applied
sciences
Article
Static Lateral Stability of Tractor with Rear Wheel Ballast
Weights: Comparison of ISO 16231-2 (2015) with Experimental
Data Regarding Tyre Deformation
Radoslav Majdan 1, * , Rudolf Abrahám 1 , Zdenko Tkáč 1 , Róbert Drlička 2 , Eva Matejková 3 ,
Katarína Kollárová 4 and Jan Mareček 5






Citation: Majdan, R.; Abrahám, R.;
Tkáč, Z.; Drlička, R.; Matejková, E.;
Kollárová, K.; Mareček, J. Static
Lateral Stability of Tractor with Rear
Wheel Ballast Weights: Comparison
of ISO 16231-2 (2015) with
Experimental Data Regarding Tyre
Deformation. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010381
Received: 10 December 2020
Accepted: 29 December 2020
Published: 2 January 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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tribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010381
1 Department of Transport and Handling, Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra,
Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; rudolf.abraham@uniag.sk (R.A.); zdenko.tkac@uniag.sk (Z.T.)
2 Department of Quality and Engineering Technologies, Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of
Agriculture in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; robert.drlicka@uniag.sk
3 Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Faculty of Economics and Management, Slovak University
of Agriculture in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; eva.matejkova@uniag.sk
4 Information and Coordination Centre of Research, Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture
in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; katarina.kollarova@uniag.sk
5 Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Agri Sciences, Mendel
University in Brno, Zemědělská 1665/1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic; jan.marecek@mendelu.cz
* Correspondence: radoslav.majdan@uniag.sk
Abstract: The paper presents a static lateral stability of a sub-compact tractor MT8-070 Mini in
relation to a safe tractor operation. Axle weight distribution of the tractor was measured to calculate
the vertical and longitudinal coordinates of a centre of gravity (COG). Experiments were aimed at
the tractor equipped with no and four levels of rear wheel ballast weights (30.5, 61, 91.5 and 122 kg)
at standard and extended overall width on tyres. A static overturning angle was calculated and
experimentally measured when the tractor with right wheels touching the ground was in a state of
unstable equilibrium. Comparing the experimental data with ISO 16231-2 (2015), the differences
were 2.57%, 2.80%, 3.04%, 3.42% and 3.88% in the case of the standard overall width on tyres and
2.40%, 2.61%, 3.11%, 3.67% and 3.99% in the case of the extended overall width on tyres at 0, 30.5,
91.5 and 122 kg of the rear wheel ballast weight. Considering the vertical tyre deformation and the
lateral shift of the tyre, the differences decreased to 0.95%, 1.11%, 1.29%, 1.85% and 1.42% (standard
overall width on tyres) and 0.91%, 1.18%, 1.69%, 2.27% and 2.57% (extended overall width on tyres).
The length of a rubber lug of a tyre contact patch did not change when the tractor was inclined
at various ballast weights and did not affect the static overturning angle calculation according to
ISO 16231-2 (2015). Results showed higher static overturning angle experimentally measured in
comparison with calculated according to ISO 16231-2 (2015) due to the tyre deformation. Limiting
the tractor operation on the basis of the static overturning angle calculated according to ISO 16231-2
(2015) avoids the tractor usage under dangerous operation conditions.
Keywords: static overturning angle; centre of gravity; ballast weight; tractor safety; tractor tyre
1. Introduction
Tractor overturning is a dangerous accident, by which a tractor operator is endangered
and tractor damaged. Improvements in the design of tractors cannot fully eliminate the
risk of these accidents. A constantly increasing demand for agricultural products has also
led to cultivation of areas that are non-ideal for mechanization due to geo-orographic
conformation of the land, particularly due to very steep, sloping grounds, albeit with
interesting agronomic characteristics in terms of climate and solar radiation [1]. Tractor
overturning remains a serious problem in agricultural activities. A detailed analysis of
problems and causes leading to a tractor overturn have revealed that by improving tractor’s
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 2 of 17

static stability we can positively influence the safety as early as during the concept phase [2].
Overturning accidents cost time and money as well as causing injury and sometimes death.
A full understanding of stability on slopes is needed in order to establish safe operating
limits which can be accepted throughout the land-based industries [3]. Agricultural tractors
as manufactured are characterised by high rates of standardisation and feature a range
of additional attachments which allow a wider use of each tractor and greatly facilitate
its operation [4]. The need for tractors and agricultural machinery to be tested from the
point of view of their suitability for agricultural use will grow continuously because these
machines directly affect agricultural production [5].
An extreme variety of situations that an agricultural machine can meet does not find an
adequate match with the test situations actually proposed by standards. Indeed, although
all real situations must be necessarily simplified and standardized to be investigated exper-
imentally, the tests that are currently adopted to inquire a rollover stability of machines,
although simple and effective in their way of operating, have many basic deficiencies [6].
Standards require main measures to eliminate the errors negatively affecting the results of
calculation methodologies [7]. An elimination of the errors during the measurements of
the parameters needed for calculation of the static overturning angle improves the results
of the calculation model. Defining the tractor lateral stability, the calculation of the static
overturning angle is based on the technical parameters of the tractor and the coordinates of
COG [8]. The calculation methodology uses the location of COG in relation to the stability
triangle. [9] presented that the dimensions of the vehicle such as: wheelbase, overall width
on the tyres and weight distribution between axles are the main factors that affect the
tractor stability.
The next factor affecting the tractor stability is the tyre deformation which depends on
the different elastic properties and weight acting on the wheel. The tyre deformation affects
the tractor dimensions and COG coordinate used for calculation of the static overturning
angle. When the tractor is inclined, the shift of the centre of gravity affects the static
overturning angle and the tractor lateral stability. Many authors of papers aimed at
the tractor stability presented that the effect of shifting the centre of gravity is small in
comparison to the tractor dimensions which essentially affect the tractor lateral stability [10].
The next important effect of the tyre deformation is the lateral tyre shift formed by tractor
weight. It reduces the stability of the tractor. If other moments act in the same direction
and are large, the tractor might overturn. To evaluate this influence, the sidewall deflection
rates must be known [11].
Lateral overturning of agricultural tractors is a very dangerous accident. The objectives
of this study were (a) to compare the static overturning angle calculated according to
standard [12] with experimental data using the sub-compact agricultural tractor with rear
wheel ballast weights at standard and extended overall width on tyres, (b) to analyse the
influence of a vertical tyre deformation, a lateral shift of the tyre and dimensions of a
tyre contact patch changed due to tyre deformation (when the tractor was tilted) on the
calculation of the static overturning angle, (c) to analyse the factors affecting the tractor
lateral stability in relation to safe tractor operation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Tractor and Measurement Procedure
The experiments were performed with a sub-compact tractor MT8-070 Mini (Agrozet a.
s., České Budějovice, Czech Republic) equipped with a petrol four-stroke air-cooled (Briggs
and Stratton) engine. The experimental tractor with rear-wheel drive has the transmission
with four forward gears and one reverse gear. It is equipped with a differential lock and
hydraulic system with manually driven piston hydraulic pump. Detailed properties of this
tractor were presented by [13–15]. Rear wheels (fixed axle) were equipped with the Mitas
TS-02, 6.5/75-14 tyres, (Mitas a. s., Prague, Czech Republic), and front wheels (swivelling
axle) with the Barum Industrie NB 44, 4.00-8 tyre (Barum a. s., Otrokovice, Czech Republic).
The basic technical specifications of the experimental tractor are listed in Table 1.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 front wheels (swivelling axle) with the Barum Industrie NB 44, 4.00-8 tyre (Barum 3a.ofs.,17

