The evolution of the genetic code: Impasses and Challenges

The standard genetic code defines the rules for the transcription of biological
information from DNA and RNA, and the synthesis of related proteins, a saber, and
translation rules. It is often described as a translation table as the nucleic acid
sequence information that is interpreted as a polypeptide (Carter and Wolfenden,
2016). The natural property of the genetic code is the "principle of
complementarity", defined by the physicochemical interaction of nucleotides, that
is, the pairing of uracil, or thymine with adenine, and cytosine, with guanine.

There are many theories being studied to know more and more about how and why
it works however, being able to control DNA at will and decrease and almost
eliminate genes that are known as maligns is not an easy task to achieve.
Stereochemicals are discussed, management of the coding coenzyme,
coevolution, the theory of the four columns, the minimization of errors and the
hypotheses of frozen accidents. The integration of these hypotheses may explain
the origin of the genetic code. But experiments are very necessary. Therefore, we
suggest a series of experiments that could (in) validate some of the models. We
focus especially on the hypothesis ofcoenzyme coding (CCH). The CCH suggests
that amino acids bound to RNA drive the improved catalytic activities of ribozymes.
Alternatively, amino acids without handles or with a handle consisting of a single
adenine, as in contemporary coenzymes, could have been used. All three
scenarios can be tested in compartmentalized in vitro systems.

Taken together, our findings necessarily imply that the primary RNAs, the RNA
aminoacylation ribozomas and (later) the translation machinery in general have
evolved together to conform '' to the genetic code (probably already defined),
rather than contrary. . The coding triplets in this primary pre-translational code
were similar to anticodons, the second and third nucleotides being more important
than the first less specific. Later, when the code expanded in co-evolution with the
translation apparatus, the importance of 2-3 nucleotides of the coding triplets "was
transferred" to the 1-2 nucleotides of their complements, thus distinguishing the
anticodons from the codons
The early metabolism that emerged in a Thioester world resulted in amino acids
and their simple peptides. The catalytic activity of these early simple peptides
became instrumental in the transition from Thioester World to Phosphate World.
This transition involved the appearance of sugar phosphates, nucleotides and
polynucleotides. The coupling of amino acids and peptides to nucleotides and
polynucleotides is the origin of the genetic code. Many of the key steps in this
transition are seen in the catalytic nuclei of nucleotidyl transferases, class II RNA
synthetases (RS) and the CCA addition enzyme. These catalytic cores are
dominated by simple beta hairpin structures formed in the Thioester World. The
code evolved from a proto-RNA an XCCA tetramer that interacts with a proto-
aminoacyl synthetase (RS) activating Glycine and Proline, the initial expanded
code is found in the RNA acceptor arm, the operational code. It is the coevolution
of RNA with RS that is at the heart of the origin and evolution of the genetic code.
There is also a close relationship between the accretion models of the evolving
RNA and that of the ribosome.
A significant part of the genetic code probably originated through a chemical
interaction, which should be experimentally verifiable. One possible verification
relates the bound amino acids (or perhaps their activated congeners) and the
ribonucleotide sequences within the related RNA binding sites. To present this
interaction, I first summarize how amino acids function as targets for RNA binding.
The experimental method for selecting relevant RNA binding sites is then
characterized
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