighter, livelier section that was
followed again by a slower section and so forth. Generally overtures only had three sections, but could
have as many as five. Jean-Baptiste Lully was the first composer to write a recitativo that used the
whole orchestra to accompany the singer, hence recitativo accompanyato. Up to then composers had
written recitativos with only the basso continuo accompanying (secco recitativo). Lully died of
gangrene from an accidental leg injury self inflicted while conducting a performance.
The English liked plays instead of operas. Operas were usually songs inserted into plays to keep
the interest of the crowd. Henry Purcell (1659-1695) wrote a complete opera Dido and Aeneas that
was quite a bit shorter than the continental operas. When in the story, Dido sings a farewell to her
lover, her accompaniment is a Basso Ostinato. This term refers to a repeating bass line.
Meanwhile in Naples (Italy), Alexandro Scarlatti became a leading figure in Opera composition.
He invented the sinfonia which rivaled the French overture. Instead of beginning slowly, the sinfonia
started with lively tempo and had a middle section that was slow before returning to the fast initial
tempo. This was the forefather of the symphony. The Italians liked strong emotional music and to
meet this expectation, Scarlatti started to use a broader spectrum of chords including Neapolitan
sixth that he invented expressly for the Napoli’s operas.
The Napoli opera also produced an extremely important concept of the recitativos being the
action and the arias the emotional reaction to the action. The arias became three part: statement A,
statement B (either a superlative of the first statement or a contrast), and then statement A again. This
was called the Da Capo Aria. The composer would not write out the whole score, but simply put Da
Capo or back to the beginning until the Da Capo sign at the end of the B section. The singers took the
opportunity of the recapitulation of the A section to show off their ornamentation abilities. The singers
liked to show off and the audience liked the show. Therefore the composers were constrained to write
simple arias so that the singers could have ample opportunity to show off. Composers of this era also
invented the aria quartet. From Palermo, the Siciliano (a 6/8 lullaby with dotted rhythm) made its
way into the main stream. Another Italian composer Giovanni Baptista Pergolesi invented the
Intermezzo or short comic opera that was the comic relief between opera acts. This would be the
pattern of later Viennese classical era operas.

Church Music
Meanwhile in Germany, the Reformation had brought a different direction to the church music.
Luther believed in the priesthood of every believer and wanted everyone to participate in
congregational worship. Germany had previously suffered from being on the edge of the cultural

15

 world and now felt even more isolated during the Thirty Years War. Germany followed the Italian
tradition, but combined different elements to create truly valuable church music. The four great
composers of the early baroque era were Praetorious, Schutz, Shein, and Scheidt. This period was
characterized by the modes, a mixture of major and minor. Church musicians were professionals who
led the congregation in worship.
One such composer Heinrich Schütz (1585-1672) went to Italy and learned composing tricks of
the trade. He wrote madrigals that were better than Gesualdo. He used this skill to depict images in
his writing(walking, sleeping, etc.) He was enthralled with Gabrieli’s use of antiphonal choirs and
concerto instruments. He learned how to use large groups to create a colorful sound (David’s Psalms).
On another trip to Italy, Schütz encountered Monteverdi’s music. Schütz learned how to make an
intense sound that depicted deeply personal emotions. After the Thirty Years War, Schütz was forced
to use a small group of musicians. He could make a concerto with a small group of four or even as
few as two people and still create an intense personal sound. In his later years, Schütz was able to
synthesize the intense sound of a small group with the colorful sound of a large group. A good
example would be his work Saulus-Paulus, recounting Paul’s vision of Christ on the road to
Damascus.

The Doctrine of Affections

Baroque era music was built on the Affections Theory (Doctrine of Affections). Stemming from
the philosophy of the day, composers aimed to paint a single nameable emotion in every work or
movement of a work. In practice this means that one emotion will dominate the music until a new
impulse comes from the outside. That is why generally speaking in instrumental music, you have one
tempo marking and rhythm family in one movement. This kind of music psychology comes out even
more distinctly in the opera. The recitativo is the action that generates an emotion that is displayed in
the aria. After the aria a newer action in the form of another recitativo brings yet another impulse and
another emotional response and so forth.

Instrumental Music: Sinfonia, Sonata, and Concerto

The Baroque period was the time of the instrumentalist. Great instrument makers like Stradivari and
Amati made masterpieces that inspired musicians to new heights. Instrumentalists also improved their
social standing not only by working in cathedrals but also being employed by aristocrats across
Europe. The music of the church started to spill over into the non-church music of the upper circles of
society. The three purely instrumental musical forms that dominated this era were the Sinfonia, the
Sonata, and the Concerto. The Sinfonia was a one movement piece of 3 to 4 minutes length usually
written for church music purposes. The Sonata did not take on a concrete form until the second half
of the 17th century. The Sonata had two major forms: Sonata de Chiesa (church) and Sonata de
Camera (secular or worldly). The Sonata de Camera was free in form and movement number. They
usually contain dances. The Sonata de Chiesa in contrast usually had four movements: slow, fast,
slow, and fast. The beginning slow, grave movement had lots of dotted rhythms and stepwise motion
in the bass. The second movement usually had a polyphonic texture and two sections. The third
movement usually was in three and had the resemblance of an aria with lots of ornamentation(with
only the outline written in the music). The last movement although not called a dance, had a striking
similarity to a Bourré or Gigue. (Op.3 Corelli - d minor)

16

 Who performed the Sonata?

(1) A single melody playing instrument (violin, cornet, trumpet, oboe, block flute) and the continuo
that was usually played by at least two instruments (organ and lute, cello and harpsichord, etc.).
Even though this kind of sonata was usually played by three people, it was still considered a Duo
Sonata because it had two lines in the music.
(2) Two melody parts and one continuo, called a trio sonata although usually played by at least four
people. In Corelli’s F Major Sonata Opus 5, we can see the flexibility of the parts to meet the
needs of the instrument playing. The violin is accompanied by the organ, lute and cello. It can
also play double stops to create the feeling of multiple parts with one instrument. When the block
flute plays the same thing, only a harpsichord accompanies. The flute must play fast virtuoso
arpeggios in the second movement to make up for the lack of multiple parts. Kuhnau wrote a
Biblical Sonata for solo harpsichord that has six movements. The first movement describes the
story of David and Goliath.

The Concerto form originally came in two varieties: the concerto grosso and the solo concerto. The
concerto grosso, perfected by Corelli, was built on the model of elite musicians leading sections of
the orchestra. The elites would play the whole time while the orchestra would come in and drop out.
The number of movements and the order were not nailed down. The dominating ideas were elegance,
virtuosic elements, spontaneity, and flexibility. Because the harmonic sequence had newly been
discovered, these pieces are filled with them. The concerto grosso form reached its zenith between
1690 and 1710. After that the solo concerto became more popular until the concerto grosso
disappeared altogether. The Solo concerto had a much more concrete form. It was three movement:
fast, slow, fast. The fast movements are built on a Ritornel. The ritornelli come at the beginning, end,
and in the middle in different keys and in varying lengths. Between its appearances, the soloist
improvises with virtuosic elements and changes keys ( the parallel subdominant, the parallel
dominant, the parallel tonic, etc.). The middle movement is usually a simple ABA form.
Italy was the center of concerto writing. Important composers included Vivaldi, Corelli, Tartini,
and Albinoni. Vivaldi’s “Four Seasons” were written to depict four sonnets about the seasons. Each
movement depicts a specific excerpt of the sonnet. He even wrote the words in the score. He worked
in a girls school and was able to train them to play in a more extreme style that fit the demands of his
music.