Otrokovice, Czech Republic). The basic technical specifications of the experimental tractor
are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Specifications of the experimental tractor Mini 070.
Table 1. Specifications of the experimental tractor Mini 070.
Parameter - Value
Parameter - Value
Cylinder number of engine - 1
Cylinder number of engine - 1
Displacement of engine, ccm - 400
EngineDisplacement
power, kW/rpm of engine, ccm - - 8/3600 400
Engine
Wheelbase power, kW/rpm
L, m - - 8/3600
1.15
Overall width onWheelbase
tyres of the L, m Standard - 0.7951.15
fixed axle o, m Extended Standard 0.8850.795
Overall width on tyres of the fixed axle o, m
Extended 0.885
To simulate the real operation conditions of the tractor, a driver seat was loaded with
To simulate
a ballast weight of the75real operation conditions
kg corresponding with theofaverage
the tractor,
humana driver
bodyseat was loaded
weight. with
[16] presents
athat
ballast weight of 75 kg corresponding with the average human body weight.
the COG of a human body lies in the area of the 3rd to 4th sacral vertebra. The ballast [16] pre-
sents that the COG of a human body lies in the area of the 3rd to 4th
weight of three sandbags (the weight of one sandbag is 25 kg) equals to 75 kg and they sacral vertebra. The
ballast weight
were fixed of three
to the tractorsandbags (theby
driver seat weight of onebelt
the tension sandbag
ratchetis lashing
25 kg) equals to 75 kg
strap, Figure 1. and
The
they were fixed to the tractor driver seat by the tension belt ratchet lashing
height of three sandbags placed at each other is 45 cm, then we consider the COG in the strap, Figure
1.same
The position
height ofasthree
in thesandbags placed at each other is 45 cm, then we consider the COG
human body.
in the same position as in the human body.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.Tractor
Tractordriver
driverseat:
seat:(a)
(a)three
threesandbags
sandbagsto
tosimulate
simulatethe
thehuman
humanbody,
body, (b)
(b) empty
empty seat.
seat.

Standards[12]
Standards [12]andand[17]
[17]specify
specifythe themethod
methodto todetermine
determinethe thecentre
centreof ofgravity
gravity(COG)
(COG)
ofself-propelled
of self-propelledmachines.
machines.The Thestandard
standardrecommends
recommendsseveral severalmeasures
measuresto toeliminate
eliminatethe the
measurementerrors
measurement errorscaused
causedby byvarious
variousfactors.
factors.To Todetermine
determinethe theCOG
COGcoordinates,
coordinates,these these
measureswere
measures wereconsidered
consideredduringduringthe themeasurements.
measurements.The Themeasurements
measurementswere wereperformed
performed
on a horizontal surface of the flat laboratory floor. The measurements
on a horizontal surface of the flat laboratory floor. The measurements were performed were performed
usingthe
using thescales
scales (wheel
(wheel weighting
weighting pads) and support support crane
crane(Figure 2). Two weighting pads
were placed
(Figure 2). Two under both wheels
weighting pads were of theplaced
rear axle.
underThe height
both of the
wheels of weighting
the rear axle. pad was
The 0.058
height
m.the
of Toweighting
provide the padhorizontal
was 0.058(level)
m. Toposition
provideof thethe tractor, wood
horizontal (level)pads (the same
position of theheight as
tractor,
the weighting pads) were placed below the wheels of the other
wood pads (the same height as the weighting pads) were placed below the wheels of the axle. In the next step, the
massaxle.
other on both wheels
In the next on thethe
step, leftmass
and right
on bothsidewheels
of the ontractor were
the left measured
and right side toof
state
theatractor
lateral
position of COG. The exact mass of the rear wheel ballast weight (steel
were measured to state a lateral position of COG. The exact mass of the rear wheel ballast discs) was measured
as shown
weight (steelin discs)
Figurewas 2c).measured
When theas front
shown axlein(swivelling
Figure 2c). axle)
Whenwas the lifted, the (swivelling
front axle rear wheels
on the scales were free to rotate (brakes were not applied, and the
axle) was lifted, the rear wheels on the scales were free to rotate (brakes were not applied, transmission was in
neutral).
and To eliminatewas
the transmission the in
measurement
neutral). To errors caused
eliminate the by the tyre deflection,
measurement standard
errors caused by [12]
the
recommends increasing the tyre inflation pressure to the maximum
tyre deflection, standard [12] recommends increasing the tyre inflation pressure to the permissible value. All
tyres were inflated to the maximum pressure of 150 kPa recommended
maximum permissible value. All tyres were inflated to the maximum pressure of 150 kPa by manufacturer. In
the fuel tank, the liquid moves and changes the COG location
recommended by manufacturer. In the fuel tank, the liquid moves and changes the COG of the tractor. To eliminate the
measurement
location of the error dueTo
tractor. to eliminate
liquid shift, thethe fuel tank waserror
measurement full of gasoline
due to liquid(recommendation
shift, the fuel
of [12]).
tank was full of gasoline (recommendation of [12]).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 4 of 17

FigureFigure 2. Determination
2. Determination of COGof COG coordinates:
coordinates: (a)(a)scheme
schemefor for calculation
calculation of
oflongitudinal
longitudinalcoordinate
coordinateof COG: (b) scheme
of COG: for for
(b) scheme
calculation of vertical coordinates of COG [18], (c) weighting scales measuring the reactions
calculation of vertical coordinates of COG [18], (c) weighting scales measuring the reactions of tractor wheels and steel of tractor wheels and steel
discs discs (ballast
(ballast weight):
weight): L—wheelbase; c,
L—wheelbase; c, d—longitudinal
d—longitudinal coordinates of COG;
coordinates h—vertical
of COG; coordinate
h—vertical of COG; J—tread
coordinate of COG; width;
J—tread
width;G—tractor
G—tractor weight;
weight; Y1 , YY21,, Y
YP2,, Y
YPL,,—ground
YL,—ground reactions; r2 —static
reactions; rear wheel
r2—static rear radius;
wheel radius; angle, L0 —vertical
ω—lifting
ω—lifting projection pro-
angle, L´—vertical
jectionofof
wheelbase,
wheelbase, Y1 0 Y
, Y1´,0
2 —reaction
Y2´—reaction whenwhenthe tractor is in raised
the tractor is in position.
raised position.
Standard [12] allows to use various techniques to tilt the tractor with or without all
Standard [12] allows to use various techniques to tilt the tractor with or without all
tractor wheels on a tilting platform (point 5.7 in the standard). [19] used a tilting platform
tractor wheels
to test on aoverturning
the lateral tilting platform
of the(point
tractor.5.7
Inin thecase,
this standard).
all tractor[19] usedare
wheels a tilting
placedplatform
on
to test the lateral overturning of the tractor. In this case, all tractor
the platform. [20] tilted the tractor, using a tilting platform, to determine the angle wheels are at
placed
the on
themoment
platform. [20]the
when tilted the tractor,
tractors using
were resting inaa tilting
state ofplatform, to determine
unstable equilibrium on the angle at the
the wheels
moment when the tractors were resting in a state of unstable equilibrium on with
touching the ground. [21] laterally tilted the tractor by elevating the right wheels a
the wheels
forklift until the unstable equilibrium position was reached. Following
touching the ground. [21] laterally tilted the tractor by elevating the right wheels with a the standard and
authors
forklift mentioned
until above,
the unstable the tilting platform
equilibrium position(Figure 3) was used
was reached. to measure
Following thethe lateral and
standard
stability of the tractor on the basis of static overturning angle α. The tractor was tilted up to
authors mentioned above, the tilting platform (Figure 3) was used to measure the lateral
a state of unstable equilibrium on the wheels touching the ground. In this state, the wheels
stability of the tractor on the basis of static overturning angle α. The tractor was tilted up
on the opposite side of the tractor lose contact with the tilting platform when it reaches
to athe
state ofoverturning
static unstable equilibrium
angle. Whenon thethe wheels
tractor reachestouching the ground.
the unstable In this
equilibrium state,
point, it the
wheels
returnsontothe
theopposite
horizontalside of the tractor lose contact with the tilting platform when it
position.
reachesThe thewheel
staticweighting
overturning padsangle.
WWSEWhen 10 T withthea tractor reaches (Dini
weight indicator the unstable equilibrium
Argeo, Spezzano
point, it returns to the horizontal position.
di Fiorano Modenese, Italy) were used to measure the mass of the tractor coming on the
tractor wheels (Figure 2). The rated capacity of the weighting system is 10,000 kg. The
mass of the tractor is significantly lower than the rated capacity of the weighting system.
Therefore, the weighting system was calibrated by an accredited laboratory (Brutto s.r.o.,
Sered’, Slovak Republic) to the rated capacity of 400 kg with a measuring error of 0.125%
and resolution of 0.5 kg. To calculate the longitudinal and the vertical coordinates of the
COG, distances were measured by a measuring tape with measuring range of 2 m, accuracy
class 2 and resolution of 1 mm. Distances needed for calculation of the tyre deformation
were measured with a digital calliper CD-15CP (Mitutoyo corporation, Tokyo, Japan) with
a range of 0–150 mm, accuracy of ±0.02 mm and digital step of 0.01 mm. Vertical planes
needed for distance measurements were determined using a steel set square and a plumb
line. A digital protractor Genborx 810–100 (Changzhou Skyvictor Ltd., Changzhou, China)
ion of vertical coordinates of COG [18], (c) weighting scales measuring the reactions of tractor wheels and steel
allast weight): L—wheelbase; c, d—longitudinal coordinates of COG; h—vertical coordinate of COG; J—tread
G—tractor weight; Y1, Y2, YP, YL,—ground reactions; r2—static rear wheel radius; ω—lifting angle, L´—vertical pro-
of wheelbase, Y1´, Y2´—reaction when the tractor is in raised position.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 5 of 17

