7 Technical Services Boiler Inspection Module A

Technical Services
BOILER DESIGN AND OPERATION TRAINING PROGRAMME

TECHNICAL SERVICES BOILER INSPECTION MODULE
Prepared by: J.H. McMillan

Technical Service Engineer
Date: 15th November 2008

Prepared by: M. Macrae
Technical Manager

Approved By: T Evans
Group Leader Technical
Publications
Technical Services Department

11 The Boulevard, Crawley, West Sussex, RH10 1UX
United Kingdom.
Tel: +44 (0)1293 584755

Fax: +44 (0)1293 584335
Web: www.doosanbabcock.com
Boiler Design and Operation Training Programme
Technical Services Inspection Module
INDEX
1 TECHNICAL SERVICES INSPECTION INTRODUCTION ........................4
2 TECHNICAL SERVICES BOILER INSPECTIONS METHODOLOGY .......5
2.1 Inspections as Part of an Investigation into Specific Boiler
Component or System Failures.....................................................................5
2.2 Through Life or Remnant Life Inspections of Boilers............................5
2.3 Inspection Approach .............................................................................7
2.3.1 Phase 1 - Pre-Site Preparation Phase ...........................................7
2.3.2 On-Site Implementation of Inspections and Reporting .................10
2.3.3 Off-Site Final Inspection Report ...................................................11
2.3.4 Optional Additional Tests and Inspections ...................................11
3 BOILER CONDITION ASSESSMENT – KEY ISSUES ............................14
3.1 Boiler Arrangements ...........................................................................15
3.1.1 Typical Power Station Once Through Boiler ................................15
3.1.2 Typical Power Station Natural Circulation Drum Boiler ................17
3.1.3 Typical Power Station Heat Recovery Steam Generator .............18
3.1.4 Typical Industrial Boiler ................................................................21
3.1.5 Typical Marine Propulsion Boiler..................................................22
3.1.6 Typical Shell boiler .......................................................................23
3.1.7 Steam Drum.................................................................................24
3.1.8 Boiler Supporting Steelwork.........................................................24
3.1.9 Enclosures and Framework .........................................................25
3.1.10 Boiler Casing, Refractory and Insulation ......................................26
3.2 Boiler Process Design Issues............................................................27
3.2.1 Heat Transfer Processes .............................................................27
3.2.2 Heat Transfer in a Boiler ..............................................................27
3.2.3 Departure from Nucleate Boiling/Steam Blanketing. ....................28
3.2.4 Steam/water Separation...............................................................28
3.2.5 Extended surface tubes ...............................................................29
3.2.6 Feed Water preheating ................................................................29
3.2.7 Combustion air preheating and gas/air heaters ...........................29
3.2.8 Balanced /forced draught .............................................................29
3.2.9 Drum sampling point, blowdown and dosing location ..................29
3.3 Boiler Mechanical and Metallurgical Design Issues ..........................31
3.3.1 Design Codes ..............................................................................31
3.3.2 Materials. .....................................................................................31
3.4 Boiler Operations ..............................................................................32
3.4.1 Boiler Operation Within Safe Working Limits ...............................32
3.4.2 Boiler Controls and Interlocks ......................................................33
3.4.3 Start Up and Shut Down, Including 2-shifting...............................33
3.4.4 Boiler Efficiency Issues ................................................................34
3.4.5 Burner and Combustion Issues....................................................35
3.4.6 Slagging and Fouling ...................................................................35
3.4.7 Preservation during Prolonged Shut Down ..................................36
3.4.8 Post Commissioning Operational Issues......................................36
3.5 Boiler Water and Steam Chemistry.....................................................37
3.5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................37
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3.5.2 Protective Oxide formation on Boiler Surfaces.............................37

3.5.3 Summary of Main Parameters to be Controlled. ..........................37
3.5.4 Introduction to Main Water Treatment Regimes...........................38
3.5.5 Chemical Cleaning and Steam Purge. .........................................39
3.6 Boiler Pressure Part Damage Mechanisms.........................................43
3.6.1 Short Term Overheating...............................................................44
3.6.2 Long Term Overheating ...............................................................46
3.6.3 On-line Corrosion. ........................................................................48
3.6.4 Oil/Coal Ash Corrosion.................................................................50
3.6.5 Water Wall Fireside Corrosion. ....................................................52
3.6.6 Internal Corrosion Pitting..............................................................54
3.6.7 Acid Dew Point Corrosion ............................................................56
3.6.8 Flow Assisted Corrosion. .............................................................58
3.6.9 Sootblower Erosion. .....................................................................60
3.6.10 Flyash Erosion .............................................................................61
3.6.11 Rubbing and Fretting....................................................................62
3.6.12 Mechanical Damage ....................................................................63
3.6.13 Low Temperature Creep Cracking ...............................................64
3.6.14 Fatigue .........................................................................................65
3.6.15 Stress Corrosion Cracking ...........................................................66
3.7 Inspection and Testing Techniques & Tools Available.........................67
3.8 Boiler Construction and Repair Techniques..........................................69
3.8.1 Tube insertion with butt weld........................................................69
3.8.2 Tube insertion with window welds. ...............................................69
3.8.3 Tube Overlay weld repairs ...........................................................69
3.8.4 Header and Pipework repairs.......................................................69
3.8.5 Pre & post weld heat treatment....................................................69
3.8.6 Tube expansions..........................................................................69
3.8.7 Pneumatic & Hydraulic Testing. ...................................................70
3.9 Health and Safety Issues .....................................................................71
3.10 Documentation...................................................................................71
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................73
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1 TECHNICAL SERVICES INSPECTION INTRODUCTION

The Doosan Babcock Technical Service Dept. provides OEM inspections and
investigations on boilers and ancillary equipment supplied by Doosan
Babcock and others over the last 50 years. The boilers designs covered
include:
 Power station once-through sub or super critical boilers.

 Power station pumped or natural circulation boilers.
 Power station waste heat boilers or HRSG’s pumped or natural
circulation boilers with or without supplementary firing.
 Industrial or marine natural circulation water tube boilers.
 Industrial or marine fire tube boilers.
The fuels fired include all types of solid liquid and gaseous fuel as well waste
heat.
On smaller industrial, marine and utility boilers TS Inspection Engineers often

take the lead role carrying out the inspections works and coordinating the
Metallurgy, NDT and RVI, inputs from other Doosan Babcock Depts. and
subcontractors.
On larger utility boilers inspections, including Design Review led Remnant Life
Assessments Technical Service Engineers generally carry out Condition
Assessment Inspections as part of a larger Doosan Babcock Asset Integrity
team. In this situation TS Engineers generally make operational and water
chemistry contributions to the design review and assist with the preparation of
Inspection Plans including risk based plans, if called for. During the
inspections TS Engineers generally assist the Metallurgists with creep zone
component inspections and carry out inspections on the remainder of the
boiler including coordinating the NDT requirements. TS Engineers generally
also coordinate the boiler RVI inspections and review the boiler operations
including the water chemistry.
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2 TECHNICAL SERVICES BOILER INSPECTIONS METHODOLOGY

Boiler inspections take two main forms:
1 Investigations into specific boiler component or system failures.
2 Through Life or Remnant Life Inspections of Boilers
2.1 Inspections as Part of an Investigation into Specific Boiler