Bach’s Biography
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) was born into a family of musicians that had served in
Lutheran churches since the Reformation. Beethoven aptly said that Bach should not be called brook
(The meaning of the word “bach”), but sea. Bach said that he had to be industrious and any one
equally industrious would be equally successful. This saying although maybe not quite true does point
to Bach’s work ethic that drove him to write over one thousand pieces in his lifetime. Considered old
fashioned by his peers, Bach perfected the musical forms of previous generations. Music of later eras
grew from the trunk of his music.
Bach is quoted to have said that the aim and final end of all music should be none other than the
glory of God and the refreshment of the soul. Bach’s glorifying of God in music included writing well
ordered and meticulous masterpieces that leave us in awe of the God that he worshiped. His music

17

 gives us a window into his belief system. We see the centrality of congregational worship as well as
an exclusive dependence on the finished work of Christ for eternal salvation of the soul. He came
from a movement common in Germany in that day called Pietism. Pietists were dismayed by the
number of Lutherans that simply adhered to a creed, but had no other signs of regeneration. Pietists
felt that regeneration should change the heart as well as the intellect. They wanted to have a personal
not a mechanical response to the truths of Scripture.
We can divide Bach’s life work into three sections: service as cathedral organist in Weimar, court
composer in Köthen, and church conductor in St. Thomas at Leipzig. At Weimar, Bach wrote mainly
organ works and cantatas. In Köthen, Bach had professional musicians at his beck and call. He wrote
mainly secular works as his employer was a Calvinist and did not believe in the use of instruments in
worship. Finally, in Leipzig, Bach had to insure that four churches had music every Sunday. He also
oversaw a boy’s Latin grammar school. His main reason for moving from Köthen to Leipzig was so
that he could work for the church again.

French and Italian influence

Although Bach never left Saxony in German speaking lands, he learned all he needed to through
studying the manuscripts of Italian and French composers. Although Bach never wrote an opera, he
knew how to use the Neapolitan opera affection theory to his advantage when he wrote his Passions.
He also understood how the French overture and dance music worked. Bach could imitate or Parody
the works of other composers as well as his own style. He would even take an instrument’s idiomatic
expressions and parody it on another instrument.

Church music
Bach’s church works could be fit roughly into these catergories: 1. Passions, the story of Christ’s
suffering according to the Gospels. 2. Cantatas, church concertos. 3. Mass (only one) 4. Organ works
based on chorales including Chorale preludes, fantasies, and partitas. 5. Motets which were used in
devotionals not services (unlike the Renaissance). The building block of Bach’s sacred works was the
choral or congregational song. Even Bach’s most technically challenging and complicated pieces
would musically quote chorales. The average church-goer would thereby be able to understand the
message Bach was trying to convey to his audience.

Fugue
Bach wrote fugues for the organ, violin, clavichord and other instruments. A mono thematic fugue
can have a single melody that is introduced in each voice while a counter melody accompanies. Then
the composer uses his imagination to use that same motif in as many ways possible(inverting it,
slowing it down, speeding it up, etc.). Finally the main theme returns in each part again climaxing to
the ending. Bach was clever enough to write two or even three melody fugues. This form bears closer
resemblance to the Renaissance tradition of the Ricercar. A prelude was usually an introduction to a
longer piece that used virtuosic elements of the given instrument.
To celebrate a tempering(tuning) of the clavier that allowed musicians to play in all key
signatures, Bach wrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all twenty-four major and minor keys. He
called this collection Das Wohltemperierte Klavier (The Well-Tempered Clavier). He also wrote

18

 eighteen Praeludiums, two-part inventions, and three-part inventions for pedagogical purposes. Kunst
der Fuga in a monumental work on the art of fugue writing.

Partita (Suite)
Bach wrote many important works in the form of the suite or partita, a series of dances in slow- fast
paring. Froberger had established a set pattern of four dances that were the basic frame of the suite:
Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, and Gigue. Between the Sarabande and Gigue sometimes they
would add a Minuet. When Bach wrote his partitas for violin, he used this pattern as a guide line. He
wrote six suites for solo cello, a French and an English suite for harpsichord, and four suites for
orchestra.

Sonata and Concerto

Bach wrote trio sonatas in the typical style of two melody instruments with accompaniment. The most
famous would be Musikalisches Opfer, a musical treasure hunt written for the King of Prussia,
Frederick the Great. He also wrote a trio sonata for solo organ. He also wrote sonatas for solo violin.
They are similar to the partitas except they have fugues. Bach wrote six Brandenburg Concertos. II.,
IV., and V. bear a strong resemblance to concerto grosso form. I., III, and VI do not have a soloist
group that rises above the tutti. The V. has the first written out cadence we know of in music history.

Theme and variations

Theme and variations had been around for a long time. Two kinds existed before Bach: the English
folk melody variations, and a figured bass that repeated. The three major works Bach wrote that could
fit in the theme and variation category would be the c-minor Passacaglia, his Chaconne for solo
violin, and the Goldberg Variations. In all three cases, these are bass line variations.
The c-minor Passacaglia was written for organ and is a series of twenty variations with the same
bass line. A Passacaglia starts with a pickup on three and the heavy beat on one. Variations 6 to10
have continuous sixteenth notes. Variations 11 to 15 have the bass in the manuals instead of the pedal.
Variations 16 to 20 brings the bass line back to the pedals. The second half of the piece is a fugue
using the same bass line as the theme. The d-minor Chaconne was written in memory of Bach’s first
wife. It is one of the hardest and best pieces written for violin. A Chaconne starts on the downbeat and
has a heavy second beat. This one is in three sections: a long minor section, a short major section, and
a medium sized section that returns to minor. The Goldberg Variations are based on an aria written by
Bach. He wrote thirty variations with every third one being a canon. The sixteenth is a French
overture cutting the variations in half. At the beginning and end the original aria is played as a frame.

Cantatas
Bach wrote a cantata for every Sunday as an introduction to the preaching. In his lifetime, he
probably wrote more than three hundred. Cantata no. 80 is called the Reformation Cantata as it
uses Luther’s Ein Feste Burg is Unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God) text as its basis. The
first movement depicts the strong fortress with a fugue in the choir sandwiched by the melody in the
low strings and the oboe. In the second movement, a boys choir sings the melody while a soloist sings
a counterpoint with fitting words. The final movement is the third verse of the hymn. The choir sings

19

 the chorale melody in unison with the orchestra accompanying. Bach knew how to use simple
musical devices to paint pictures of the words.

Passions
Although Bach never wrote Operas, he did write two passions. Passions are a retelling of the
sufferings of Christ based on the Gospel accounts. They were used in Good Friday services with a
sermon inserted between the two halves of the piece. The Evangelist narrates the events. Then an
individual will say his lines in recitativos and describe his feelings in an aria. The crowd or choir joins
in group scenes. The average church goer was also included because Bach inserted periodic chorales
that would have been familiar to them. The chorales were intended to cause the congregation to
reflect on correct emotional responses to the action. In this way Bach included both the professional
musicians as well as the congregation. Bach also intended for the audience to draw certain
conclusions on the moral aspects of the choices the characters made that led to the crucifixtion. The
actions of past figures are brought to bear on the moral decisions of the present listener. Of Bach’s
two passions, Saint Matthew’s is more reflective with a stereo or double choir, whereas Saint John’s
has more crowd scenes.

Handel
Like Bach, George Frederick Handel was born in German speaking lands. There the similarities
stop. Handel traveled extensively in Europe and spent his final years in England. Handel wrote his
music to entertain people in this life. A good example would be the Water Music or the Royal
Fireworks. His music is pompous, consonant and highly decorative with clear harmonies. Handel
wrote down much less on sheet music for he knew he could trust his musicians to fill in the gaps
because they were professionals. Handel wrote Sonatas, Concertos, Overtures, Suites, Partitas,
Operas, and Oratorios.
Handel made a living by writing operas and oratorios. The opera business was uncertain at best. A
good run could mean lots of money, a bad run bankruptcy. When Handel moved to England, he wrote
oratorios because people were more religious and he could count on much more certain remuneration.
Really there was not much difference between the two at the time. Both had recitativos, arias, and
chorus movements. Whereas operas focused on secular history, Oratorios retold Bible stories.
Handel’s greatest oratorio was the Messiah. It is a collection of Bible verses focusing on the
person and ministry of the Christ. The Bible verses were compiled by Charles Jennens. The Messiah
was extremely popular in its day, and for each performance, Handel would make slight alterations to
meet the needs of the various performers. For the Baroque composer, he never thought of his work as
being complete, but rather focused on creating good performances.

Telemann
Telemann was another German composer of the era. He was a more prolific writer than Bach and
was given first choice on St.Thomas’s in Leipzig. He turned down the offer and remained friends with
Bach even becoming godfather to one of Bach’s sons. Telemann also wrote cantatas and passions.
Some of his best works are his Parisian quartets.