Standard [12] allows to use various techniques to tilt the tractor with or without all
tractor wheels on a tilting platform (point 5.7 in the standard). [19] used a tilting platform
to test the lateralwith
overturning
measuringofrange 4 × 90◦ ,In
the tractor. this case,
display 0.1◦ and
all tractor
resolution wheels are error
accuracy placed on
0.01 ◦ was used

the platform. [20]totilted

measure the staticusing
the tractor, overturning
a tiltingangle when to
platform, thedetermine
tractor was thetilted.
angleAllat experimental
the
moment when the tractors were resting in a state of unstable equilibrium on the wheelsdeviation
measurements were repeated three times and the mean value with standard
was calculated.
touching the ground. The regression
[21] laterally tilted the analysis (Microsoft
tractor by elevating Excel—Office 365) waswith
the right wheels usedato analyse
the effect of the rear wheel ballast weight on the coordinates of COG (longitudinal and
forklift until the unstable equilibrium position was reached. Following the standard and
vertical), the static overturning angle and the parameters defining the tyre deformation
authors mentioned above, the tilting platform (Figure 3) was used to measure the lateral
(the vertical tyre deformation, the lateral shift of the tyre, dimensions of the tyre contact
stability of the tractor
patch)onat the
the basis
standard of static overturning
and the angle α.
extended overall Theon
width tractor
tyres.wasThetilted up
experiments were
to a state of unstable equilibrium on the wheels touching the ground. In this state, the
performed at standard and extended overall width on tyres of the fixed axle at 0, 30.5, 61,
wheels on the opposite
91.5 andside of of
122 kg thethetractor lose ballast
rear wheel contact with the
weights. tilting
Four levelsplatform when
of rear wheel it weight
ballast
were set with eight original steel discs connected with tractor
reaches the static overturning angle. When the tractor reaches the unstable equilibrium wheels by three screws. Mass
of one steel disc of 15.25
point, it returns to the horizontal position. kg was measured by the weighting pads WWSE 10 T, Figure 2c.

Figure 3. Test of tractor lateral stability: 1—tyre, 2—wheel rim, 3—ballast weight, 4—tilting platform, 5—portal, 6—chain
hoist, 7—digital protractor.

2.2. Calculation of Static Overturning Angle According to ISO 16231-2

The standard [12] presents a method for calculation of the static overturning angle
of the tractor with one swivelling axle without swivelling angle limiting device and pivot
point of swivelling axle in line with the centre line of the tractor, Figure 4. The standard
defines the rolling line of the tyres on the fixed axle (when rolling laterally) at 75% of the
tyre width. Abscissa AA0 is the base line of stability triangle and is calculated according to
the formula as follows:
o − 2( p − 0.75p)
AA0 = (1)
2
where: AA0 —base line of stability triangle, m; o—overall width on tyres of the fixed axle,
m; p—width of tyres on fixed axle, m
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 6 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Determinationofoftractor
Figure4.4.Determination
Figure tractorlateral
lateralstability
stabilityaccording
accordingtotostandard
standard [12]:
[12]: o—overall
o—overall width
width onon
tyresof
tyres ofthe
thefixed
fixedaxle, p—widthof
axle,p—width oftyres
tyreson
onfixed
fixedaxle, u—heightof
axle,u—height ofpivot
pivotpoint
pointofofthe
theswelling
swelling axle,
axle, L—wheelbase,
L—wheelbase, c, d—longitudinal
c, d—longitudinal coordinates
coordinates of COG;
of COG; h—vertical
h—vertical coordinate
coordinate ofof COG;z—lateral
COG; z—
lateral position of COG; α—static overturning 0
angle, AA´—base line of stability triangle,
position of COG; α—static overturning angle, AA —base line of stability triangle, DF—slope line. DF—
slope line.
Considering the calculation method according to standard [12], the static overturning
angleConsidering the calculation
is the arc tangent of slope method according
line DF over to standard
the vertical [12], the
coordinate static h.
of COG overturning
angle is the arc tangent of slope line DF over the vertical coordinate of COG h.
2.3. Evaluation of Tyre Deformation
2.3. Evaluation of TyreofDeformation
The influence tyre deformation on the difference between the static overturning
angle calculated according to standardon
The influence of tyre deformation [12]
theand experimental
difference betweendata
thewas analysed.
static This
overturning
study was aimed at the tyre deformation when the tractor was tilted under
angle calculated according to standard [12] and experimental data was analysed. This experimental
conditions.
study The effect
was aimed at theof tyre
tyre deformation
deformation on the
when themeasurements of COG
tractor was tilted undercoordinate was
experimental
not evaluated.
conditions. The effect of tyre deformation on the measurements of COG coordinate was
The tyre deforms when the weight acting on the wheel and the static overturning
not evaluated.
angle increase.
The The influence
tyre deforms when theof the tyre deformation
weight acting on theon the static
wheel and overturning angle was
the static overturning
analysed on the basis of:
angle increase. The influence of the tyre deformation on the static overturning angle was
• Vertical
analysed tyre
on the deformation
basis of: affecting the vertical shift of the COG;
•• Tyres shift due to lateral tyre deformation
Vertical tyre deformation affecting and contact
the vertical shift ofpatch affecting the overall width
the COG;
• on tyres.
Tyres shift due to lateral tyre deformation and contact patch affecting the overall
The experimental
width on tyres. tractor with various levels of rear wheel ballast weights at standard
and extended overall width on tyres was inclined at the experimental static overturning
The experimental tractor with various levels of rear wheel ballast weights at standard
angle to measure the parameters for the tyre deformation analysis. [22] presented that the
and extended overall width on tyres was inclined at the experimental static overturning
deflection of the tyres (elastic elements supporting the tractor itself) can cause a translation
angle to measure the parameters for the tyre deformation analysis. [22] presented that the
of the COG and/or an additional pitch and roll angle. The authors complexly researched
deflection of the tyres (elastic elements supporting the tractor itself) can cause a translation
the COG translation due to the tyre deformation of the upstream and downstream wheels
of the COG and/or an additional pitch and roll angle. The authors complexly researched
when the tractor was inclined at various angles. We evaluated the tractor in the state of the
the COG translation due to the tyre deformation of the upstream and downstream wheels
unstable equilibrium. In this state, we considered the effect of upstream wheel deformation
when the tractor was inclined at various angles. We evaluated the tractor in the state of
on the COG position as negligible, and we considered only the effect of the vertical tyre
the unstable equilibrium. In this state, we considered the effect of upstream wheel defor-
deformation on the vertical position of COG.
mation on the COG position as negligible, and we considered only the effect of the vertical
tyre deformation on the vertical position of COG.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 7 of 17

In the first, the vertical tyre deformation was evaluated. When the tyre deforms due
to tractor weight, a decrease in the vertical coordinate of the COG affects the tractor lateral
In the first, the vertical tyre deformation was evaluated. When the tyre deforms due
stability. In the case of our study, the distance i (Figure 5) was measured to state the ver-
to tractor weight, a decrease in the vertical coordinate of the COG affects the tractor lateral
ticalstability.
tyre deformation
In the case of when thethe
our study, tractor was
distance inclined
i (Figure at static
5) was overturning
measured to state theangle α. The
vertical
radius of deformed tyre was calculated according to Equation (2) as follows:
tyre deformation when the tractor was inclined at static overturning angle α. The radius of
𝑟
deformed = 𝑟tyre
+ 𝑖was
coscalculated
𝛼 according to Equation (2) as follows:

r2de f = r + i cos α (2) (2)

where: r2 def—radius of deformed rear wheel tyre, m; r—rim radius, m; i—vertical distance
where: r2def —radius of deformed rear wheel tyre, m; r—rim radius, m; i—vertical distance
of tyre section
of tyre height,
section height,m;
m;α—experimental staticoverturning
α—experimental static overturning angle.
angle.