Component or System Failures.
This could involve an investigation into a specific pressure part failure or a
group of failures in say a tube bank. It is widely recognised that the following
are the main steps for such investigations:
1. Carry out inspections to identify the damage mechanism/s from the

features and location. Background information on the boiler design,
operations, water chemistry and failure history would normally be
required for this. Metallurgical examination, NDT tests, deposit, fuel
and ash sample analysis may also be required.
2. Establish the root cause and the extent of the problem using
appropriate investigative inspections and test techniques including, if
necessary, further on or off site metallurgical examination, NDT testing
and sample analysis.
3. Provide recommendations for short and long term remedial actions.
2.2 Through Life or Remnant Life Inspections of Boilers

Inspection Strategy
All plant accumulates damage through ageing, the rate of damage being
determined by the operating, maintenance, inspection and repair regimes in
use. This is traditionally illustrated by the ‘Bathtub Curve’, shown as Fig.1
below.
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Fig 1 ‘Bathtub Curve’
The frequency and focus of inspections varies dependent on the age of the
plant or the Stage reached. Summary notes for each stage are provided
below. (This is discussed in more detail in Section 3 of Reference 3.)
Stage 1
This covers the commissioning and initial operation period. The probability of
failure is initially high and is steadily decreased by the elimination of damage
mechanisms originating from defects in design, manufacturing, construction
and commissioning.
During this phase the first thorough or benchmark confirmatory inspection

should be carried out to establish the datum condition of the equipment.
Stage 2
After the plant emerges from the commissioning and guarantee period it
should enter a prolonged period with a low probability of failure. During this
Maturity stage confirmatory inspections build on the benchmark data to
establish trends that can be used to refine inspection scopes and intervals,
possibly by risk based methods.
Stage 3
This stage is deemed to have been reached when there is evidence of an
increase in the rate of damage accrued by the equipment. Deterministic
inspections should then be targeted to quantify the rate of plant ageing by
identifying the onset, incremental rate and extent of damage accrued. The
frequency extent and scope of inspections will generally increase during this
period.
Stage 4
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This Terminal stage is generally deemed to be an extension of Stage 3 with

similar deterministic inspections being used to ensure the plant remains safe
to operate.
2.3 Inspection Approach

The approach to both confirmatory and deterministic phase inspections is
broadly similar. The main objective for the inspections is to detect, assess
and address any damage mechanisms before failures occur that adversely
the plant safety, reliability and efficiency. Doosan Babcock Technical
Services generally use a three phase approach.
2.3.1 Phase 1 - Pre-Site Preparation Phase
Pre-Site Technical Preparation

Before commencing any site inspection TS Engineers should familiarise
themselves with the plant and its history. This would include the collection of
as much of the ‘Wish List’ of operating and maintenance data provided below.
This is often best accomplished by a brief site visit to site and when
discussions can be held the clients operations and maintenance staff and
assistance provided in retrieving the information.
1. Working copies of the following data sheets, drawings, diagrams and

other documents are generally required. Much of the information can
be found in the Boiler Operating and Maintenance (O&M) Manuals.
Access for reference to detail drawings, sketches and procedures is
also essential during the inspections.
 Boiler design data for steam, water, fuel, air and flue gas pressures,
temperatures, flows and compositions.
 Dimensions and materials of all pressure part components included
in the inspection including the drain lines up to the first isolation
point.
 Boiler side elevation drawing.
 Boiler plans at various elevations including sling deck and Top
Dead Space.
 Tube bank detail drawings showing material transitions, support
arrangements, alignment devices, anti-vibration devices,
penetration seal details etc.
 Desuperheater drawings.
 Header arrangements including inspection cap locations, internal
baffles details (for headers included in RVI)
 Steam drum, if applicable, including shell welding, shell drilling
details and drum internal details.
 Boiler water/steam, fuel and air/gas Flow Diagrams/P&ID’s/ ELD’s.
 Key notes from boiler start-up, shut-down notes including limiting
rates and temperatures.
 Boiler control schematics and/or control philosophy documents
including details of the Set Points and function generators for the
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main loops. e.g. combustion O2 across load range. This should also
include details of the boiler maximum load and turndown
capabilities under automatic and manual operation.
 Drawing or data sheet showing boiler expansion philosophy and
predicted movements.
 Documentation providing details of layout, gallery elevations,
access doors and site nomenclature conventions. e.g. front/back,
RHS/LHS, A/B, N/S/E/W, tube/header numbering conventions etc.
2. Details of major and minor inspection periodicity and copies of the most
recent inspection reports, including investigation reports into specific
failures or groups and categories of failures including:
 Remanent life assessments based on in-situ and off site
metallography as well as by oxide thickness measurement.
 Cold Formed Bend investigations.
 Flow Assisted Corrosion (FAC) investigations.
 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) investigations.
 Thermography surveys.
 Smoke tests
 Boiler weighing exercises.
3. Details of any previous Boiler Design Studies such as for creep and
fatigue or for specific topics such as 2 shifting.
4. Lists of unit modifications and years since installation. e.g. Low NOx
burners, off-line recirculation facilities, sootblowers/waterblowers added
or removed, anti-erosion measures taken etc.
5. Tube and other pressure plant history, including replacements and

repairs implemented. This would include any boiler tube failure
reduction strategy documents and records.
6. Boiler operating history including the operating hours, availability

summaries, the numbers of cold, warm and hot starts. This should
include details of the operation regime since the last major inspection
and the plans for future use. e.g. 2-shifting, frequency control, base
loading, low load operation etc.
7. The duration and methods of boiler storage during any lay-up or

prolonged outage periods.
8. Recent operating data from DCS systems, PI data systems and/or

manual log sheets.
9. Fuel analyses and history of fuel usage.
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10. Details of the raw water, boiler water and condensate treatment plants.
An understanding should also be gained on the major sources of
recovered condensate and the quantity of condensate recovered as a
% of steam delivered. This can provide vital information on feedwater
contaminants such as iron, copper, oil, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
Information is also required on:
 The boiler water and steam chemistry control regime used.

 The chemicals dosed along with the dosing locations and systems.
 The control limits imposed and a history of significant excursion
incidents. e.g. condenser leakage.
 The sampling facilities.
 Any continuous monitoring instruments and associated controls or
alarms.
Log sheets and/or trend information for a typical period of operation

prior to the inspection along with records of any excursion periods
should be collected for review
11. The number and methods used for chemical or mechanical cleaning or
steam purging of the boiler water and steam internal surfaces since the
boiler was first commissioned.
12. The methods used to clean the dust and slag accumulations from the
gas sides of the boiler prior to outages.
This information would assist Doosan Babcock in identifying the deterioration

mechanisms affecting the boiler structure and pressure parts, pinpointing the
regions of interest, refining the inspection scope and planning the work.
Where a Design Review is included the information would be gathered in
advance and form part of the review.
When required by the Client, the Clients Insurance Inspector or Competent

Person it may be necessary prepare an Inspection Plan where the above
information would be used to produce and agree in advance the scope for the
inspections, tests, techniques, locations. In recent years these often involve
some risk based analysis and are generally required in a spread sheet or data
base format that is compatible with the Clients existing maintenance software
system.
Pre-Site Logistical Preparations