20

 Scarlatti
Domenico Scarlatti, the son of Alessandro, moved to Spain to work as a composer. He was isolated
from the main stream and experienced the impact of Spanish folklore. His most important
contribution was his one movement keyboard exercises he named sonatas. These bear the imprint of a
more dynamic emotion model than the affection theory. Instead of his sonatas only having one ruling
emotion, he puts in other themes that break the movement into pieces. His most important
contribution was having a secondary theme that came back in the second half of the piece in the tonic
key. This suspense created through the secondary theme with dominant key, resolved at the end would
be a tool many composers would use in the Classical Era.

21



 THE CLASSICAL ERA
Discontent with the Baroque era started as soon as the 1730s. Vivaldi and Telemann started to write in
a different style by the end of their life and by 1770 the Classical Era would be at its zenith. After
Bach’s death, composers fell into three categories: those that still held on to the Baroque era, those
that hated the Baroque era’s complexities (Galant Style), and those that favored a highly emotional
style called Empfindsamer Stil a forerunner to the Romantic era.
The Galant Style had a very limited and narrow vocabulary. It was extremely polite music that
followed a protocol system. It was strictly homophonic. Johann Christian Bach, Bach’s youngest
son, was a follower of this movement and almost all his pieces would fit in this category. He spent
considerable time in Milan before moving to London. He wrote operas and symphonies. His
symphonies followed the pattern of the opera overtures of Milan with a fast slow fast pattern. His E-
flat Major Symphony has three movements: fast, serenade, and minuet. The Serenade was
characteristic of the Galant Style and would take on greater proportions in the hands of Mozart.
The Empfindsamer Stil was the exact opposite of the Galant Style. Emotion was so important that
the composer would be willing to sacrifice the coherence of the piece for its sake. The greatest
composer of this style was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. His c-minor piano concerto shows his
ability to orchestrate and change moods within a short duration. The piano plays throughout the
whole piece. The slow movement is like a recitativo in which the instrument talks without words. The
third movement is a minuet that is still emotional somehow.
Finally, an important orchestra movement was coming to fruition in Mannheim. The Mannheim
Orchestra was led by its concert master, the most famous being Carl Stamitz. There are records
going back as much as a hundred and fifty years previously demonstrate that composers had already
been perfecting the art of crescendoing before the Mannheimers came on the scene. What the
Mannheim Orchestra contributed was a new kind of crescendoing called the Mannheim Crescendo.
They would start with a few instruments and add more and more to create a growing sound. The
Mannheim orchestra also created an ideal of what an orchestra should be like.

The First Viennese School: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven

Haydn
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) was born in a small village in Hungary. Both he and his brother
Michael were sent to a boarding school where they were taught music. When Franz’s voice changed,
he was kept on to help train the younger children. Unfortunately, his sense of humor got him kicked
out. He made a living by playing for wealthy noblemen in serenades for parties and other occasions.
Most street musicians played in groups of three. This kind of three part thinking would dominate
Haydn’s mindset even when he had a 60 person orchestra to write for. Haydn landed a job with the
Esterhazy family which would bring a fairly stable income for a lifetime. His first orchestra was all of
12 people, with two oboes, two horns, and one bassoon plus string parts. When the Eszterhazys
wanted home operas, they were willing to spend money on more musicians for the orchestra which
now numbered 17 to19 in all. There was no perfect number for the orchestras of Vienna’s elite. In
general, orchestras were getting bigger to meet the demands of the audience. In London, Haydn
would meet orchestras of 40 to 60 people.

22

 Haydn was the inventor of the symphony the way we know it. He wrote 104 symphonies over his
lifetime. Unlike our preconceived ideas of symphonies, Haydn’s had 3, 4, or even 5 movements. At
the beginning Haydn’s language of symphony writing was not fixed. The eighth symphony for
example has exactly four movements that are fast, slow, minuet, fast, but this is not typical of the
early period of symphonies. In the first movement, the sonata form is fairly easy to recognize. Notice
that the secondary theme is just a continuation of the primary theme. The second movement has a
number of solos. The third movement is a Landler. The Landler is the peasant man’s Minuet. Notice
how Haydn can use simple tools to create a variety of sounds. The fourth movement is a storm in the
night. The flute is the lightening. The whole movement is built on a single theme (monothematic),
but each time the theme comes back Haydn adds or takes away from it.
Sturm und Drang was a term for a pre-romantic movement in music and literature in the early
1770’s like das Enfindseimer Stil. Haydn was the composer that was affected the most by it. In four
years, he wrote 90% of his minor symphonies. His works reflect high emotions and extremes. A good
example would be his 26th d-minor symphony. It is a lament for Easter. It only has three movements:
fast, slow, and minuet. Some unusual things about the first movement are his use of syncopation,
major in the reprise, and extreme dynamics. Symphonies 42 and 44 are also good examples of
extremes emotions.
Haydn also wrote two key oratorios: the Creation, and the Seasons. The Creation is drawn
directly from the Bible with additions from Milton’s epic poem, Paradise Lost. As in many of
Haydn’s works, there is a vocal trio around which the oratorio evolves. The piece has many sound
pictures that match the words including the creation of light. Haydn used simple devices to create a
vivid picture for the imagination.
Unlike the Affect theory of the Baroque Era, the Classical Era preferred a more dynamic view of
psychology. They focused more on action as it unfolds. This means a series or string of emotions
characterize any given movement. The Sonata-Allegro form with its contrasting themes and
dominant-tonic key tension fit this dynamic, action focused psychology very well.

String Quartets
The string quartet is a creation of the Vienna Classical Era. The Galant Style created the
Divertimento which was simply a small chamber group of musicians playing for parties of rich
people. There are string quartets that have the title of Divertimento making the connection between
the string quartet and the Divertimento strong. Once the string quartet was an established musical
form as two violins, a viola, and a cello, the Divertimento and the string quartet parted ways.
Haydn’s first string quartets, Opus 1 and 2, were actually the pre-string quartet material as it
could obviously be played by a bigger group of musicians. They are typically five movements long:
Presto, Minuet, Slow, Minuet, Presto. By Opus 9, (written 1768-69) Haydn calls these pieces
Divertimentos, but they are obviously string quartets. All six have four movements. Out of the six
opening movements, four have the moderato marking. This gives the composer flexibility to write
fast and slow rhythms creating a pallet of tempos within a single movement.
Opus 9 No.4 was a revolutionary piece because of its harmonic and rhythmic extremes. These
pieces were more challenging for performers, requiring them to actually practice instead of sight-
reading at concerts. Previously, musicians generally played a limited range of music from one style,
making them experts in their field. The six quartets in Opus 9 are dominated by the first violin or
primo.

23

 Before Haydn started work on his Opus 20 series, he did some serious study of manuscripts from
Bach and Handel. Out of the six final movements from Opus 20, four are fugues. Haydn started to
think more polyphonically, giving the other members of the quartet more of a chance at the melody.
His f-minor string quartet is a perfect example with its Moderato first movement and fugue fourth
movement.
Mozart also wrote string quartets. His first series K.V. 155-160, called the Milan series, were
written after his trip to Italy. His father probably made corrections in the score. They were mostly
three movements: fast, slow, and minuet. This fit the Italian fast slow fast sinfonia frame. The third
movement minuet also fit the Galant style. K.V. 158 in F-major has a minor slow movement and an
operatic lightness to it.
When Mozart returned to Vienna, he was able to meet Haydn in person. He also came in contact
with Haydn’s Opus 20 series. Mozart set to work and wrote the K.V. 168-173 string quartets. These
have four movements and have Moderato movements and fugue finales. K.V. 168’s slow movement is
a direct quote of Haydn’s f-minor fugue theme. K.V. 173 is in d-minor. It has sharp contrast in its
mood and texture. It also has a fugue for a final movement.
Haydn’s final string quartet series was Opus 33. Instead of the previous model of Moderato,
Scherzo, slow, and fast, these quartets have a Vivace assai, Andante, Scherzo, and Finale pattern. So
instead of having a slow movement first, it is fast. Instead of having a minuet, Haydn put a Scherzo.
The G-major No. 5 quartet starts with a fast movement. Notice the contrasting themes. The
development is actually the two themes in minor making a contra-exposition. The reprise is almost
like a development because Haydn uses the key change gap to put in extra material. The third
movement Scherzo is faster than a minuet. It is in trio form. It has many hemiolas and other elements
that make it feel uncertain. Haydn is joking with us musically.