Figure
Figure 5. Determination
5. Determination of of verticalshift
vertical shiftof
ofcentre
centre of
of gravity
gravitydue
duetotovertical tyre
vertical deformation.
tyre deformation.
Using the radius of deformed rear wheel tyre and coordinates of COG, the vertical
Using
shift the was
of COG radius of deformed
calculated rear wheel
by goniometric tyre and
functions. coordinates
Distance of COG,
∆1 expresses the vertical
the change of
shift of axle
rear COG was calculated
position. by goniometric
The tyre deformation functions.
of front Distance
wheel affects Δ1 expresses
insignificantly the change
the position
of rear
of COGaxledue
position. The tyre
to relatively lowdeformation
weight comingof front
on thewheel
frontaffects insignificantly
axle, so the posi-
it can be ignored.
tionConsidering
of COG due theto relatively
tyre lowofweight
deformation the rearcoming on vertical
wheel, the the front axle, soofit COG
coordinate can be
canignored.
be
expressed by Equation (3) as follows:
Considering the tyre deformation of the rear wheel, the vertical coordinate of COG can be
expressed by Equation (3) as follows:
hde f = h − ∆2 (3)

where: hdef —vertical coordinate of COG = ℎ − ∆ vertical tyre deformation, m; h— (3)

ℎ considering
vertical coordinate of COG, m; ∆2 —vertical shift of COG, m.
def—vertical
where: hBesides coordinate
the vertical of COG considering
tyre deformation, the tyre shiftvertical
m occurstyre
duedeformation,
to lateral tyre m; h—ver-
defor-
mation when the tractor is inclined. Decreasing
tical coordinate of COG, m; Δ2—vertical shift of COG, m. the overall width on tyres, the tyre shift
affects
Besidesthe length of the base
the vertical tyreline of the stability
deformation, thetriangle andmthe
tyre shift value due
occurs of thetostatic overturn-
lateral tyre defor-
ing angle calculated according to standard [12]. The tyre shift can be calculated according
mation when the tractor is inclined. Decreasing the overall width on tyres, the tyre shift
to Equation (4) using the distance v measured between the corner of the tyre-tread pattern
affects the length of the base line of the stability triangle and the value of the static over-
touching the ground and vertical line touching the wheel rim, Figure 6. When the tractor
turning
is not angle calculated
inclined, the corner according
of the wheelto rim
standard [12]. The
corresponds withtyre shift can
the corner be tyre-tread
of the calculated ac-
cording to Equation (4) using the distance v measured between the corner
pattern in a top view, Figure 6c. The base line of the stability triangle reduced due of theto
tyre-tread
the
pattern touching
tyre shift the ground
is calculated andto
according vertical line
Equation touching the wheel rim, Figure 6. When the
(5).
tractor is not inclined, the corner of the wheel rim corresponds with the corner of the tyre-
tread pattern in a top view, Figure 6c.mThe − itgαline of the stability triangle reduced
= v base (4) due
to the tyre shift is calculated accordingo−to2Equation
( p − 0.75p)(5).
AA0 = −m (5)
2
where: AA0 —base line of stability triangle, m; o—overall width on tyres of the fixed axle,
m; p—width of tyres on the fixed axle, m
Appl. Sci. 2021,
Appl. Sci.11, x FOR
2021, PEER REVIEW
11, 381 8 of 17
8 of 17

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6. Determination of tyre shift due to lateral tyre deformation: (a) no rear wheel ballast weight, (b) highest rear
wheel ballast weight, (c) vertical line of the steel set square touching corner of the tyre-tread pattern and wheel rim.

𝑚 = 𝑣 − 𝑖 tg 𝛼 (4)
(a) (b) 𝑜 − 2 𝑝 − 0.75𝑝(c) (5)
𝐴𝐴´ = −𝑚
FigureFigure
6. Determination of tyre
6. Determination shift
of tyre shiftdue
due to lateral
lateral tyre
tyre deformation:
deformation: (a)rear
(a) no no rear wheel2 ballastonweight,
highest(b) highest
wheel rear
where: AA´—base line of stability triangle, m;wheel ballast weight,
o—overall width (b)
tyres ofrear
the fixed axle,
wheelballast
ballastweight,
weight,(c)(c) vertical
vertical lineline of
of the the
steel steel set
set squaresquare touching
touching corner of
m; p—width of tyres on the fixed axle, m corner of the
the tyre-treadtyre-tread pattern
pattern and wheel and
rim. wheel rim.
The base
The baseline
lineof ofthe
thestability
stabilitytriangle
triangleAA AA´ (Figure
0 (Figure 4)4)
is is
anan important
important parameter
parameter affect-
affecting
ing the calculation of the static
the calculation of the static overturning overturning
𝑚 =angle. angle.
𝑣 − 𝑖The The change of tyre contact
tg 𝛼change of tyre contact patch dimensions patch di-
(4)
mensions also influences the distance
0 AA´. Therefore, the tyre
also influences the distance AA . Therefore, the tyre contact patch was analysed. The contact patch was analysed.
The contact 𝑜 −from
2 𝑝 the
− 0.75𝑝
contact patchpatch of deformed
of deformed tyre wastyreanalysed
was analysed
𝐴𝐴´ from
footprint of
= the footprint of the
the tyre on (5)
− 𝑚tyre on the paper
the
paper(A4
sheet sheet (A4 paper
paper format), format),
as shownas shown in Figure
in Figure 7. Two7. Two
chain2chain
hoistshoists (3) and
(3) and strapstrap
beltsbelts
(6)
where:
(6) AA´—base
were used to line
lift of
the stability
tractor (1) triangle,
in inclined m; o—overall
position at width
static on tyres
overturning
were used to lift the tractor (1) in inclined position at static overturning angle α. When
of
angletheα. fixed
Whenthe
axle,
m; p—width
the tractor
tractor wasof tyres
was
lifted, on the
lifted,
petroleum fixed
petroleumjellyaxle,
jelly m
wason
was lain lain
theontyre-tread
the tyre-tread
pattern pattern
and the and the paper
paper sheet
The
sheet base
(4) wasline of
placed the stability
below the triangle
lifted tyre. AA´
The (Figure
digital 4) is an
(4) was placed below the lifted tyre. The digital protractor (2) was used to keep thekeep
protractor important
(2) was usedparameter
to tractor affect-
the
tractor
ingatthe at static
calculation
static overturningoverturning
of angle
the static angle while
whileoverturning it
it was moving was moving
angle.
down.The down.
Thechange The tyre
tyre wasofintyre was in the
contact
the same same
patch di-
position
position
mensions
during during
also
all all measurements
influences
measurements the
withdistance with
different different
AA´.
rear wheelrear
Therefore, wheel
blast the blast
tyre
weights weights
contact
(5), (5),in
patch
as shown aswas
shown
Figure in
analysed.
7b.
Figure 7b.
Measurements Measurements
were repeatedwere repeated
three times three
and times
average and average
values
The contact patch of deformed tyre was analysed from the footprint of the tyre on the of values
main of main
dimensions dimen-
of the
sions ofpatchthe contact patch (Figure 7c) were calculated. Thecontact
lengthpatch
of the contact thepatch u
contact
paper sheet (A4(Figurepaper 7c) were
format), calculated.
as shown The length 7.
in Figure of Two
the chain hoistsu (3) andand length
strap belts
and the length of the rubber
of the rubber lug n were measured. lug n were measured.
(6) were used to lift the tractor (1) in inclined position at static overturning angle α. When
the tractor was lifted, petroleum jelly was lain on the tyre-tread Front
pattern and the paper
sheet (4) was placed below the lifted 3
tyre. The digital protractor (2) was used to keep the
3
tractor at static overturning angle while it was moving down. The tyre was in the same
position during all measurements with different rear wheel blast weights (5), as shown in
Figure 7b. Measurements were repeated three times and average values of main dimen-
2 (Figure 7c) were8 calculated. The length of the contact patch u
sions of the contact1 patch
7
and the length of the rubber lug n were measured. b)
6
5 Front
n