Prior to the site phase lists of preparatory work for the inspections by plant
maintenance personnel or specialist sub-contractors are drawn up. The
services required typically include:-
1. Opening up access ports on the water and steam side of the boiler.
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2. The removal of hazardous materials or excessive combustion product

accumulations.
3. Provision of power supplies for inspection equipment and lighting.
4. Scaffold access.
5. Surface preparation for thickness checks, NDT and metallurgy work.
6. Removal of selected drum internals, cyclones, baffle plates etc.
7. Opening up and reinstating spray attemperators for inspection.
8. Removal and replacement of header inspection caps.
9. Removal and replacement of tube cut-outs.
10. Refractory removal to expose pressure parts for inspection particularly

at penetrations.
11. Insulation removal.
12. Casing removal to expose external tube surface, tie-bars, buck-stays,

other tube attachments and areas of suspected external corrosion or
defects.
13. Issue and holding of the Permits and Access Certificates to ensure that
the inspections are carried out under safe conditions.
14. Risk assessment and method statements preparation and agreement

for use.
Where required, an outline programme of the inspection work would be

developed for progress monitoring during the inspections. Lines of
communication and progress reporting mechanisms should also be agreed for
site, including progress meetings.
On larger inspections it is generally more time efficient if the provision of the

above services is coordinated by a Doosan Babcock Site Project Manager.
2.3.2 On-Site Implementation of Inspections and Reporting

The inspections would be carried out by TS Engineers and other Specialists
as required by the above plans. Where damage is noted, the methodology
outlined in 2.1 above, for Failure Investigations should be followed. This may
require an extension of the inspection scope and programme. Interim
reporting should progress as agreed and a Site Report would be issued and
discussed with the client prior to leaving site. This provides a brief summary
of the defects found, lists further investigations and remedial works in order to
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enable these activities to be completed within outage period. For clarity and
consistency of approach a system of categorisation of the defects found is
generally adopted. The simple A-B-C system noted below is generally
considered adequate*.
* Site Report Defect Categorisation

The assignment of defect categories by the TS Engineer would be based on a
qualitative mental risk assessment of both the probability and consequence of
a failure occurring or recurring. The following category designations are
typically used:
Category/Designation
A Defects of such severity that the safe, and/or immediate continuous

operation of the Unit is severely threatened. Remedial works to be
carried out before the unit returns to service.
B Defects that may give rise to limited structural failure before the next
major outage with some effect on availability and/or efficiency.
Remedial work should preferably be carried out but may be deferred,
with further monitoring if necessary.
C Defects which may arise from marginal weaknesses or early signs of

deformation, original erection errors and omissions, change of design
codes, poor practice etc., which represent a minor threat of failure or
loss of availability and have little effect on efficiency. Defects to be
monitored if appropriate. Remedial work of low priority and only to be
carried out if economic to do so.
2.3.3 Off-Site Final Inspection Report

The Final Inspection Report provides details of areas in good condition for
reference and trending purposes as well as providing an assessment of any
damage found. The latter should identify the damage mechanism, the root
cause, the extent of the problem, confirm short term remedial actions and
recommend a long term solution including any further works deemed
necessary. The findings from any Specialist (eg NDT, RVI) reports should
also be included in the Final report, and detailed results appended. On larger
inspections the Technical Services report is often included within an overall
Doosan Babcock Inspection document.
2.3.4 Optional Additional Tests and Inspections
The following inspection/tests/assessments and reviews are generally offered

as an option unless specifically included in the Clients specifications.
Main Steam Pipework

The consequence of failure of a main steam pipe have meant that most if not
all UK Clients have well developed inspection schemes included in their
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Written Schemes of Examination. This may not always be case abroad and in
industries outside of power plant utilities and in these cases attention should
always be drawn to the risks involved. These specialist inspections are
generally led by Metallurgists. The inspections include in-situ metallography
by replication, supplemented by MPI, UT tests of butt welds, attachment
welds, branch welds and bends selected from experience. A pipework
support survey including a hot/cold/hot positional survey with
recommendations for support adjustments should also be included, if
required.
Ancillary Plant Inspections

Doosan Babcock can arrange for detailed inspection of the following plant, if
required:
 FD and ID Fans
 Airheaters
 Boiler Flues and Ducts
 Feedwater and deaerator lift pumps
 Deaerator
 Blowdown vessels
 Chemical Dosing Equipment
 Sootblowers
 Burners including burner front components
 Valves
 Actuators and control valves.
Thermography
A Thermography or Infra red survey could be used on-line to identify casing
defects, boiler, flue and piping insulation deficiencies, passing valves and
blowing steam traps. Thermography in conjunction with portable smoke
generators could also be used on-line to identify boiler, flue and duct casing
air ingress and flue gas egress. These surveys are often of particular value
for tangent tube furnaces where air ingress can become problematic on older
plant.
Boiler Weighing
On older boiler plant it is good practice to carry our a periodic boiler weighing
exercise involving the use of hydraulic jack and strain gauges at the main
sling deck level. Any discrepancies between the readings and the original
settings should be investigated.
Performance and Emission Tests of Boiler or Components

As part of the boiler condition assessment Doosan Babcock would
recommend a benchmark performance and emissions tests. This would
provide a general operational ‘health check’ and determine whether the plant
was performing in accordance with its design intent and within environmental
guidelines. Air and flue gas analysis, flows and temperature profiles would be
measured, these parameters giving indications of, for example, air in-leakage
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due to casing defects and loss of heat transfer due to gas pass flow
irregularities. Alternatively performance tests on individual components such
as fans and airheaters or into boiler air ingress could be carried out. The
latter may involve Thermography and Smoke Tests.
Water/Steam Chemistry Deposit Analyses

The following are examples of techniques commonly used in Doosan Babcock
laboratories for deposit analysis as part of water chemistry investigations:
 Waterside deposit thickness or weight.

 Spectrographic semi-quantitive analysis to identify the Cation element
present in the waterside deposits.
 X-ray diffraction for identification of the crystalline constituents present
in the waterside deposits.
Review Of Operations And Procedures

While on site the Inspection Engineer could extend the review carried out on
the boiler plant operations and combustion records carried out to focus
inspections. The aim of the extended review would be to identify and
recommend actions to address any aspects of the procedures or equipment
where there may be scope for improvement in terms of ease and safety of
operation, compliance with the relevant codes and any detriment to the boiler
plant life. The review would focus on areas which, through discussion with
operational staff and based on Doosan Babcock in-house experience, were
identified as problematic. Potential for improvements or further investigation in
remanent life, efficiency, availability and safety would be identified.
Combustion investigations may require fuel and/or fireside deposits to be

analysed.
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3 BOILER CONDITION ASSESSMENT – KEY ISSUES
Boiler Inspection Engineers are required to have a working understanding of

the following areas in relation to boiler inspections:
1 The main components of and differences between a wide variety of

Boiler arrangements.
2 Boiler Process Design
3 Boiler Mechanical Design and Metallurgy
4 Boiler Operation and Performance
5 Boiler Water and Steam Chemistry
6 Boiler Damage Mechanisms
7 Inspection and Testing Tools & Techniques
8 Boiler Construction and Repair
9 Heath and Safety at Site
10 Documentation Required For Inspections
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3.1 Boiler Arrangements
3.1.1 Typical Power Station Once Through Boiler