Mozart
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was brought up to be a musician by his father, Leopold
Mozart. He and his sister were considered wonder children, but were in fact trained from birth.
Mozart was a prolific writer to make up for his short life span. All his works piled on top of each
other are more than a meter high. Mozart preferred two musical forms: the concerto and the opera.
The concerto of the classical era was different from the concerto of the Baroque era. The Sonata
form mixed with the ritornelli form. Many times the third movement of the concerto was a sonata-
rondo form. For Mozart, the beginning of his career, he wrote for strings and brass. At the middle, he
wrote more for keyboard instruments, and at the end for clarinet. In Mozart’s concertos, the orchestra
plays the main themes at the beginning. When the soloist comes in, he plays new themes reserved for
him. The orchestra stays in one key, but the soloist will lead the orchestra in modulating to the
dominant key. Usually, soloist would play through the tutti passages especially the piano-forte. The
reprise features the soloist. After the reprise comes the cadenza. Here the soloist after the orchestra
has stopped playing, would show off his virtuosity with a series of flashy techniques using themes
from the concerto. The soloist usually made it up on the spot. When he is finished, the orchestra will
come back in and play the coda.
Let us look at two piano concertos that Mozart wrote to get a better understanding. One is the
Jeunehomme concerto K.V. 271, and the other K.V. 482. Both are in E flat Major. Both show the
effects of the Emfindsimmer Stil. Both also have second movements in c-minor. K.V. 271’s second
movement is a sonata form with the instruments talking to each other in a recitativo style. K.V. 482’s
second movement is a mixture of the rondo and variation form. Finally, both have a rondo-sonata

24

 third movement. At the borders of the musical form, we step out of time and hear a short
improvisation or cadenza (Eingange or Ubergange) from the soloist that leads us on to the next part
of the piece. In this way, the sheet music of the classical era can be misleading because in the place of
the cadenza all the composer put in the music is a simple fermata. There was a still a sense of
understanding between the composers and the musicians who performed their works. They didn’t
have to write down everything to be understood.
Mozart wrote K.V. 466 piano concerto in d-minor. The first movement has a big Mannheim
Crescendo at the beginning. This piano concerto was a favorite right away. Even Beethoven wrote a
cadenza for this piece. Back then, because they didn’t have the same tuning system that we do today,
their key signatures had a lot more character. The idea that different key signatures were connected to
certain emotions or concepts goes back to the Greeks. In Mozart’s case, his use of d-minor signified
death or mourning. He wrote his famous requiem in d-minor. He did not finish this work before he
died. Mozart’s widow asked one of his friends to finish the piece based on the sketches and outline he
had left behind. The first and final movements end with an open fifth characteristic of the
Renaissance. This was a good way to avoid the muddy sound created by the minor triad in a large
cathedral that amplified the major third overtone.
Operas were another important element in Mozart’s life work. Before his time, there were two
prevailing kinds of operas: Opera Seria made of recitativos and arias depicting historic events, and
Opera Buffa which was a comic short story about common people. The opera world had come to
revolve around star singers who used every opportunity to show off. Gluck tried to reform the opera
world by turning back to Greek values of drama. Mozart in his own relaxed way handled these
varying elements. In German lands, they had the Singspiel (song game) usually a combination of
singing and prose, sung by less trained singers for less polished audiences. Mozart wrote all three
kinds of operas sometimes even mixing them with each other. Idomeneo and Titus’s Mercy are both
opera seria. Mozart’s top five operas are The Escape from the Seraglio, The Marriage of Figaro, Don
Giovanni, Cosi Van Tutti, and The Magic Flute. The Escape and The Magic Flute could be
categorised as Singspiels.
One way that Mozart overcomes any lags in the plot is to have long Finales at the end of each act
creating tension until the last moment. Some of Mozart’s finales are as long as twenty minutes. Let’s
look at the Escape from the Seraglio. The story takes place in Turkey. After the threatened invasion of
the Turks, Europeans grew more interesting in the exotic. Mozart had special instruments made to
create the janissary (elite Turkish soldiers) music of the overture. The real hero in the opera is
Constance who lives up to her name and remains faithful to her fiancé even when threatened with
death. When she shows her resolve, she sings an aria worthy of an opera seria character with amazing
coloratura. Don Giovanni is a mixture of serious and comic. Giovanni wastes his life in loose living
and is eventually taken down live to hell for his lack of repentance. Mozart does a masterful job of
depicting the social status of each character through the music he writes for them. At one point in the
story, Mozart has three orchestras going at the same time and all three are in a different time
signature.
Don Giovanni, Cosi van Tutti, and even the Marriage of Figaro show the deficit of morals in
Europe since the French Revolution. The French had thrown away their emperor and in the name of
equality and fraternity had beheaded thousands in the ensuing aftermath. The women in each opera
are not treated well. In contrast the magic flute shows that man can redeem himself by overcoming
temptation and trials and can aspire to something more noble. One of the arias from this opera, the
aria of the Queen of the Night is famous for being one of the most difficult written for sopranos.

25

 Mozart’s final works for clarinet give us a glimpse of the coming Romantic era. The sonata form
is so simple that there is no motivic development. The slow movements bear kinship to folk melodies
in their simplicity and predictability.
Both Haydn and Mozart wrote piano sonatas, but the one who would really use the instrument
was Beethoven. The instrument was initially called Forte-piano because of the dynamic changes the
instrument was capable of in contrast with the harpsichord. Most forte-pianos were not capable of
producing the level of sound that our modern day piano can.

Final Haydn Symphonies

Later in life, Haydn took a trip to England. While in London, he wrote twelve symphonies for a new
kind of audience, anyone willing to pay the price of admission. He wrote slow introductions to each
to quiet the audience. He used folk tunes and other motives to keep the audience interested. He could
no longer count on everyone knowing something about music, but rather they wanted a spectacle.
Symphony 103 has a slow introduction to insure the audience was quiet by the time the piece got to
its climax. The London symphonies were the inspiration of a young Beethoven and show more
kinship to his style than any of Mozart’s works.

Beethoven
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was the last of the Vienna Classical Era composers. In 1791,
Beethoven started his studies with Haydn in Vienna. Beethoven inherited Haydn’s motivic
development thinking as opposed to Mozart’s. Schubert, an obviously Romantic Era composer, died
one year after Beethoven making it difficult to draw a clear line between the two eras.
Beethoven had a different picture of what his role was as a composer, then any of his
predecessors. Legend has it that he once said,” What do I care of limitations of instruments when
inspiration comes.” Especially in Beethoven’s later years when he was deaf, he would write things for
instruments that were not capable of such feats at that time. This made for a strained relationship
between composer and performers.
Beethoven wrote 32 piano sonatas and five piano concertos and one violin concerto. Beethoven
was known for using theme and variations as one of the movements. His music is known for its wide
mood swings and dark emotion. He also wrote significant string quartets because they were written
for a professional group who practiced on a regular basis. His string quartets still challenge
performers today. For his string quartet in B-flat major, Beethoven wrote a finale fugue that turned
out to be so long that it became a separate piece. It bears marks of the Baroque era’s fugue, but also
has the theme development characteristic of the Romantic era.
Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. The third symphony is named Eroica, because it was
supposed to be dedicated to a hero, namely Napoleon. When Napoleon’s soldiers came to Vienna,
Beethoven changed his mind and crossed out Napoleon’s name on the dedication page. Beethoven
thought that the true hero was someone who could overcome the problems of life to be the maker his
own fortune. This is a different hero from previous composers who recognized man’s need for God’s
help. The Eroica has a much slower melodic development that Haydn’s symphonies. Also the second
movement is a funeral march.

26

 The fifth symphony was nicknamed Fate because of the four note theme that creates the first
movements mood. The sixth in named Pastorale. Previously pastorales were either Greek shepherds
and nymphs celebrating or Christmas plays depicting the shepherds worshipping Christ. For
Beethoven, he depicts life in the country village healing the wounds of the city life. The symphony
has five movements and is the first program symphony. The fourth movement is a storm. Beethoven’s
ninth was the first symphony which had singers join the orchestra, but only for the last movement.
At the end of Beethoven’s life, he wrote a series of Bagatelles (short pieces) for piano-forte that
showed extremes in chord progressions in key relationships was yet unknown. Beethoven also wrote
the first song cycle. This is series of songs written for piano and solo voice that is intended to be sung
as a unit. Haydn had previously written a series of unrelated songs based on the text of Ann Hunter
about hopeless despair, wandering, and death. The despair usually originated in unrequited love and
ended in a merciful death releasing the sufferer, unlike Bach who viewed death as the gateway of
heaven and the salvation of the soul from sin. The basic unit of the song cycle is the Lied (German
for song). It is usually strophic, allowing for basic variations from verse to verse. The Lied can show
the very intimate thoughts of the heart. Usually the song cycle has some kind of story that connects
the poems.