3 3
4 u

a) c)
1 2 8
7 7. Analysis of tyre contact patch: (a) tractoratat
Figure
Figure 7. Analysis of tyre contact patch: (a) tractor static overturning
static b) angle,
overturning (b)(b)
angle, tyretyre
position during
position
experiments, (c) sketch
during experiments, (c) of tyre of
sketch contact patch on
tyre contact theon
patch paper sheet,sheet,
the paper 1—tractor, 2—digital
1—tractor, protractor,
2—digital pro-
6
tractor, 3—chain
3—chain hoist, 4—sheet
hoist, 4—sheet of paper,of5—ballast
paper, 5—ballast weight, 6—strap
weight, 6—strap belt, andbelt, and 7—portal.
7—portal.
5
3.
3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
n

3.1. Tractor Stability Parameters

4 u
Considering the technical parameters of the experimental tractor, the coordinates of
COG and the static overturning angle were calculated according to standard [12], as listed
in Table 2. The lateral positions of COG z of 0.0038 m and 0.0043 m were calculated in
a) c)
case of the standard and extended overall width on tyres. The value of this parameter is
Figure 7. Analysis of tyre contact patch: (a) tractor at static overturning angle, (b) tyre position
during experiments, (c) sketch of tyre contact patch on the paper sheet, 1—tractor, 2—digital pro-
tractor, 3—chain hoist, 4—sheet of paper, 5—ballast weight, 6—strap belt, and 7—portal.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 9 of 17

relatively low in regarding to other tractor dimensions, but it was used for next calculations
by the reason of systematic errors elimination.

Table 2. Data calculated according to standard [12].

Rear Wheel Ballast

0 30.5 61 91.5 122
Weight, kg
h, m 0.446 0.436 0.427 0.420 0.413
Vertical and longitudinal
d, m 0.708 0.735 0.760 0.781 0.801
coordinates of COG
c, m 0.442 0.415 0.390 0.369 0.349
Standard overall width on tyres (0.795 m), AA0 is 0.361 m
31.71 33.06 34.20 35.22 36.13
Static overturning angle α, ◦
Extended overall width on tyres (0.885 m), AA0 is 0.406 m
34.68 36.09 37.28 38.38 39.30

The static overturning angle was measured under experimental conditions. Using the
tilting platform and the portal crane, the experimental tractor with right wheels touching
the ground was tilted. When the tractor was inclined at the moment when it is resting in
a state of unstable equilibrium, the experimental static overturning angle (Table 3) was
measured by the digital protractor. Experiments were carried out with various rear wheel
ballast weights at two overall widths on tyres. An increase in load causes an increase in
tyre deformation characterized by the vertical distance of tyre section height i and distance
v, as listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Experimental data.

Rear Wheel Ballast

0 30.5 61 91.5 122
Weight, kg
Average 32.55 34.01 35.27 36.47 37.59
α, ◦
Standard
Standard overall 0.387 0.405 0.291 0.324 0.378
deviation
width on tyres
Average 0.0541 0.0490 0.0458 0.0419 0.0348
(0.795 m) i, m
Standard
0.0017 0.0021 0.0015 0.0008 0.0012
deviation
v, Average 35.68 34.64 34.50 32.62 29.87
m Standard
0.0012 0.0014 0.0008 0.0011 0.0013
deviation
Average 35.53 37.06 38.48 39.81 40.93
α, ◦
Standard
Extended overall 0.385 0.217 0.129 0.361 0.281
deviation
width on tyres
Average 0.0535 0.0479 0.0425 0.0365 0.0319
(0.885 m) i, m
Standard
0.0013 0.0009 0.0016 0.0009 0.0011
deviation
v, Average 40.30 38.16 37.28 33.42 31.16
m Standard
0.0012 0.0013 0.0009 0.0014 0.0016
deviation

The effect of rear wheel ballast weight on the stability parameters, namely the ver-
tical and longitudinal coordinates of COG and static overturning angle, was statistically
analysed at standard and extended overall width on tyres. [23] confirmed the fact that the
choice of selection of the rear track width in the stability of vehicles working on side sloping
terrains is indeed a very important one. The rear wheel ballast weight was selected as an
independent variable for regression analysis. Considering the 95% confidence interval, a
statistically significant relationship between the variables was stated because the p-values of
fitting a linear regression model (Figure 8) were lower than 0.05. The regression coefficients
R2 of linear regressions were higher than 0.99. The statistical significance demonstrated the
effect of the rear wheel ballast weight on the static overturning angle. This relationship
allows predicting the tractor lateral stability at various rear wheel ballast weights. [24]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 10 of 17

This relationship allows predicting the tractor lateral stability at various rear wheel ballast
weights. [24] statistically analysed the effect of the weight of tractor protective structures
on the vertical coordinate of the COG regarding the tractor lateral stability. Regression
statistically analysed
analysis showed the effect of
a significant the weightbetween
relationship of tractorthe
protective structures
protective on weight
structure the vertical
and
coordinate of the [25]
tractor stability. COGpresented
regardingsimilar
the tractor lateral
results stability.
in the paper Regression analysis
aimed at the showed
influence of thea
significant relationship between the protective structure weight and tractor stability.
tractor weight on lateral stability. [26] also verified that the ballast weight can substan- [25]
presented similar
tially change results and
the lateral in the paper aimed
longitudinal at the influence
stability angles. of the tractor weight on lateral
stability. [26] also verified that the ballast weight can substantially change the lateral and
longitudinal stability angles.

(a) (b)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Static overturning
overturning angle
angle and
and coordinates
coordinates of
of COG:
COG: (a)
(a) standard
standard overall
overall width
width on
on tyres
tyres(o
(o== 0.795
0.795 m),
m), (b)
(b) extended
extended
overall width on tyres (o = 0.885
overall width on tyres (o = 0.885 m).m).

3.2. Comparison of ISO 16231-2 (2015) with Experimental Data and Tyre Deformation Analysis
3.2. Comparison of ISO 16231-2 (2015) with Experimental Data and Tyre Deformation Analysis
Differences between the static overturning angles calculated according to standard
Differences
[12] (Table between
2) and the staticdata
experimental overturning
(Table 3)angles calculated
at various according
rear wheel to standard
ballast weights[12]
are
(Table 2) and experimental data (Table 3) at various rear wheel ballast weights
presented in Figure 8. The difference reached the highest value in case of the highest rearare presented
in Figure
wheel 8. The
ballast difference
weight. reached
The lowest the highest
difference was value in case
observed of the
in case of highest rearwithout
the tractor wheel
ballast weight. The lowest difference was observed in case of the tractor without
any ballast weight. Considering different slopes of linear regression models, the influence any ballast
weight. Considering
of rear wheel different
ballast weight onslopes of linearbetween
the difference regression themodels, the influence
data calculated of rear
according to
wheel ballast weight on the difference between the data calculated according
[12] and experimental data are expressed by different constants of regression equations. to [12] and
experimental
Practical data are expressed
experiments showed by different constantsinofrear
that the increase regression equations.
wheel ballast weight affects
Practical
the tyre experiments
deformation. When showed that the
the tractor increase
was tilted atin the
rearstatic
wheeloverturning
ballast weight affects
angle, the
the tyre deformation. When the tractor was tilted at the static overturning
weight on the wheel touching the ground reached the maximal value. Therefore, the tyre angle, the
weight on the wheel touching the ground reached the maximal value. Therefore, the tyre
deformation was measured in the state of unstable equilibrium. Using vertical distance of
deformation was measured in the state of unstable equilibrium. Using vertical distance
tyre section height i (Table 3), the parameters Δ1 and Δ2 were stated to calculate the vertical
of tyre section height i (Table 3), the parameters ∆1 and ∆2 were stated to calculate the
coordinate of COG and the static overturning angle considering the vertical tyre defor-
vertical coordinate of COG and the static overturning angle considering the vertical tyre
mation (Table 4). The vertical tyre deformation decreases the vertical coordinate of COG
deformation (Table 4). The vertical tyre deformation decreases the vertical coordinate of
and increases the static overturning angle α, as shown in Figure 9. The experiments
COG and increases the static overturning angle α, as shown in Figure 9. The experiments
showed that this parameter improves the tractor lateral stability.
showed that this parameter improves the tractor lateral stability.
Table 4. Data calculated according to standard [12] considering the vertical tyre deformation.