Unlike conventional boilers, the once through boiler design has no provision
for regulating the maximum steam fraction or quality by recirculation. The
mass flux of fluid flowing through the evaporator tubes is directly proportional
to the steam output.
For conventional boilers, recirculation is used to minimise the change from

nucleate boiling (DNB) to film boiling during steam raising. Film boiling is
accompanied by a deleterious rise in the evaporator tube metal temperature
as a consequence of reduced heat transfer through the vapour film.
In the absence of recirculation, the once-through evaporator design requires

less evaporation area but has a lower limit on flow which is dictated by
transition to film boiling. The once-through evaporator uses small diameter
tubes that were traditionally arranged in a spiral achieve a high mass flux. The
spiral tube arrangement, with a small number of tubes around the furnace
perimeter, allows close tube pitching for effective heat transfer. This
arrangement also encourages an even distribution of heat pick-up in each
tube.
Doosan Babcock has recently developed a vertical tube arrangement that

uses an innovative rifle bore ‘Posiflow’ tube. This provides a stable self
compensating flow that automatically increases with increasing heat flux. This
offers considerable cost savings over the spiral tubes in terms of boiler
constructability, operational flexibility and efficiency.
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3.1.2 Typical Power Station Natural Circulation Drum Boiler

High Pressure Feed Water from the main feed pumps and the high pressure
feed system flows through the Economiser and sling tubes in counter flow to
the furnace gases, absorbing heat in the process. This water subsequently
enters the steam drum through the drum internal feed distribution system prior
to discharging into the drum water pool.
Dry Saturated Steam flows from the boiler steam drum, via saturated steam
take off pipes, to the furnace roof inlet headers where it flows through the
furnace/vestibule roof and cage roof tubes and into the intermediate cage
header. From there it flows down the cage rear wall into the cage ring main
and up the cage front and side walls to their respective outlet headers,
through supply pipes to the division wall inlet header and down the division
wall to the division wall outlet header/primary superheater inlet header.
The steam then passes upwards in counterflow through each of the three
horizontal banks of the primary superheater, the vertical leg of the primary
superheater and then through the platen and final superheater banks before
being delivered to the main steam system.
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3.1.3 Typical Power Station Heat Recovery Steam Generator

Horizontal surface vertical gas flow HRSG’s are generally unfired, forced
circulation units, with serpentine horizontal finned tube heating surfaces. The
HRSG includes all components in the hot gas path from the discharge of the
Gas Turbine (GT) exhaust gas diffuser to the entrance of the central stack,
including the stack closure damper. The HRSG uses heat from the GT
exhaust gasses to preheat condensate before entry into the deaerator and to
produce HP, IP and LP steam. These exhaust gasses are contained within
the HRSG casing and directed over the heating surfaces before being
discharged to atmosphere via the stack.
The heating surfaces within the HRSG casing are arranged into tube banks.
In order of gas flow the tube banks a typical arrangement for a common
horizontal arrangement involving HP and LP systems is as follows:
 HP Secondary Superheater
 HP Primary Superheater
 HP Evaporator
 LP Superheater
 HP Economiser
 LP Evaporator
 LP Economiser
 Condensate Preheater
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After the LP economiser the exhaust gas passes through the HRSG outlet
silencer and the stack closure damper to the central stack.
Vertical surface, horizontal gas flow HRSG’s are generally unfired, natural
circulation units, with serpentine vertical finned tube heating surfaces. Gas
Turbine (GT), exhaust gas diffuser and HRSG are generally arranged in line
with the entrance of the central stack, including the stack closure damper.
As for the horizontal surface HRSG’s heat from the GT exhaust gasses is
used to preheat condensate before entry into the deaerator and to produce
HP, IP and LP and sometimes RH steam. These exhaust gasses are
contained within the HRSG casing and directed over the heating surfaces
before being discharged to atmosphere via the stack.
The heating surfaces within the HRSG casing are arranged into tube banks. A
typical arrangement in order of gas flow for a vertical tube bank HRSG with
HP, IP, LP, and RH circuits would be as follows:
 IP Reheater
 HP Superheater
 HP Evaporator
 IP Superheater
 HP Economiser 2
 IP Evaporator
 LP Superheater
 HP Economiser 1
 LP Evaporator
 Preheater
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3.1.4 Typical Industrial Boiler
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3.1.5 Typical Marine Propulsion Boiler
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3.1.6 Typical Shell boiler
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3.1.7 Steam Drum

The steam drum provides the following functions:
 It serves as a water storage vessel for the furnace circulating system.

 It houses the steam and water separating equipment which provides
steam free water to the furnace and saturated steam of the desired
quality to the superheaters.
The boiler drum is located at the highest point of the furnace circulating
system and provides the interface between the incoming feedwater, the
circulating system steam and water, and the saturated steam to the
superheaters.
The steam separating equipment minimises both carry under of steam

bubbles into the downcomers and carryover of water particles into the
superheater circuits. This equipment consists of centrifugal conical cyclones
for separating the steam from the water and discharging the latter well below
the surface of the drum water level. The steam proceeds upwards through
primary steam scrubbers located on top of the cyclones followed by a second
stage of steam scrubbers located at the top of the drum.
SATURATED STEAM
CONNECTIONS
SECONDARY
SCRUBBERS
(DOUBLE TF 10)
PRIMARY
SCRUBBERS
CYCLONE
SEPARATORS
NOTE: All levels are referred to
the NWL which is 51 mm above
+200 HWLT
the drum centre line.
+100 HWLA
HWLT HIGH WATER LEVEL
+51 NWL
TRIP DRUM C/L
HWLA HIGH WATER LEVEL -100 LWLA
ALARM
NWL NORMAL WATER LEVEL
LWLA LOW WATER LEVEL -300 LWLT
ALARM
LWLT LOW WATER LEVEL
TRIP
RISERS
FEED WATER
CONNECTIONS
LARGE BORE
DOWNCOMER
3.1.8 Boiler Supporting Steelwork

The primary function of the boiler steel structure is to support the boiler and its
accessories; it also restricts boiler movement to acceptable limits and allows
access to the plant for maintenance and inspection. The boiler structure is a
steel braced frame support, vertical and horizontal bracing being located clear
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of access ways and equipment. Boiler components are suspended from the
Boiler Suspension Steelwork which forms the top part of the boiler support
structure. This allows for vertical and horizontal expansion of the boiler
without transferring thermal loads to the steel structure. This suspension
steelwork comprises three main types of steelwork, namely:
 Primary Steelwork - the main steelwork located at the top of the main
columns.
 Secondary Steelwork - steelwork bolted between the primary
steelwork.
 Tertiary/Trimmer Steelwork - steelwork which generally sits on top of
and is welded to the secondary steelwork. The boiler slings are
generally attached to the tertiary steelwork and are in one length
between it and the boiler components.
3.1.9 Enclosures and Framework