27

Appendix 1

Term Definitions

Heterophony: A melody sung and/or played with small variations to accommodate the idiosyncrasies
of each instrument
Psalms: tied to the Jewish tradition, poetry usually made up of two thoughts that complete each other.
They can be contrasting, synonyms, or a continuation of thought.

Hymns: iambic pentameter verses with simple folk tunes

Mass: The central liturgical ritual of the Catholic church. Composers started putting the text of the
mass to music starting in the Middle Ages. The main movements of the mass are Kyrie, Gloria,
Credo, Sanctus-Benedictus, and Agnus Dei. Other movements could be added to or taken out as the
occasion required.

Praecentor: The leader of singing. In responsive singing, the Praecentor would sing a question and e
the congregation to respond with the answer.

Initium: The opening few notes of a line of a Psalm

Tenor note: The note that most of the words are sung on in the middle of the Psalm line

Meditatio: A half cadence at the end of the first line of a Psalm

Terminatio: A full cadence at the end of the second line of a Psalm

Responsive Singing: when two groups of singers call and answer to each other responsively

Antiphonal: Two groups with equal amount of singers sing responsively to each other.

Syllabic: When a song has one note per syllable

Melismatica: when a song has more than one note per syllable

Tropisation: Adding words and notes to Melismatic passages

Sequentia: A genre of song with a pattern of a bb’ cc’dd’ etc. that evolved from tropisation.

Musica Mundana: The harmony of the universe, considered a kind of music in the Middle Ages

28

 Musica Humana: the harmony of the human body, a kind of muse can the Middle Ages

Musica Instrumentalis: audible music, one of three kinds of music in the Middle Ages

Scientia: a term used during the Middle Ages to denote composed church music reflecting the
orderliness of Creation, hence called science.

Usus: a term denoting popular worldly folk music in the Middle Ages

Neuma: meaning literally sign, the first musical notation showing the general direction of the melody

Troubadours: (term used in Southern France) a traveling minstrel that would sing secular pieces at
fairs and courts.

Trouveres: (term used in Northern France) a traveling minstrel that would sing secular pieces at fairs
and courts.

Minnesingers: (a term used in Germany) a traveling minstrel that would sing secular pieces at fairs
and courts.

Chansons: a french term denoting a love song in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance a song that
mimicked different sound effects

Hohe meine: noble love

Organum: a gregorian chant with an added parallel parts, derived from the Greek word for organ

Vox Principalis/Cantus: the bottom part of an Organum that was derived from a Gregorian chant

Vox Organalis/Duplum: the composed second voice of an Organum above the Cantus

Discantus: a final form of the Vox Organalis that was note against note counterpoint of the Cantus

Conductus: music that the priest walked down the aisle to, related to the word conductor

Motet: derived from the French word mo, a piece written in the Discantus form where each part has
different words either secular or sacred, from the Renaissance onward a sacred vocal piece

Clausulas: a section of a piece written in the discantus form that could be interchanged with other
parts.

Motetus: the primary discantus part of a Motet

Menzuras: measure lines that show the division of time in a piece

29

 Longa: a long note, the value could vary based on the Menzura

Brevis: a short note, the value could vary based on the Menzura

Perfecta: a time signature with three considered perfect because of the Trinity

Imperfecta: time signatures divisible by two, imperfect

Canon: a melody that acts as a counterpoint to its self

Hoquetus: a melody tossed between two or more voices, literally means hiccup

Isometric Motet: a sacred multiple voice work made of Color(notes) and Talea(rhythm) that are
offset from each other to create different patterns

Color: a series of notes used in an Isometric Motet

Talea: a series of rhythms used in an Isometric Motet

Coloring: writing different parts in different colors

Madrigal: a secular work that had a refrain either sung in a group or with instrumental
accompaniment

Caccia: a secular three part song describing a hunt or battle; the top two parts are a round, the third
part is a supporting bass line

Ballata: a secular strophic dance song

Landini Cadence: a cadence created by Landini in which the submediant leads to the tonic

Faux Bourdon: lit. false bass, adding a their and sixth to the melody to create a first inversion chord

Tenor Mass: a compositional technique where the tenor sings a preexisting melody in every
movement

Cantus Firmus: lit. firm song, the preexisting melody song in the tenor part around which the
composition is built

Motto: a short musical phrase

Polyphonic: each part is considered melodic and has equal weight

Homophonic: one melody supported by the other parts vertically

30

 Frottola: lit. light, frothy, homophonic secular Italian style emphasising the text

Tenor Bass: a part added below the tenor

Solmization: taking a word and turning each letter into a solfés syllable

Canonic Mass: each part is the same melody in different time signatures

Consort: a group of instruments made with the same technique ranging from small to large, high to
low

Tabulatura: a music notation system that shows the hand position instead of the pitch

Allemande: a slow dance in two

Courante: a faster dance in three

Tenor Lied: a German song used mostly in church

Services: English religious services taking the place of the mass

Madrigalism: using musical techniques to paint pictures of the words

Chromaticism: (chroma lit. color) creating uncertainty through use of half steps

Arts perfecta: perfect art, church music reflecting the glory of God

Cambiata: a flourish which goes to the upper and lower neighbour tone before going to the next note

Concerto: in the Renaissance multiple instrument groups playing together,

Sonata: in the Renaissance a piece written for instruments only,

Recitativo: a song in which there are many words and a few notes, used in operas to carry forward
the action, more rubato

Ritornelli: a metrical song where the choir joins the singer

Aria: a strophic song with refrain, later during the Baroque Era, the singer would share his feelings
about what is happening in the story, usually few words and lots of notes

Figured Bass: a bass line with numbers written above to show the inversions

31

 Basso Continuo: a continues bass line acting as the main support of the harmony played by various
instruments

Overture: a French prelude to an opera made up of slow, fast, slow sections

Recitativo Accompagnato: a recitativo which the whole orchestra accompanies, not just the basso
continuo

Secco Recitativo: a recitativo which only the basso continuo accompanies

Basso Ostinato: repeating bass line

Sinfonia: an Italian introductory music to an opera made up of fast, slow, fast sections, forefather of
the modern symphony

Neapolitan Sixth: a chord that originated in Naples, used to depict dramatic sea battles in operas,
built on the lowered second scale degree in minor

Da Capo Aria: an ABA form, the first section is a statement that the B section builds on or contrast
after which the A section returns with ornaments

Siciliano: a 6/8 lullaby with dotted rhythms originating from Palermo

Sonata de Camera: an instrumental chamber piece written to be played in a secular setting with a
free form and number of movements

Sonata de Chiesa: a sacred instrumental chamber work with four movements usually slow, fast,
slow, fast in arrangement

Duo Sonata: an instrumental work with one melody part plus basso continuo (three instruments)

Trio Sonata: two melody parts plus bass continuo (four instruments)

Concerto Grosso: an orchestral work with a free form and number of movements, built on the
contrast of a few players against a full orchestra

Solo Concerto: a soloist playing with an orchestra, a three movement piece (fast, slow, fast), during
the Baroque Period the fast movements were in ritornel form, the slow movement ABA form, during
the Classical Era the ritornel form mixed with the Sonata Allegro Form

Affections Theory: during the Baroque Era, the composer would paint a single emotion in every
work or movement of a work

Pietism: a revival among Lutherans seeking to warm the emotions towards theological truths

32

 Parody: imitating compositional styles or works of other composers

Choral: German, Lutheran congregational song

Mono Thematic Fugue: a polyphonic piece with one theme melody

Suite/Partita: a series of slow/fast dances, usually in the order of Allemande, Courante, Sarabande,
Gigue

Passions: a musical retelling of Christ suffering based on the gospel accounts

Oratorios: a sacred version of operas retelling Biblical stories

Galant Style: a simple style that contrasted the complexities of the Baroque style