Rear Wheel Ballast Weight, kg 0 30.5 61 91.5 122

Δ1, m 0.0189 0.0206 0.0216 0.0232 0.0265
Δ2, m 0.0083 0.0085 0.0085 0.0086 0.0093
Standard overall width on tyres (0.795 m)
hdef, m 0.437 0.427 0.418 0.410 0.403
α, ° 32.21 33.61 34.77 35.01 36.65
Extended overall width on tyres (0.885 m) Δ1, m 0,0171 0,0191 0,0214 0,0242 0,0272
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 11 of 17

Table 4. Data calculated according to standard [12] considering the vertical tyre deformation.

Rear Wheel Ballast

0 30.5 61 91.5 122
Weight, kg
∆1 , m 0.0189 0.0206 0.0216 0.0232 0.0265
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Standard overall width ∆2 , m 0.0083 0.0085 0.0085 0.0086 0.0093
11 of 17
on tyres (0.795 m) hdef , m 0.437 0.427 0.418 0.410 0.403
α, ◦ 32.21 33.61 34.77 35.01 36.65
∆1 , m 0.0171 0.0191 0.0214 0.0242 0.0272
Extended overall width ∆2 , m 0.0075 0.0079 0.0083
Δ2, m 0,0075 0,0079 0.0089 0,0089
0,0083 0.0095
0,0095
on tyres (0.885 m) hdef , m 0.438 0.428 0.419 0.411 0.404
hdef, m 0,438 0,428 0,419 0,411 0,404
α, ◦ 35.3 37.06 38.48 39.81 40.93
α, ° 35.3 37.06 38.48 39.81 40.93

(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Influence
Influenceof
ofthe
thevertical
verticaltyre
tyredeformation
deformationononthe
the static
static overturning
overturning angle
angle calculated
calculated according
according to standard
to standard [12]:[12]:
(a)
(a) standard
standard overall
overall width
width on tyres
on tyres (o = (o = 0.795
0.795 m), m), (b) extended
(b) extended overall
overall widthwidth on tyres
on tyres (o = (o = 0.885
0.885 m). m).

When the
When thetractor
tractorwas
wastilted
tiltedatatthe
theexperimental
experimental static
static overturning
overturning angle,
angle, thethe param-
parameter
veter v (Table
(Table 3) needed
3) needed for calculation
for calculation of theoftyre
the shift
tyre shift due
due to thetolateral
the lateral tyre deformation,
tyre deformation, was
measured.
was measured.TheThetyretyre m was
shiftshift m wascalculated
calculatedaccording
accordingtotoEquation
Equation(4),
(4),and
andthe
thebase
base line
line
of the stability triangle AAAA´0 was calculated according to Equation (5), as listed listed in Table 5.
Considering the tyre shift, the the base
base line
line of
of the
the stability
stability triangle
triangle and
and the
the static
static overturning
overturning
angle were decreased.
decreased. The tyre shifts
shifts due to lateral tyre deformation negatively affected
due to lateral tyre deformation negatively affected
the tractor lateral stability,
stability, Figure
Figure10. 10.

Table 5. Calculated
Table5. Calculated data
data considering
considering the
thetyre
tyreshift
shift(lateral
(lateraltyre
tyredeformation).
deformation).

Rear
Rear Wheel
Wheel Ballast Weight, kg
Ballast 0 30.5 61 91.5 122
0 30.5 61 91.5 122
Weight, kg m, m 0.00106 0.00158 0.00211 0.00253 0.00314
Standard overall width onm,tyres
m (0.795 m) AA´,
0.00106 m 0.361 0.00211
0.00158 0.360 0.359
0.002530.3590.00314
0.358
Standard overall width
AA0 , m 0.361 α, 0.360
° 31.62 0.359
32.92 0.359 35.01 0.358
34.07 35.87
on tyres (0.795 m)
α, ◦ 31.62 32.92 34.07 35.01 35.87
m, m 0.00153 0.00199 0.00248 0.00302 0.00361
m, m 0.00153 0.00199 0.00248 0.00302 0.00361
Extended overall
Extended overallwidth
width on
AAtyres
0 , m (0.885 m) AA´,0.404
0.405 m 0.405 0.4040.404 0.404
0.403 0.403 0.402
0,402
on tyres (0.885 m)
α, ◦ 34.57 α, 35.94
° 34.57 37.14 35.94 37.14
38.11 38.11 39.02
39.02
Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11,
Sci. 2021, 11, 381
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1212of
of 17
17

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Influence of the tyre shift (lateral tyre deformation) on the static overturning angle calculated according to
standard [12]: (a) standard overall width on tyres (o = 0.795 m), (b) extended overall width on tyres (o = 0.885 m).

Considering both effects of tyre deformation, namely the vertical tyre deformation
and the tyre shift, the calculation methodology according to standard [12] was modified.
(a) (b)
The static overturning angles calculated in this way are presented in Figure 11 and Table
Figure 10. Influence
Influence of the 6tyre shift (lateral
in case tyre deformation)
of the tractor on the static
with the standard overturning
andoverturning
the extendedangleoverall
calculated according
width to The
on tyres.
standard [12]: (a) standard overall width
experiments
standard [12]: (a) standard overall width onon tyres (o
presented = 0.795
tyres (o = a0.795 m),
minimal (b) extended
m), (b)decrease
extendedin overall width
the static
overall on tyres
widthoverturning (o = 0.885
on tyres (o = angle m).
due to the tyre
0.885 m).
shift in comparison with an increase in it due to the vertical tyre deformation. The sum-
maryConsidering
effect of the both
Considering both effects of tyre
tyre deformation deformation,
increased namely
the static the vertical
overturning tyre deformation
angle. deformation
and the tyre shift, the calculation methodology
methodology according
according to to standard
standard [12][12] was
was modified.
modified.
The
Tablestatic overturning
6. Calculated angles calculated
data considering vertical in this
tyre deformation presented
way are presented in Figure
in
and tyre shift. Figure 11
11 and
and Table
Table
6 in case of the tractor with the standardstandard and and thethe extended
extended overall
overall width
width on
on tyres.
tyres. The
experiments Rear Wheel Ballast
presented a minimalWeight, kg in the static overturning
decrease 0 30.5angle61 due91.5
to the122
tyre
Standard
shift in overall
comparison
comparison with
withwidth
an on tyres
anincrease
increase (0.795
inin
it due
it due m)the
to vertical
to the 32.24
tyretyre
vertical 33.63 34.81The
deformation.
deformation. 35.79 36.68
summary
The sum-
α, °
effectExtended
mary of the of
effect tyreoverall
the width on
deformation tyres
increased
tyre deformation (0.885 m)
the static
increased the overturning35.21angle.
static overturning 36.62 37.83 38.91 39.88
angle.

Table 6. Calculated data considering vertical tyre deformation and tyre shift.

Rear Wheel Ballast Weight, kg 0 30.5 61 91.5 122

Standard overall width on tyres (0.795 m) 32.24 33.63 34.81 35.79 36.68
α, °
Extended overall width on tyres (0.885 m) 35.21 36.62 37.83 38.91 39.88

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Comparison of static overturning angle calculated according to standard [12], [12] considering the vertical tyre
deformation and tyre
deformation and tyre shift
shift with
with experimental
experimental data:
data: (a)
(a) standard
standard overall
overall width
width on
on tyres
tyres (o
(o == 0.795
0.795 m),
m), (b)
(b) extended
extended overall
overall
width on tyres (o = 0.885 m).
width on tyres (o = 0.885 m).