The furnace enclosure walls are restrained by horizontal girdles positioned
around the envelope at numerous levels, the intervals of which are dictated by
the inherent bending strength of the walls. Each girdle comprises wall to tiebar
clips, tiebars, tiebar to buckstay clips and buckstays in which the opposing
buckstays react against each other through the tiebars located along the
adjacent walls. At all levels the load carrying tiebars are continuous around
the girdle being connected to each other at the corner junctions by
substantially welded corner brackets. The buckstays are not continuous and
effectively terminate local to each corner. However, the end of each buckstay
is attached to its associated corner bracket by a link and pin connection which
permits freedom for differential expansion between the buckstay and tiebar.
The enclosure walls support the buckstay system but are relieved of the
twisting moment which would arise from the eccentricity of the buckstay
centre of gravity from the line of the wall. This is achieved by the inclusion of
over turning posts which are beams normally installed adjacent to the
buckstay levels and at intervals along the buckstays.
The vertical enclosure walls of the unit are externally insulated and cased to
minimise heat losses whilst complying with the required surface temperature
for personnel protection. Horizontal buckstays and their associated over
turning posts are located external to the insulation as they are required to
operate at or near ambient temperature conditions.
The extent of the membrane wall enclosure terminates at the bottom of the
steam cooled cage enclosure. The Economiser unit, situated below the cage
prior to the boiler exit, utilises an un-cooled steel plate enclosure supported
from the cage outlet/Primary Superheater inlet ring main header.
A penthouse or Top Dead Space casing is provided above the boiler and
extends from the front to rear over the complete width of the unit. It encloses
the parallel portion of the drum, inclusive of the riser and steam take-off pipes,
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and all pendant surface element penetrations, stub headers, interconnecting

pipes and manifolds which are located above the respective furnace, vestibule
and cage roof sections of the boiler. The roof tubes and tube element
penetrations are themselves external refractory covered and cased to provide
a primary gas seal. High temperature sections above the roof line and inside
the penthouse are insulated and cased where appropriate, whereas
components at or near the drum saturation temperature are not.
The penthouse casing ensures a secondary and final gas seal with respect to
the boiler roof and is insulated. Expansion breathers are included in the
casing to accommodate temperature differential expansions with the boiler.
The full weight of the boiler envelope, including buckstays, insulation, internal
water and any residual coal ash is absorbed by the tube walls/sling tubes to
furnace roof level from which structural slings transfer the respective loads to
the boiler top supporting steelwork structure.
3.1.10 Boiler Casing, Refractory and Insulation

To minimise heat losses and to provide a degree of protection for personnel,
the boiler and the ancillary equipment items are provided with insulation and
refractory materials where necessary.
Refractory materials are provided where required, to reduce heat absorption,

to form primary gas seals, to reduce gas bypass, to reduce erosion and to
protect casing plates, access doors etc. and are retained in position by studs,
casings, etc. as required. Thermal insulation is provided on external surface
areas of the boiler plant in order to limit heat losses thus improving the
thermal efficiency of the plant and protect equipment and personnel from
excessive heat.
The boiler proper insulation consists of mineral wool which is attached to the
boiler/plant surfaces by means of welded fork studs. On tube walls the studs
are welded to the membrane strip. Where welding is not permissible i.e. drum
ends, headers, etc. the insulation is retained by means of tie-wires. Pipework
insulation is retained by banding or tie-wires.
Flat surfaces are generally insulated using flat slab sections. Pipework is
generally insulated using preformed sections, where commercially available,
or by mattress insulation. Pipework insulation is arranged to allow withdrawal
of stud bolts from flanges.
The external insulation is finished with profiled or flat aluminium, the thickness
of which is dependent on where it is used. Thicker material is used where it
may be subject to personnel foot traffic.
Pipework within the penthouse is insulated and finished in heat resistant

expanded metal mesh wherever operating temperatures are 50°C or more
above saturation.
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3.2 Boiler Process Design Issues

Note:- the following section provides key point notes only. Further details are
provided in the Boiler Process Design section of this training course.
3.2.1 Heat Transfer Processes
Conduction
In a solid, the flow of heat by conduction is the result of the transfer of
vibrational energy from one molecule to the next, and in fluids it occurs as the
result of the transfer of kinetic energy when moving molecules collide. Most
metals are good conductors of heat whilst materials such as stone, wood,
asbestos and non metallic substances generally are bad conductors. Gasses
and liquids, including water are not good conductors of heat.
Convection
Heat transfer by convection is caused by the movement of a fluid and is thus
confined to liquids and gasses. The movement within the fluid is set up by
temperature gradients. When one part of the fluid is heated it expands and its
density decreases. It therefore rises to the top of the more dense surrounding
colder fluid. As it gives up its heat it becomes denser and slowly sinks towards
the heat source again. By this means a natural circulation is set up and this
gives rise to what is known as convection currents in the fluid. If the flow of
currents is assisted by a pump in the case of fluids or fans in the case of
gasses, the flow currents produced are known as forced convection currents.
Common household radiators should, in fact, be called convectors.
Radiation
The transfer of heat between two substances which are not in contact and
without the aid of convection or conduction is known as radiation. In this case
the heat energy travels in waves in straight lines at the speed of light. These
waves have the power of passing through space without giving up their heat.
When radiated energy strikes an object it may be reflected or absorbed, the
fraction which is absorbed is given off as heat. Dark surfaces usually absorb
heat whereas highly polished surfaces and light colours reflect heat. All
surfaces in a boiler which "see the fire" receive radiant heat and up to 80 % of
the chemical energy in the fuel may be transmitted in this way.
Since all hot surfaces radiate heat it is sometimes necessary to insulate them
to reduce radiation heat losses, e.g. steam pipes.
3.2.2 Heat Transfer in a Boiler

In a boiler the chemical energy released from the fuel is transmitted from the
flames and hot gasses by radiation and convection to the tubes containing
water and steam. On striking the tubes this energy is absorbed and passed by
conduction to the fluid inside the tubes. Convection currents in the fluid
complete the transfer of heat from the burning fuel to the water and steam.
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3.2.3 Departure from Nucleate Boiling/Steam Blanketing.

The term “nucleate” boiling refers to the process where steam is produced in
discrete bubbles at the location of heat transfer to the liquid i.e. in a boiler at
the tube internal metal surface. As a bubble of relatively pure steam is formed
there is a concentration of chemicals at the point at which the bubble breaks
away. Under normal boiling conditions water replaces the bubble of steam
and will dissolve and flush away any concentration of salts. As the rate of
bubble production increases i.e. heat flux increases the ability to flush the
concentrating chemicals is reduced. At the point of Departure from Nucleate
Boiling (DNB) bubbles are formed too quickly to be dispersed and a stable
steam film is formed. DNB has two very serious consequences:
1) A steam film has poor heat transfer characteristics compared to liquid

and there will be a rapid increase in metal temperature, often to the point of
failure.
2) The ability to flush the metal surface with relatively clean water is lost
and a build-up in chemical concentration will occur causing corrosion.
In practise DNB by its nature occurs in the areas of highest heat flux i.e. the
burner zone of the furnace and failure is nearly always through short term
overheating rather than longer term corrosion.
DNB is usually a design short-coming rather than an operational problem.