Empfindsamer Stil: a highly emotional style, a forerunner of the Romantic Era

Serenade: a slow piece intended to be played under the window of a lady at night

Mannheim Crescendo: a special crescendo invented by the Mannheim Orchestra where instruments
join incrementally to create a growing dynamic

Symphony: an orchestral piece generally with four movements(fast, slow, dance, fast)

Mono-thematic: a movement or piece built on a single theme

Sturm und Drang: a pre-romantic movement in literature and music in the 1770’s

Dynamic View: the Classical Era view of psychology in which the actor and action are always
evolving in contrast to the more static view of the Baroque Era

Sonata-Allegro form: a compositional technique that relies on theme, key change tension,
characteristic of the Classical Era

String Quartet: a (generally) four movement piece written for two violins, a viola, and cello

Primo: the first violin in a string quartet

Cadenza: after the orchestra has stopped, the soloist plays a series of flashy flourishes based on
themes from the concerto(during the Classical Era, musicians would improvise cadenza)

Eingange/Ubergange: a small cadenza for the soloist at the end of a section leading to the next

Opera Seria: an opera made of recitativos and arias usually depicting a historical event

33

 Opera Buffa: a short comic story about common people

Singspiel: (lit. song play) a German kind of comic opera that is a mixture of song and prose

Finale: the last section of an act in an opera

Bagatelle: (lit. trifle) a short piece, usually written for the piano

Song Cycle: a series of songs written for piano and voice intended to be performed as a unit

Appendix 2

Class Presentation Requirements

For your class presentation you will be graded based on the following requirements:
1. Content: your presentation should include a brief biography of the composer, some general
observations about his compositional style, and specific observations about the form and techniques
used in the piece. (30p)
2. Time limit: your time limit is twelve minutes not including the performance of your piece. For every
thirty seconds you go under the time limit, one point will be deducted from your score. For every
minute you go over, one point will be deducted for your score. (10p)
3. Performance: you will be judged on the professional quality of your performance. You cannot use a
recording unless the teacher gives you permission ahead of time. You should perform the whole piece
unless you are given permission ahead of time. If you are leading a group of performers, you are
responsible for their level of performance. (20p)

34

 Appendix 3

Listening Tracks

Ancient Musi

Greek
01 - First Apollo hymn (First Delphoi hymn)
02 - Szeikilosz szkolionja (wine song) (BC. Ist century, Tralles ma Aidin, Turkey)
03 - Hymn to the sun (BC. II. century)

Hebrew
01 - Scripture reading (Moses's first book-Genesis)
02 - 114. Psalm (Izrael, jemenita-rite)
03 - Ovinu malkenu - a fasting supplication

Middle Age

The Gregorian Chant

01 - Lectio
02 - Passio
03 - Pater noster
04 - We praise you, O God (Te Deum laudamus),The beginning of the XV.century (Peer-kodex)
05 - Veni, Redemptor gentium (hymn, XV. century)
06 - Alleluja-psalm
08 - Kyrie III. ad libitum (XI. century)
09 - Salve Regina, Maria-antifona
10 - Victimae paschali laudes, sequentia
11 - Johann Sebastian Bach - Christ lag in Todesbanden - 4. cantata - Verses 3, 4
12 - Dies irae (sequentia, XIII. century
13 - Arezzoi Guido (Guido d’Arezzo)
14 - Danielis ludus - excerpt (XII. century, France, Beauvais)
15 - Melisma

The Beginning of Part Singing

01 - Scholia enchiriadis excerpt - Nos qui vivimus - paralel organum
02a - Musica enchiriadis - Sit gloria Domini - paralel organum
02b - Musica enchiriadis - Rex coeli - free organum
03 - Cunctipotens genitor - free organum (XI. century)
04 - Codex Calixtinus - Cunctipotens genitor - melismatic organum (XII. century)
05 - Nobilis, humilis (Szent Magnus hymn) (XII. century, Orkney-islands)

35

06 - Leoninus (Leonin) - Allelujah Pascha nostrum - two part organum

07 - Perotinus (Perotin) - Sederunt principes - four part organum
08 - El mois de mai - De se debent bigami - Kyrie (french,XIII.century. three part motet)
09 - Alle, psallite - Alleluya (french, XIII.century second half)
10 - Summer cannon - Sumer is icumen in (four part song (canon),english,XIII.century-middle)
11 - Beata viscera (three part conductus-motet, English, late XIII.century.)

XVI. Century
01 - Se je chant mains (chasse (three part canon), french)
02 - Philippe de Vitry - Vos qui admiramini - Gratissima virginis - Contratenor - Gaude gloriosa
03 - Kurtag Gyorgy - Games I. - Hoquetus - four hand
04a1 - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Mass- I. movement - Kyrie
04a2 - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Mass - III. movement - Credo
04a3 - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Mass - VI. movement - Deo gratias - Ite missa est
04b - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Biaute qui toutes autres pere (three part ballada)
04c - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Ma fin est mon commencement et mon commencement ma fin
04d - Guillaume de Machaut (Machault) - Douce dame jolie (one part virelai)
05a - Francesco Landini (Landino) - Gram pian' agli occhi (three part ballata)
05b - Francesco Landini (Landino) - Del dinmi tu (three part madrigal)

Renaissance

Early Renaissance
01 - John Dunstable - Veni Sancte Spiritus - Veni Creator
02 - Deo gratias (England, XV. hundreds)
03a - Guillaume Dufay (du Fay) - Adieu m'amour (chanson (rondeau))
03b - Guillaume Dufay (du Fay) - Alma redemptoris mater (descant-motet)
03c - Guillaume Dufay (du Fay) - Gloria ad modum tubae
03d - Guillaume Dufay (du Fay) - Anonymus - L'homme arme (chanson-song)
04 - Gilles Binchois - Files a marier (four part chanson)
05b - Johannes Ockeghem (Okeghem) - Fors seulement-mass - Kyrie

Middle Renaissance 1
01a - Josquin Desprez - Hercules dux Ferrariae-mass - Benedictus and Hosanna
01c - Josquin Desprez - Guillaume se va chaufer (William went to get warm)
01d - Josquin Desprez - El grillo - four part motet
02a - Heinrich Isaac - Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen
02b - Heinrich Isaac - J.S.Bach - John's Passion - chorale - Wer hat dich so geschlagen

Middle Renaissance 2
01 - Janequin (Jannequin) - La guerre (The battle) - France
02a - Adrian Willaert - O dolce vita mia (O my sweet life) - Italy
03 - Jacob (Jacques) Arcadelt - Il bianco e dolce cigno (The sweet white swan) - Italy
05 - Hans Sachs - David und Jonathan - Germany

36

 07a - Johann (Johannes) Walter - Nun komm der Heiden Heiland - Germany
07b - Johann (Johannes) Walter - J.S.Bach - 36. cantata - Germany
08a - Claude Goudimel - 42. (Geneva) Psalter - Swizterland
09 - Thomas Tallis - Spem in alium nunquam habui - (motetta 40 parts) - England

Late Renaissance
01a - Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina - Missa Papae Marcelli - Gloria
01b - Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina - Sub tuum praesidium
02a - Orlando di Lasso - Prophetiae Sibyllarum - Sibylla Cimmeria
02b - Orlando di Lasso - O la, o che bon eccho (echo)
03b - William Byrd - The battell - The flute and the droome
03c - William Byrd - Ave verum corpus
04 - John Dowland - Fine knacks for Ladies
06a - Don Carlo Gesualdo - Dolcissima mia vita (my sweet one of my life)
06c - Don Carlo Gesualdo - Aestimatus sum
07b - Claudio Monteverdi - Sfogava con le stelle