Comparison of the experimental data with the data calculated according to [12] con-
(a) 6. Calculated data considering vertical tyre deformation
Table (b)and tyre shift.
sidering the vertical tyre deformation and tyre shift showed lower difference than in case
of [12]
Figure 11. Comparison of static ignoring
overturning
Rear Wheel thecalculated
angle
Ballast tyre deformation
according to(Table
standard7).[12],
Besides the measuring
[12] considering errors,
the vertical tyre the
0 30.5 61 91.5 122
deformation and tyre shift with experimental
Weight, kgdata: (a) standard overall width on tyres (o = 0.795 m), (b) extended overall
width on tyres (o = 0.885 m).
Standard overall width
32.24 33.63 34.81 35.79 36.68
on tyres (0.795 m) α, ◦
Comparison
Extended of the experimental data with the data calculated according to [12] con-
overall width
35.21 36.62 37.83 38.91 39.88
sidering the(0.885
on tyres vertical
m) tyre deformation and tyre shift showed lower difference than in case
of [12] ignoring the tyre deformation (Table 7). Besides the measuring errors, the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 13 of 17

Comparison of the experimental data with the data calculated according to [12]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
considering 13 ofin
the vertical tyre deformation and tyre shift showed lower difference than 17
case of [12] ignoring the tyre deformation (Table 7). Besides the measuring errors, the
difference between data calculated according to [12] and experimental data depends on the
tyre deformation,
difference regarding
between the results
data calculated of experiments.
according to [12] and experimental data depends on
the tyre deformation, regarding the results of experiments.
Table 7. Percentage difference between calculated and experimental data.
Table 7. Percentage difference between calculated and experimental data.
Standard Overall Width on Tyres (0.795 m) Extended Overall Width on Tyres (0.885 m)
Rear Wheel Ballast ISO
Standard Overall Width on 16231-2 Considering
Tyres (0.795 m) Extended Overall WidthISO 16231-2
on Tyres Considering
(0.885 m)
Rear Wheel
Weight, kg ISO 16231-2 the Vertical Tyre ISO 16231-2 the Vertical Tyre
ISO 16231-2 Considering the ISO 16231-2 Considering the
Ballast Weight, Deformation and Tyre and
Shift Deformation and Tyre Shift
ISO 16231-2 Vertical Tyre Deformation ISO 16231-2 Vertical Tyre Deformation and
kg
0 2.57 Tyre 0.95
Shift 2.40 Tyre Shift
0.91
0
30.5 2.57
2.80 0.95
1.11 2.402.61 0.911.18
30.5
61 2.80
3.04 1.11
1.29 2.613.11 1.181.69
61
91.5 3.04
3.42 1.29
1.85 3.113.67 1.692.27
91.5
122 3.42
3.88 1.85
2.42 3.673.99 2.272.57
122 3.88 2.42 3.99 2.57

Consideringthe
Considering thedecrease
decreaseininvertical
verticalcoordinate
coordinateofof COGCOG duedueto to
thethe vertical
vertical tyretyre de-
defor-
formation
mation andand the the overall
overall width width on tyres
on tyres duedue to tyre
to tyre shift,
shift, thethe calculation
calculation methodmethod accord-
according
ing to [12] was improved because the difference between
to [12] was improved because the difference between calculated and experimental data calculated and experimental
datadecreased.
was was decreased. The constants
The constants of theof the regression
regression equationsequations
(Figure(Figure 11) showed
11) showed the dif-
the different
ferent slope of the linear models of the calculated and experimental
slope of the linear models of the calculated and experimental data. The difference between data. The difference
between calculated
calculated and experimentaland experimental
data increasesdata when
increases when
the rear the rear
wheel wheel
ballast weightballast weight
increases.
increases.
The The tyre deformation
tyre deformation is a complex is a problem
complex problem
defined by defined
variousby parameters
various parameters ([27,28]).([27],
To
[28]). Todescribe
detailly detaillythe describe the tyre deformation
tyre deformation and eliminate and theeliminate
increase the increase in
in difference difference
between the
between the
calculated andcalculated and the data
the experimental experimental
due to thedata due to
increase in the
the increase
rear wheel in ballast
the rear wheel
weight,
ballast weight, complex measurements are needed. Regarding
complex measurements are needed. Regarding small absolute values of the percentage small absolute values of
the percentage
difference, theredifference,
is no pointthere is no
in next point in
complex next complex measurements.
measurements.
The results showed
The showed the the difference
differencebetween
betweenthe theexperimental
experimental datadataand andcalculated
calculated ac-
cording toto
according [12]
[12] duedue toto
tyretyredeformation.
deformation. In In
practice,
practice, thisthis
difference
difference is not
is notdangerous
dangerous be-
cause the
because thetyre
tyredeformation
deformationdecreasesdecreasesthe thevertical
vertical coordinate
coordinate of COG, increases increases the thestatic
static
overturning
overturning angleangle and and therefore
therefore improves
improves the the tractor’s
tractor’s lateral
lateral stability.
stability. [19][19]studied
studiedthe the
changes in lateral overturning angle by movement of the centre
changes in lateral overturning angle by movement of the centre of gravity coordinates due of gravity coordinates due
to
to asymmetric
asymmetric connection
connection of of the
theharvest
harvestsystem
systemto tothe
thetractor.
tractor.TheThestudy
studyof ofthese
theseauthors
authors
presented
presented aa positive
positive and and negative
negative change
change in in static
static overturning
overturning angle angle at at aadecrease
decreaseand and
increase
increasein inthe
thevertical
verticalcoordinate
coordinateof ofCOG.
COG.
The
Thetyretyrecontact
contactpatch patch was analysed
was analysed according
according to thetolength of rubber
the length lug n and
of rubber luglength
n and
of contact patch u, Figure 7c. The tyre footprints on the paper
length of contact patch u, Figure 7c. The tyre footprints on the paper sheet showed thesheet showed the tyre contact
patches of thepatches
tyre contact tractor of with
thevarious rear wheel
tractor with various ballast weights
rear wheel whenweights
ballast the tractor when was inclined
the tractor
at the static overturning angle. An example of the tyre contact patch
was inclined at the static overturning angle. An example of the tyre contact patch of the of the tractor equipped
with 122equipped
tractor kg of the with rear wheel
122 kgballast
of theweight (standard
rear wheel ballast overall
weight width on tyres
(standard o = 0.795
overall widthm) onis
shown
tyres o in Figure
= 0.795 m)12. is shown in Figure 12.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Experimental
Experimental example
examplefor
fortyre
tyrecontact
contactpatch.
patch.

Experimental measurements
Experimental measurements confirmed
confirmed the the fact
fact that
that the
the rear
rear wheel
wheel ballast
ballastweight
weight
affects
affects the
the tyre
tyredeformation.
deformation. Inclining
Inclining the
the tractor
tractor at
atthe
theexperimental
experimentalstatic
staticoverturning
overturning
angle, the length of the tyre contact patch u (Table 8) depended on the rear wheel ballast
weight due to the tyre deformation. The increase in the rear wheel ballast weight caused
an increase in the length of contact patch (Figure 13a). Nonlinear regression equations
pointed out that the tyre deformation is a complex problem. The coefficients of
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 14 of 17

angle, the length of the tyre contact patch u (Table 8) depended on the rear wheel ballast
weight
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW due to the tyre deformation. The increase in the rear wheel ballast weight caused
14 of 17
an increase in the length of contact patch (Figure 13a). Nonlinear regression equations
pointed out that the tyre deformation is a complex problem. The coefficients of determi-
nation R2 higher2than 0.98 and p-values lower than the significance level of 0.05 present a
determination R higher than 0.98 and p-values lower than the significance level of 0.05
significant effect of tyre deformation due to the rear wheel ballast weight on the length of
present a significant effect of tyre deformation due to the rear wheel ballast weight on the
the contact patch.
length of the contact patch.
Table 8. Dimensions of tyre contact patch at various rear wheel ballast weights.
Table 8. Dimensions of tyre contact patch at various rear wheel ballast weights.
Standard Overall Width on Tyres (0.795 m) Extended Overall Width on Tyres (0.885 m)
Standard Overall Width on Tyres (0.795 m) Extended Overall Width on Tyres (0.885 m)
Rear Wheel
Rear Wheel Ballast
Ballast Weight,
Weight, kg
00 30.5
30.5 61
61 91.5
91.5 122
122 00 30.5
30.5 61
61 91.5
91.5 122
122
Length
Length of
of rubber
rubber lug
lug n,
n, m
m 0.0588
0.0588 0.0585
0.0585 0.0586 0.0583
0.0583 0.0587
0.0587 0.0546 0.0547 0.0546
0.0546 0.0549
0.0549 0.0547
Standard
Standard deviation,
deviation, m
m 0.0011
0.0011 0.0012
0.0012 0.0009 0.0009
0.0009 0.0014
0.0014 0.0006 0.0008 0.0007
0.0007 0.0012
0.0012 0.0011
Length of
Length of contact
contact patch u, m
patch u, m 0.120
0.120 0.124
0.124 0.126 0.129
0.129 0.131
0.131 0.128 0.129 0.130
0.130 0.132
0.132 0.133
Standard deviation,
Standard deviation, m m 0.001
0.001 0.0008
0.0008 0.0015
0.0015 0.0011
0.0011 0.0007
0.0007 0.0087
0.0087 0.0012
0.0012 0.0014
0.0014 0.0011
0.0011 0.0007
0.0007

(a) (b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Dimensions
Dimensions of
of tyre
tyre contact
contact patch:
patch: (a)
(a) length
length of
of contact
contact patch,
patch, (b)
(b) length
length of
of rubber
rubber lug.
lug.