One solution is the installation of rifled tubing to ensure all surfaces are
continually swept.
3.2.4 Steam/water Separation

This phenomenon is in some ways similar to DNB and is caused by
separation of the steam and water phases. It is not normally a problem in a
vertical tube where there is a tendency for the phases to continually re-mix;
however in a horizontal or sloping tube any separation is likely to persist. At
the steam/water interface water will evaporate leaving any salts behind in the
water phase i.e. a concentration mechanism is set up leading to corrosion.
The phenomenon is usually a design short-coming i.e. poor circulation. The

worst location is a horizontal, or near horizontal tube, heated from above. The
typical location is the floor or hopper slope tubes in conventional boilers or
bed tubes in a fluidised bed boiler.
The failures take the appearance of on-load corrosion in the case of floor or
hopper tubes this is often known as “ribbon” corrosion, where the corrosion is
confined to just the crown of the tube.
Internally rifled tubes have been shown to be very effective in over-coming

this problem.
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3.2.5 Extended surface tubes

Tubes with external extended surfaces are commonly used in boilers to
reduce costs by being able to put more heat transfer surface into a smaller
volume. Typical examples of this are their use in economisers in conventional
units and throughout HRSG units. There are plusses and minuses in the use
of this tubing, which the Inspector needs to understand:
1 Increased tendency to blockage on the gas side, can give rise to reduced
heat transfer (increase in backend temperatures) increased pressure
drop (increase in fan power)
2 Increase in heat transfer increases risk of internal corrosion, especially if

water chemistry is marginal.
3.2.6 Feed Water preheating

Feedwater heating is used to increase the overall cycle efficiency. It is
effected in LP heaters, deaerators and HP heaters (in HRSG’s the LP heater
is often called the condensate preheater and used only when gas firing).
These heat exchangers can have indirect effects, which are not always
obvious, on other parts of a boiler. For instance with HP heaters out of service
it is necessary to fire the burners harder to maintain a given boiler output;
firing harder will increase the Furnace Exit Gas Temperature (FEGT) which
will result in higher superheater temperatures and the possibility of over-
heating and failure. Similarly if the feed temperature is low through LP heaters
out of service or the deaerator not operating at the correct pressure, then dew
point corrosion can occur.
3.2.7 Combustion air preheating and gas/air heaters

In some ways a similar topic to the previous water side pre-heating. Many
boilers (almost all in the case of oil fired units) have steam air heaters to
increase the combustion air to avoid acid dew point corrosion. Failure of the
steam airheater (or failure to put it in to service) will result in below dew point
corrosion of ductwork and gas/air heater. Similarly fouling of a gas/air heater
can result in lack of performance and acid dew point corrosion, also increased
pressure drop.
3.2.8 Balanced /forced draught

Balanced or forced draught are the two basic configurations for the draught
plant. The inspector needs to take this into consideration when inspecting
casing leakage or expansion joint problems i.e. some parts of the boiler will be
pressurised and others under suction.
3.2.9 Drum sampling point, blowdown and dosing location

Water chemistry is often a cause of pressure part problems, either corrosion
or deposits/scaling. In order to investigate such problems it is important that
representative samples are taken so that accurate analyses can be carried
out. For instance, when sampling from a drum, the ideal location is the
discharge from the cyclones, which is the location of the most concentrated
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solutions. The sample point must be remote from the feed line otherwise the
sample will be diluted by feed and a falsely low reading will result.
Similar arguments hold for the dosing and blowdown facilities e.g. the dosing
should be remote from the blowdown and the blowdown should be remote
from the feed water discharge.
SATURATED STEAM
CONNECTIONS
SECONDARY
SCRUBBERS
(DOUBLE TF 10)
PRIMARY
SCRUBBERS
CYCLONE
SEPARATORS
NOTE: All levels are referred to
the NWL which is 51 mm above
the drum centre line. +200 HWLT
+100 HWLA
HWLT HIGH WATER LEVEL
+51 NWL
TRIP DRUM C/L
HWLA HIGH WATER LEVEL -100 LWLA
ALARM
NWL NORMAL WATER LEVEL
LWLA LOW WATER LEVEL -300 LWLT
ALARM
LWLT LOW WATER LEVEL
TRIP
RISERS
FEED WATER
CONNECTIONS
LARGE BORE
DOWNCOMER
Page 30 of 73
3.3 Boiler Mechanical and Metallurgical Design Issues

Boiler Inspection Engineers should have an appreciation of boiler mechanical
design features, design codes, material properties etc, without being an
expert in any of them. Further details are provided in the Boiler Mechanical
Design section of this training course.
3.3.1 Design Codes

A detailed knowledge of design codes is beyond the remit of the Inspection
Engineer. However the Inspector needs to ascertain the design code and
design life for any particular boiler in order for the design engineer to be able
to give advice on expected life, minimum acceptable tube thickness etc.
3.3.2 Materials.
As superheat and reheat temperatures are increased materials are becoming
ever more exotic and the properties, methods of welding etc become the
province of specialists. A knowledge of the limiting temperatures of usage or
scaling temperature is useful for the more common materials.
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3.4 Boiler Operations

Boiler Inspection Engineers should have an understanding of the operation
and control of the boiler to be inspected. This knowledge is used during the
review process prior to the inspection to check the following:
1. The boiler has been operated within safe working limits.
2. The boiler controls and interlocks are maintaining acceptable control

over key parameters.
3. The boiler is stared up and shut down in line with acceptable practices,
including during 2-shifting operations.
4. There are no significant changes in parameters affecting boiler

efficiency.
5. The burner combustion remains acceptable in terms of efficiency and

environmental performance.
6. Fouling and slagging is maintained within acceptable levels.
7. The boiler is satisfactorily preserved during prolonged shut down

periods.
8. That appropriate commissioning cleaning and proving steps were

satisfactorily completed if the inspection is the first thorough inspection
after commissioning.
3.4.1 Boiler Operation Within Safe Working Limits

The following are examples of typical checks made by review of operating
data:
1. SH and RH steam temperatures remain within acceptable working

limits for the tube, header, attemperator and interconnecting pipework
selected.
2. The boiler maximum and minimum steam outputs remain within

acceptable limits.
3. The economiser feedwater temperature inlet temperature is not

excessively low, increasing the boiler firing requirement in order to
reach 100%MCR load, potentially leading to over-firing, or lowering the
airheater temperatures below the dew point.
4. The furnace combustion excess air levels remain above levels likely to
result in reducing condition fireside corrosion of the tube walls.
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5. The economiser outlet temperature remains below the saturation point

unless the boiler is arranged for a steaming economiser. (circulating
boiler)
3.4.2 Boiler Controls and Interlocks

An assessment of the performance of the boiler controls and interlocks should
be made from discussions with operational staff and a review of trend
information, where possible.
1. Combustion control including BOFA/OFA. Operation at excess air

levels below design excess air could result in reducing fireside
condition. High excess air levels displace heat fluxes further up the
furnace and increase the temperatures in the convective zone area.
2. Attemperator spray SH temperature control. Overheating damage

could accrue from repeated low flow excursions. Thermal fatigue
damage to attemperators, pipework and downstream headers could
result from quench cooling by excessive spray flows.
3. RH temperature control. Split back end flow control, gas recycle fan
control and sprays.
4. Steam drum / separator vessel level control (Once through start up).
Loss of level can lead to catastrophic overheating of water walls.
5. Furnace pressure control. Poor control of balanced draught can cause

excessive air ingress or flue gas egress. The former has mainly
efficiency and NOx performance implications, the latter can result in
boiler refractory, sealing and framing steelwork damage.
6. Air and fuel flow balancing controls. Imbalances could lead to flame
impingement on walls and reducing condition fireside corrosion.
7. Combined air heater temperature control. A low gas exit temperature

can result in sub acid dew point corrosion.
3.4.3 Start Up and Shut Down, Including 2-shifting

The following are some of the main points to watch out for during boiler start
up and shut downs:
1. Ensure that pressure raising rates are maintained within agreed rates
for cold, warm and hot starts to minimise the potential for overheating
and excessive temperature differentials.
2. Check that SH and RH metal temperatures are maintained below

maximum levels.
3. Confirm the FGET is suitably controlled during early part of start up.
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4. Confirm that appropriate firing patterns are used to avoid excessive

differentials in heat inputs.
5. Check that drains are operated correctly to ensure that cooling steam
flows are established and condensate is removed in a timely manner to
avoid both overheating and quench cooling of superheater
components.
6. Ensure that water level control of steam drum or separator vessel is

maintained, by independent indicator checks.
7. For drum boilers ensure that drum temperature differentials are not
exceeded.
8. For natural circulation boilers be aware of the risks of temperature

differential damage due to off line subcooling of furnace water walls.
9. Ensure that sub dew point corrosion is minimised by effective boxing of

gas passes during 2-shifting.
3.4.4 Boiler Efficiency Issues

Lower than anticipated boiler efficiencies may lead to overfiring of the boiler to
achieve full steam output which could in turn lead to the safe temperature
limits being exceeded for various boiler components. Some of the most
common indicators of reduced boiler efficiency would be:
1. Higher than design air heater exit temperature. This in turn could be
due to a large number of causes including:
 Bypassing of heat exchange surfaces.