Baroqu

Italian Composers
01 - Arcangelo Corelli_ F-Major Concerto grosso No. 6 - 5. Allegro
08 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - I. Vivace - Grave. Arcate
09 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - II. Allegro
10 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - III. Adagio-Allegro-Adagio
11 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - IV. Vivace
12 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - V. Allegro
13 - Arcangelo Corelli_ g-minor _Christmas_ concerto grosso No. 8. - VI. Largo. Pastorale ad lib
14 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - E-Major concerto Op. 8_1 _La primavera (Spring)_ - Allegro
15 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - E-Major concerto Op. 8_1 _La primavera_ - Largo
16 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - E-Major concerto Op. 8_1 _La primavera_ - Allegro
17 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - g-minor concerto Op. 8_2 _L’Estate (Summer) - Allegro
18 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - g-minor concerto Op. 8_2 _L'Estate_ - Adagio - Presto
19 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - g-minor concerto Op. 8_2 _L'Estate_ - Presto
20 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - F-Major concerto Op. 8_3 _L’Autunno (Fall) - Allegro assai
21 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - F-Major concerto Op. 8_3 _L'Autunno_ - Adagio molto
22 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - F-Major concerto Op. 8_3 _L'Autunno_ - Allegro
23 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - f-minor concerto Op. 8_4 _L’Inverno (Winter)-Allegro non
motlto
24 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - f-minor concerto Op. 8_4 _L'Inverno_ - Allegro
24 - Antonio Vivaldi_ Le Quattro Stagioni - f-minor concerto Op. 8_4 _L'Inverno_ - Allegro

Handel
01 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - _Pifa_ - Sinfonia pastorale
02 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Recitativo-Accompagnato-Recitativo-Accompagnato
03 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Chorus_ _Glory to God_

37

 04 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Soprano aria_ _Rejoice greatly_

05 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Recitativo
06 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Duet_ He shall feed His flock
07 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Chorus_ His yoke is easy
08 - G. F. Handel - Messiah - Chorus_ Hallelujah
09 - G. F. Handel - B flat-major organ concerto Op. 7. No. 3. - I. movement
10 - G. F. Handel - Water music - Ouverture
11 - G. F. Händel - Water music- Largo e staccato
15 - G. F. Handel - Israel in Egypt - Chorus_ _He smote all the first-born of Egypt_
19 - G. F. Handel - b-minor trio sonata Op. 2. No. 1. - 4. movement
20 - G. F. Handel - G-major trio sonata Op. 5. No. 4. - 1. Allegro
21 - G. F. Handel - G-major trio sonata Op. 5. No. 4. - 2. Tempo ordinario

22 - G. F. Handel - G-major trio sonata Op. 5. No. 4. - 3. Passacaille

23 - G. F. Handel - G-major trio sonata Op. 5. No. 4. - 4. Gigue
24 - G. F. Handel - G-major trio sonata Op. 5. No. 4. - 5. Menuet

01 - G. F. Handel - Alcina - III. act - Scene aria

02 - G. F. Handel - Concerto a due cori No.2, F-major - 1. movement
03 - G. F. Handel - Concerto a due cori No.2, F-major - 2. movement
04 - G. F. Handel - Concerto a due cori No.2, F-major - 3. movement
06 - G. F. Handel - Concerto a due cori No.2, F-major - 5. movement
08 - G. F. Handel - Concerto grosso Op.3. No.6. D-major - II. movement
09 - G. F. Handel - Concerto grosso Op.6. No.12. b-moll - 1. movement
10 - G. F. Handel - Concerto grosso Op.6. No.12. b-minor - 2. movement
13 - G. F. Handel - Concerto grosso Op.6. No.12. b-minor - 5. movement

Bach
01 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Kyrie I
02 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Christe
03 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Kyrie II
04 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Domine Deus
05 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Qui tollis peccata mundi
06 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Et incarnatus est
07 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Crucifixus
08 - J. S. Bach - h-moll mise BWV 232 - Et resurrexit
11 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Magnificat
12 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Et exultavit
13 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Quia Respexit
14 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Omnes generationes
15 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Quia fecit mihi magna
16 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Et misericordia
17 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Fecit potentiam
18 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Deposuit potentes
19 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Esurientes implevit bonis
20 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Suscepit Israel
21 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Sicut locutus est
22 - J. S. Bach - Magnificat BWV 243 - Gloria patri

01 - Goldberg variations

38

01 - J. S. Bach - c-minor passacaglia és fugue BWV 582

02 - J. S. Bach - "Ciaccona" a d-moll partitából BWV 1004
03 - J. S. Bach - I. (F-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1046 - IV. movement
04 - J. S. Bach - IV. (G-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1049 - I. movement
05 - J. S. Bach - V. (D-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1050 - I. movement
06 - J. S. Bach - V. (D-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1050 - II. movement
07 - J. S. Bach - V. (D-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1050 - III. movement
08 - J. S. Bach - VI. (B-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1051 - II. movement
09 - J. S. Bach - VI. (B-Major) Brandenburg concerto BWV 1051 - III. movement

06 - J. S. Bach - E flat -major preludium and fugue BWV 551 - Preludium

07 - J. S. Bach - E flat-major preludium and fugue BWV 551 - Fugue
13 - J. S. Bach - Musikalisches Opfer - c-minor trio sonata - I. movement
14 - J. S. Bach - Musikalisches Opfer - c-minor trio sonata - II. movement
15 - J. S. Bach - Musikalisches Opfer - c-minor trio sonata - III. movement
16 - J. S. Bach - Musikalisches Opfer - c-minor triosonata - IV. movement
17 - J. S. Bach - b-minor sonata for flute and harpsichord BWV 1030 - I. movement

01 - J. S. Bach - 82. kantata BWV 82 - 1. Arie - _Ich habe genug_

02 - J. S. Bach - 82. kantata BWV 82 - 2. Recitativ - _Ich habe genug!_
03 - J. S. Bach - 82. kantata BWV 82 - 3. Arie - _Schlummert ein_
04 - J. S. Bach - 82. kantata BWV 82 - 4. Recitativ - _Mein Gott!_
05 - J. S. Bach - 82. kantata BWV 82 - 5. Arie - _Ich freue mich auf meinen Tod_
09 - J. S. Bach - 80. kantata BWV 80 - _Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott_ - (Luther 2. verse.)
10 - J. S. Bach - 80. kantata BWV 80 - _Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott_ - (Luther 3. verse.)
09 - J. S. Bach - 12. cantata - Weinen, klagen, sorgen, zagen BWV 12 - I. movement
10 - J. S. Bach - 12. cantata - Weinen, klagen, sorgen, zagen BWV 12 - II. movement
20 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - Non komm, der heiden Heiland BWV 659
21 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - _Nin komm, der Heiden Heiland_ BWV 36_8
22 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - Trio super_ Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland BWV 660
23 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - _Die Kripp glunzt hell und klar_
24 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland BWV 661
24 - J. S. Bach - 18 leipzig koral - Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland BWV 661

01 - J. S. Bach - St. John's Passion BWV 245 - No. 11. choral_ _Wer hat dich so geschlagen__
03 - J. S. Bach - St. John's passion BWV 245 - No. 13. tenor aria_ _Ach, mein Sinn…_
09 - J. S. Bach - St. John's passion BWV 245 - No. 28. choral_ _Er nahm alles wohl in acht_
10 - J. S. Bach - St. John's passion BWV 245 - No. 29. recitativo
11 - J. S. Bach - St. John's passion BWV 245 - No. 30. alt aria_ _Es is vollbracht!_
18 - J. S. Bach - St. Matthew's passion BWV 244 - No. 28. recitativo
20 - J. S. Bach - St. Matthew's passion BWV 244 - No. 39. alt aria_ _Erbarme dich, mein Gott_
21 - J. S. Bach - St. Matthew's passion BWV 244 - No. 44. choral _ _Befiehl du deine Wege_
23 - J. S. Bach - St. Matthew's passion BWV 244 - No. 54. choral_ _O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden_

Late Baroque
01 - G. Ph. Telemann - Pariser Quartette - Sonata Seconda (g-minor) - 1. movement
02 - G. Ph. Telemann - Pariser Quartette - Sonata Seconda (g-minor) - 2. movement
03 - G. Ph. Telemann - Pariser Quartette - Sonata Seconda (g-minor) - 3. movement
04 - G. Ph. Telemann - Pariser Quartette - Sonata Seconda (g-minor) - 4. movement
12 - D.Scarlatti - f-minor sonata L.475
13 - D.Scarlatti - G-major sonata L.286

39

14 - D.Scarlatti - F-major sonata L.116

15 - D.Scarlatti - C-major sonata L.S2
16 - C. Ph. E. Bach - c-minor harpsichord concerto - 1. movement
17 - C. Ph. E. Bach - c-minor harpsichord concerto - 2. movement
18 - C. Ph. E. Bach - c-minor harpsichord concerto - 3. movement
19 - J. C. Bach - g-minor symphony Op.6. No.6. - I. movement
20 - J. C. Bach - g-minor symphony Op.6. No.6. - III. movement