On the other hand, the results of experiments showed that that the length of rubber lug nn
(Table 8) did
(Table 8) did not change
change at various rear wheel ballast weights,
weights, Figure
Figure 13b). The coefficients
coefficients
determination RR lower
of determination 2 lowerthanthan0.1 0.1and p-value
andp-value higher than 0.05 express a statistically
2 higher than 0.05 express a statistically in-
insignificant relationship
significant relationship between
between the the
rearrear
wheelwheel
ballastballast
weightweight
and the and the length
length of the
of the rubber
rubber
lug. Thelug. The increase
increase in the rear in wheel
the rear wheelweight
ballast ballastcauses
weight ancauses
increase anin
increase
the staticin overturn-
the static
overturning
ing angle which angle which compensates
compensates the increase theinincrease
the length in the length
of the tyre of the tyre
rubber lug rubber lug
due to tyre
due to tyre deformation. Considering the experimental results,
deformation. Considering the experimental results, the dimensions of the tyre contact the dimensions of the tyre
contact
patch did patch did not
not affect theaffect the calculation
calculation of the
of the static static overturning
overturning angle because anglethe because
lengththe of
length of the contact patch u did not affect the distance AA 0 and the length of rubber lug n
the contact patch u did not affect the distance AA´ and the length of rubber lug n did not
did not change.
change.
The
The tractor
tractor overturns around the
overturns around the rolling
rolling point
point when
when it it reaches
reaches the the limit
limit value
value ofof the
the
static
static overturning angle and loses stability (equilibrium). [6] present that the standard is
overturning angle and loses stability (equilibrium). [6] present that the standard is
intended
intended for for the
the calculation
calculation of of static
static overturning
overturning angle angle inin case
case of of different
different tractor
tractor types
types
with
with different
different agricultural
agricultural tyres.
tyres. Agricultural
Agricultural tyrestyres are
are different
different in in dimensions
dimensions and and elastic
elastic
properties
properties affecting the forces between the ground and tyre. The standard [12] defines the
affecting the forces between the ground and tyre. The standard [12] defines the
position
position ofof the
the force
force below
below the the tyre
tyre inin the
the rolling
rolling point
point ofof the
the fixed
fixed axle
axle as as three
three quarters
quarters
(0.75)
(0.75) of
of the
the tyre
tyre width
width (Figure
(Figure 4). If higher
4). If higher or or lower
lower value
value thanthan 0.75
0.75 ofof tyre width pp is
tyre width is
considered, the calculated value of static
considered, the calculated value of static overturning overturning angle
angle is
is higher
higher or
or lower
lower because
because the
the
0
length
length of
of the
the base
base line
line of
of the
the stability triangle AA
stability triangle AA´ isis changed.
changed. In In the
the case
case ofof experimental
experimental
tractor equipped with standard tyres, the higher inclination of the tractor (better lateral
stability) due to higher wheel weight compensates the higher tyre deformation.

4. Conclusions
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 15 of 17

tractor equipped with standard tyres, the higher inclination of the tractor (better lateral
stability) due to higher wheel weight compensates the higher tyre deformation.

4. Conclusions
Four levels of the rear wheel ballast weight and extended overall width on tyres were
applied to analyse the agricultural tractor lateral stability. The ballast weight placed in the
rear wheels decreased the vertical coordinate of COG. The extended overall width on tyres
widened the base line of the stability triangle of the tractor. The experiments confirmed
the improvement of the tractor stability using the rear wheel ballast weight or increase
in the overall width on tyres. The statistically significant relationship between the ballast
weight and the height of COG can be used to predict the tractor lateral stability. The tests
performed to characterize the tractor stability check the static overturning angle and are
helpful for real operation conditions.
Comparing the static overturning angle calculated according to [12] with the experi-
mental data, the difference was observed. The deference reached the values of 2.27%, 2.8%,
3.04%, 3.42% and 3.88% in the case of standard overall width on tyres and 2.14%, 2.61%,
3.11%, 3.67 and 3.99% in the case of extended overall width on tyres, at 0, 30.5, 61, 91.5 and
122 kg of the rear wheel ballast weight. Considering the measurement instruments with
adequate precisions and statistical tools to decrease the standard measurement errors, the
influence of the tyre deformation on the difference between [12] and experimental data
were analysed. When the tractor was tilted, the vertical tyre deformation increased the
static overturning angle due to the vertical shift of COG. This parameter is a component
of the tyre deformation causing the improvement of the tractor stability. On the other
hand, the lateral shift of the tyre decreased the static overturning angle due to the decrease
in overall width on tyres. The tyre lateral shift is a component of the tyre deformation
worsening the tractor stability and safety of the tractor operation. Both parameters act
together resulting from the tyre deformation. Combination of the vertical tyre deformation
and the lateral shift of the tyre decreased the difference between the experimental data and
data calculated according to [12]. The difference reached the value of 1.81%, 1.33%, 0.98%,
0.73% and 0.22% in the case of standard overall width on tyres and 1.95%, 1.73%, 1.28%,
0.74 and 0.34% in the case of extended overall width on tyres at 0, 30.5, 61, 91.5 and 122 kg
of the rear wheel ballast weight. The tyre contact patch was also analysed. The increase in
the rear wheel ballast weight caused an increase only in the length of the contact patch, but
this parameter does not affect the tractor lateral stability. The length of the rubber lug of
the tyre tread pattern did not change because the tractor inclination corrected the influence
of the weight increase on the tyre deformation. The result showed that the changes of the
tyre contact patch due to tyre deformation did not affect the rolling point below the tyre
and the static overturning angle.
Experiments showed the increase in the difference between experimental data and
data calculated according to the standard [12], considering different constants of the
regression equations of models. This problem results in the deformation characteristics of
the tyre which can be described in detail by the complex analysis of the tyre deformation.
Considering the minimal influence of this problem on the tractor lateral stability, the
experiments defining the complex tyre deformation was not the aim of this article.
The static overturning angle calculated according to [12] is lower in comparison with
the experimental data at both overall width on tyres and all rear wheel ballast weights.
Based on results relating the tyre deformation analysis, it can be concluded that the differ-
ence is caused by the different tyre deformation when the front axle is lifted during the
measurement of the COG coordinates in comparison with the tractor tilted at the static
overturning angle during the experimental measurements. In practice, it means that the
operation of the tractor according to [12] improves the tractor safety.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 381 16 of 17

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.A. and R.D.; Data curation, E.M.; Formal analysis, Z.T.
and K.K.; Funding acquisition, Z.T.; Investigation, R.M., R.A. and J.M.; Methodology, R.M., R.A. and
J.M.; Project administration, K.K.; Software, R.D. and E.M.; Supervision, Z.T.; Visualization, R.D.
and E.M.; Writing—original draft, R.M.; Writing—review & editing, K.K. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research r received funding from project VEGA 1/0724/19 mentioned in Acknowl-
edgements.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: VEGA 1/0724/19 “Research, Design and Application of Special Driving Wheels
for Drawbar Properties Improvement and Elimination of Soil Damage under Operation of Cars and
Tractors”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

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