 Excessive fouling of heat exchange surfaces.
 Inadequate heat exchange in the furnace for whatever reason.
2. Higher than design carbon in ash (where applicable). This could also
be due to a large number of causes including:
 Poor fuel and/or air distribution.

 Burner defects, including slagging impairing performance.
 Larger than design liquid or solid fuel particle size. (poor
atomisation or pulverizing)
3. Higher than design oxygen levels at the boiler exit. This could also be
caused by the above carbon in ash issues as well as by he following:
 Furnace and/or convective pass air ingress.

 Incorrectly set OFA/BOFA systems.
 Failure to shut out-of-service burner air registers.
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4. Heavy leakage of water and steam from drain and safety valves as
indicated discharges at vents.
3.4.5 Burner and Combustion Issues

The main burner and combustion issues of interest are those mentioned
above but could also include:
1. Flame impingement on quarls, side or opposite wall tubes due to

incorrectly set burner or defects. This could lead to reducing condition
fireside corrosion, increased internal deposition with under deposit
corrosion or DNB and overheating.
2. Incorrectly set individual burners or boiler combustion resulting to

wrongly located centre of furnace heat flux and/or luminosity.
3.4.6 Slagging and Fouling

For oil and coal fired boilers it is important to discuss the levels of fouling and
slagging on the boiler. The discussions should include the ability of the
installed on line and off line cleaning systems to remove these deposits. The
following are typical integrity issues that may arise from these discussions:
1. High temperature oil and coal ash corrosion of pressure parts supports
and alignment devices where molten ash forms.
2. Low temperature, sub dewpoint, corrosion of boiler components.
3. Possible increased dust erosion and heat fluxes in areas where laning
of gas flows occurs due to plugging of gas paths with deposits.
4. Burner slagging that may give rise to some of the above combustion
and control problems with knock-on integrity issues.
5. Slag falls from burners and platen SH possibly resulting in impact

damage in the lower furnace, especially the hopper region.
6. Possible damage to tubes due to incorrectly drained, aligned or

operated sootblowers eroding the tubes.
7. Possible damage to tubes due to the high frequency of sootblower

usage required to maintain satisfactory surface cleanliness. Sacrificial
shields are often fitted to get around the problem.
8. Possible thermal fatigue damage due to incorrectly set up and

maintained water blowers and/or cannons.
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3.4.7 Preservation during Prolonged Shut Down

The steps taken to preserve the boiler during repeated and/or prolonged
shutdowns should be included in discussions with operational staff. The
following are some of the integrity issues that can arise due to inappropriately
stored boiler plant:
1. Oxygen pitting of any water and steam side surfaces that are not
protected when water or moisture is present. This could include non
drainable surfaces such as pendants or bowed horizontal tubes. Thin
walled reheater tubes are particularly vulnerable to this damage
mechanism.
2. Sub dew point corrosion of components on the gas side by acidic

deposits.
3. CUI, especially of outdoor components.
4. Seizure of moving and/or rotating plant not moved periodically.
3.4.8 Post Commissioning Operational Issues

If the inspection is the fist or second after the initial commissioning the
commissioning records should be checked to confirm the following:
1. The boiler was satisfactorily chemically cleaned and preserved, if

necessary, prior to first service.
2. The steam circuits were satisfactorily steam purged prior to first

service.
3. The water chemistry parameters were brought down to stable

acceptable conditions prior to delivering steam to the turbine.
4. The boiler controls and interlocks were set up correctly.
5. Hot and cold boiler expansion readings were taken to check the boiler
was expanding as predicted.
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3.5 Boiler Water and Steam Chemistry

Note:- the following section provides key point notes only. Further details are
provided in the Boiler water Chemistry section of this training course.
3.5.1 Introduction
The overall objective of any water chemistry regime is to maintain power plant
system operations at the optimum level of availability, economy, reliability,
efficiency and safety. To achieve these objectives, chemical control of
feedwater and steam purity is directed to:
 Prevention of corrosion in the boiler, steam, condensate, LP and HP
feed systems.
 Prevention of scale and deposit formations on internal heat transfer
surfaces.
 Maintenance of a high level of steam purity.
3.5.2 Protective Oxide formation on Boiler Surfaces.

Boilers have been described as a thin molecular layer of iron oxide held
together by hundreds of tonnes of steel!! This is quite true, if iron did not form
stable protective oxide films then boilers would continually corrode to nothing.
The two important oxides in boiler water chemistry are magnetite (Fe3O4) and
haematite (Fe2O3), which are formed under reducing and oxidising conditions
respectively.
3.5.3 Summary of Main Parameters to be Controlled.

Water chemistry is a large topic to cover in depth, but a few notes on the
significance of certain chemical parameters routinely measured:
1. Hardness is defined as the salts of calcium and magnesium and will

form scale deposits in a boiler. Normally hardness is at a very low level
from the WTP, but can contaminate through condenser leaks or
process contamination.
2. Conductivity is used as a simple and reliable technique for measuring

the Total Dissolved Solids. Excessive levels can give rise to foaming
and carry over in boilers. In high pressure boiler waters ammonia is
often the largest single component and can mask any impurities
present. In these circumstances it is normal to pass the sample through
a Cation resin column to remove the ammonia before the conductivity
is measured. The resin column also has the effect of increasing the
sensitivity to certain contaminants.
3. Dissolved oxygen, apart from OT regime, is minimised in boilers to

prevent corrosion. The bulk of oxygen is mechanically removed in the
condenser and deaerator with the remaining traces removed
chemically by dosing of a suitable scavenger e.g. hydrazine.
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4. Silica concentrations should be minimised for two main reasons. Its

volatility in steam can lead to deposition on turbine blades and boiler
deposits/scales containing silica tend to be very damaging due to their
insulating nature.
5. Sodium is relatively easy to measure and similar to conductivity is used

as a guide to general water and steam purity.
6. Iron, copper & nickel are metals commonly used as constituents of

condenser tubing and consequently low levels are found in boiler
feedwater. At the feed pH the salts (mainly oxides) are insoluble and
particulate in nature. They deposit in the areas of high heat flux in the
furnace and can lead to on-load corrosion if not removed by regular
chemical cleaning.
7. pH is a measurement of the acidity/alkalinity.
8. Phosphate is dosed to drum type boilers to provide an alkaline

environment and to protect against hardness ingress.
3.5.4 Introduction to Main Water Treatment Regimes.