Vienna Classical

Early Symphonies
01 - J. Chr. Bach - E flat major symphony Op.9. No.2. - I. Allegro
02 - J. Chr. Bach - E flat major symphony Op.9. No.2. - II. Andante con sordini
03 - J. Chr. Bach - E flat major symphony Op.9. No.2. - III. Tempo di Menuetto
04 - J. Haydn - No. 8. G-Major _Le soir_ symphony - I. Allegro molto
05 - J. Haydn - No. 8. G-Major _Le soir_ symphony - II. Andante
06 - J. Haydn - No. 8. G-Major _Le soir_ symphony - III. Menuetto - Trio
07 - J. Haydn - No. 8. G-Major _Le soir_ symphony - IV. La tempesta_ Presto
08 - J. Haydn - No. 26. d-minor _Lamentatione_ symphony - I. movement (Allegro assai con spirito)
09 - J. Haydn - No. 42. D-Major szimf nia - I. movement (Moderato e maestoso)
10 - J. Haydn - No. 44. e-minor _Trauer_ symphony - I. movement (Allegro con brio)

String quartets
01 - J. Haydn - d-minor string quartet Op. 9. No. 4. - I. movement
02 - J. Haydn - d-minor string quartet Op. 9. No. 4. - II. movement
03 - J. Haydn - d-minor string quartet Op. 9. No. 4. - III. movement
04 - J. Haydn - d-minor string quartet Op. 9. No. 4. - IV. movement
05 - J. Haydn - C-Major string quartet Op. 9. No. 1. - I. movement
07 - J. Haydn - f-minor string quartet Op. 20. No. 5. - I. movement
08 - J. Haydn - f-minor string quartet Op. 20. No. 5. - II. movement
09 - J. Haydn - f-minor string quartet Op. 20. No. 5. - III. movement
10 - J. Haydn - f-minor string quartet Op. 20. No. 5. - IV. movement

11 - W. A. Mozart - F-Major string quartet KV. 168. - II. movement

12 - W. A. Mozart - F-Major string quartet KV. 168. - IV. movement
13 - W. A. Mozart - d-minor string quartet KV. 173. - I. movement
14 - W. A. Mozart - d-minor string quartet KV. 173. - IV. t tel

01 - J. Haydn - G-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 5. - I. movement

02 - J. Haydn - G-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 5. - II. movement
03 - J. Haydn - G-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 5. - III. movement
04 - J. Haydn - G-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 5. - IV. movement
05 - J. Haydn - b-minor string quartet Op. 33. No. 1. - I. movement
06 - J. Haydn - b-minor string quartet Op. 33. No. 1. - II. movement
07 - J. Haydn - E flat-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 2. - II. movement
08 - J. Haydn - E flat-Major string quartet Op. 33. No. 2. - IV. movement

40

ó

é

 Concertos
11 - W. A. Mozart - E flat-Major concerto KV. 271. _Jeunehomme_ - I. movement
12 - W. A. Mozart - E flat-major concerto KV. 271. _Jeunehomme_ - II. movement
01 - W. A. Mozart - E flat-major concerto KV. 271. _Jeunehomme_ - III. movement
02 - W. A. Mozart - E flat-major concerto KV. 482. - II. movement
03 - W. A. Mozart - E flat-major concerto KV. 482. - III. movement
05 - W. A. Mozart - d-minor concerto KV. 466. - I. movement
06 - W. A. Mozart - d-minor concerto KV. 466. - III. movement
07 - W. A. Mozart - C-major concerto KV. 467. - I. movement
01 - W. A. Mozart - C-major concerto KV. 467. - II. movement
02 - W. A. Mozart - B-major concerto KV. 456. - II. movement

Operas
03 - W. A. Mozart - Escape from the a Seraglio - Overture
04 - W. A. Mozart - Escape from the Seraglio - Belmonte's aria No. 1
05 - W. A. Mozart - Escape from the Seraglio - Ozmin's aria No. 3
07 - W. A. Mozart - Escape form the Seraglio - Konstanze's recitativo and aria No. 10.
08 - W. A. Mozart - Escape from the Seraglio - (dialogue)
09 - W. A. Mozart - Escape from the Seraglio - Konstanze's aria No. 11. (_Martern aller Arten_)

11 - W. A. Mozart - The Marrige of Figaro - Cherubino's aria No. 6. (_Non so pi cosa son_)
12 - W. A. Mozart - The Marriage of Figaro - Sextett No. 19. (_Riconosci in questo amlesso_)
13 - W. A. Mozart - The Marriage of Figaro - Susanna and the lady of the manor's duet No. 21
14 - W. A. Mozart - The Marriage of Figaro - Recitativo

15 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Overture

16 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Intro. No. 1. (Leporello, Donna Anna, Don Giovanni, Governer)
17 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Leporello's registry aria No. 4. (_Madamina…_)
03 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Finale - 1
04 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Finale - 2
05 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Finale - 3
06 - W. A. Mozart - Don Giovanni - Finale - 4

08 - W. A. Mozart - Cos fan tutte - Fiordiligi ri ja No. 14. (_Come scoglio immoto resta_)

Clarinet
01 - W. A. Mozart - A-major clarinet quintet KV. 581. - I. movement
02 - W. A. Mozart - A-major clarinet quintet KV. 581. - II. movement
03 - W. A. Mozart - A-major clarinet concerto KV. 622. - I. movement
04 - W. A. Mozart - A-major clarinet concerto KV. 622. - II. movement

Late Symphonies
06 - J. Haydn - B-major symphony No. 102. - I. movement
07 - J. Haydn - B-major symphony No. 102. - II. movement
08 - J. Haydn - B-major symfony No. 102. - III. movement
09 - J. Haydn - B-major symphony No. 102. - IV. movement

41

í

á

á

ú

 10 - J. Haydn - E flat-major symphony No. 103. (_ stdobperg s_) - I. movement

Beethoven
02 - III. symphony (E flat-major, _Eroica_) - I. movement
03 - III. szimf nia (E flat-major, _Eroica_) - II. movement (death march)
04 - VI. symphony (F-major, _Pastorale_) - I. movement
05 - VI. symphony (F-major, _Pastorale_) - II. movement
06 - VII. symphony (A-major) - IV. movement

01 - C-major piano sonata Op. 53 (_Waldstein_) - I. movement

03 - A flat-major piano sonata Op. 110 - I. movement - Moderato cantabile molto espressivo
04 - A flat-major piano sonata Op. 110 - II. movement - Allegro molto
05 - A flat-major piano sonata Op. 110 - III. movement - Adagio,ma non troppo- Fugue
07 - d-minor piano sonata Op. 32_2. - I. movement

06 - An die ferne Geliebte - Aus dem h gel sitz' ich, sp hend

07 - An die ferne Geliebte - Wo die Berges o blau
08 - An die ferne Geliebte - Leichte Segler in den H hen
09 - An die ferne Geliebte - Diese Wolken in den H hen
10 - An die ferne Geliebte - Es kehret der Maien, es bl het die Au
11 - An die ferne Geliebte - Nimm sie hin denn, diese Lieder

01 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - I. movement

02 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - II. movement
03 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - III. movement
04 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - IV. movement
05 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - V. movement
06 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - VI. movement
07 - c sharp-minor string quartet Op. 131 - VII. movement

08 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 1

09 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 2
10 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 3
11 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 4
12 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 5
13 - Six bagatell Op. 126 - 6

12 - Great Fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - I

13 - Great Fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - II
14 - Great Fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - III
15 - Great Fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - IV
16 - Great fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - V
17 - Great Fugue, B flat-major, Op. 133 - VI

42
ó

ü

Ü

ö
ö
ü
ä

é

 Index
Class requirements, basic syllabus………………………………………………1

Overview of each era……………………………………….……………………3

Introduction …………………………….………………………………………..5

The Middle Ages……………………………………………………….…………6

The Renaissance.…………………………………….…………………………..10

The Baroque Era…………………………………………….……………………14

The Classical Era…………………………………………………………………22

Appendix 1: Terms and Definitions…………..………………..…………………28

Appendix 2: Class Presentation Requirements…………………..……………….34

Appendix 3: Listening Tracks………………..…………………………………..35

43