Here we are mainly concerned about power plant operation, at lower
operating pressures i.e. industrial boilers there are a number of treatment
regimes available based on different treatment principles. The main regimes
for power plant are:
1) Phosphate
Phosphate in various forms has been used for many years as a
treatment regime. Equivalent Phosphate Treatment (EPT) is the most
commonly used form for high pressure plant. Originally phosphate was
dosed to precipitate any calcium hardness entering the boiler. With
modern Water Treatment Plant the levels of calcium and other
hardness salts is very low; nevertheless the phosphate is used to
maintain a suitable alkaline environment to protect the magnetite film.
The original forms of phosphate conditioning had a mixture of Tri-
sodium phosphate and caustic. Concerns, mainly in the US, that the
caustic would cause embrittlement and caustic corrosion led to the
development of Congruent Phosphate Treatment (CPT), which was a
mixture of tri and the less alkaline di-sodium phosphate. There were
problems associated with hideout and this has now largely been
replaced by EPT, which is basically CPT conditions with up to 1ppm
free caustic present.
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2) All Volatile Treatment (AVT)

This, as the name suggests is an all volatile regime and was introduced
mainly for once-through boilers, although a large number of drum
boilers are also treated with it. The two basic chemicals are hydrazine
as an oxygen scavenger (now replaced by a number of proprietary
products that do not have the same health hazards) and ammonia to
maintain the suitable alkaline environment. With impurities, such as
chlorides, there is a greater risk of corrosion than with EPT and for this
reason most plants on AVT also have Condensate Polishing Plant.
3) Oxygenated Treatment (OT)

This form of treatment was developed in Germany in the 60,s and has
now been almost universally adopted for once-through boilers and in
fact a number of drum boilers are also treated with it. Magnetite is the
protective oxide film formed with AVT and phosphate regimes. Under
reducing conditions it is necessary for a high temperature to form
magnetite –this can occur in a boiler, but cannot occur in the
condensate/feed system. Thus some corrosion occurs in the feed and
condensate systems leading to iron entering the boiler, increasing
pressure drops and making the boiler more liable to corrosion. Under
oxidising conditions i.e. in the presence of oxygen haematite is formed
without any temperature criterion throughout the steam/water cycle.
Under OT conditions very low levels of iron enter the boiler, reducing
the need for frequent in-service chemical cleaning.
3.5.5 Chemical Cleaning and Steam Purge.

Chemical cleaning and steam purging are the main cleaning techniques used
during the commissioning of new plant. It is unusual to have to carry out an in-
service steam purge, but regular chemical cleaning is one of the necessary
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exercises to keep the boiler internal surfaces clean and avoid the occurrence
of on-load corrosion
Chemical Clean
One of the most important factors in the avoidance of pressure part failures,
blistering and corrosion attack is the maintenance of the internal surfaces in a
clean condition. In the hottest parts of a furnace a deposit of only 0.01-0.02”
can be sufficient to initiate the corrosion process or cause blistering.
On most modern boiler types manual or mechanical cleaning is very difficult.

H.P. water jetting is one possibility but this can be a costly and time-
consuming exercise. Thus if a boiler becomes dirty and requires cleaning then
chemical cleaning is often the only practical solution. Even if water conditions
are near perfect, there will be a gradual build-up of magnetite or other
deposits over the years which will require regular removal.
Throughout the cleaning operation it is necessary to observe the statutory and

other legal requirements covering the safety aspects and disposal of effluent.
Inspection of boiler drums after a chemical clean has to be done observing
safety precautions, adequate ventilation etc. In view of the complicated nature
of the cleaning operation, the use of hazardous chemicals and the risk of
serious damage to the boiler, it is strongly advised that expert advice be
obtained before any cleaning operation is undertaken.
There are chemical cleaning companies that specialise in on-load cleaning,

i.e. the deposit is removed whilst the boiler is still supplying steam. The
chemicals used are chelating agents, e.g. EDTA. The process has limited
application as it is extremely costly and the results not always as one would
hope. The usual method is an off-load clean.
The choice of cleaning solution will depend on the nature and composition of
the deposit, e.g. if there is any oil present then the first step will be a boil-out.
If there is copper present then this should be removed BEFORE the main acid
stage. Failure to do this with significant quantities of copper present can result
in corrosion of the boiler steels. Copper is removed in an alkaline solution,
e.g. tri-ammonium citrate at pH 9.5 together with an oxidising agent such as
sodium bromate/nitrite. The main acid stage is normally citric or hydrochloric
acid suitably inhibited. If there is a lot of copper about then it may be
necessary to carry out a further copper removal stage. The acid stage is
followed by a passivation or boil-out to re-establish a protective magnetite
film.
It is recommended that a circulation clean be used rather than the old

fashioned sit and soak method. This enables uniform concentration of
chemicals to reach all parts of the boiler and avoids local chemical depletion
and also makes the analysis of the solution to be carried out much easier. It is
normal to include the superheater only when necessary, i.e. when carry over
has been experienced or after major tube renewal. If the superheater is to be
Page 40 of 73
excluded from the clean then it should be filled with water and back flushed so
as to avoid ingress of chemical solutions.
There are a number of golden rules that must be obeyed for all chemical
cleaning exercises:
1. Velocities through the tubes should preferably be between 0.3

and 1.5 m/s. Higher velocities may result in corrosion.
2. During acid stages when acid is in the boiler the burners must
not be used. The only exception is an on-load chelate clean.
3. Baffle plates may need to be removed to aid circulation and
inspection and removal of any trapped debris.
4. It is essential after the clean to ensure that all solutions are
thoroughly flushed away and all bottom wall boxes and drums
cleaned of debris. Any dead legs instrument tapping etc. where
chemicals could accumulate should also be flushed.
5. The progress of the clean must be closely followed by chemical
analysis of all cleaning solutions whilst the clean is being carried
out.
Steam Purge
A procedure would describe the method for carrying out a steam purge of the
internal surface of the units’ superheated and reheated steam systems. The
purpose of this purge is to remove any debris (mill scale, metal cuttings, weld
slag, excessive rust, etc.) arising from manufacture or erection. The
procedure covers all aspects of the process from design to evaluation
including boiler operation and safety.
To achieve an effective purge the drag or disturbance across the surfaces

being cleaned must be above that occurring at boiler maximum continuous
rating (BMCR.). The purge is more effective the greater the disturbance or
drag. The disturbance factor (DF.) is defined as the ratio of the drag at purge
conditions to that at BMCR.
The steam purge procedure must ensure the following:
 The boiler superheater & reheater are adequately purged.

 The boiler is adequately protected at all times.
 General safety requirements are met.
The “intermittent pressure cycle” purge Technique is defined as a short sharp

blow of steam, i.e. raise pressure, quickly open purge control valve, pause
(typically 5 to10 seconds), quickly close purge control valve, commence to
raise pressure again. An alternative that is gaining in popularity is the
continuous purge, which incorporates quenching sprays and has the
considerable advantage of being very quiet. The big disadvantage is the vast
Page 41 of 73
quantity of demineralised water used, the production of which frequently

determines the length of the purge programme.
It is possible to achieve a satisfactory DF throughout the boiler steam circuits

if they are purged in one stage, but this requires the use of inline filters
located in the cold reheat pipes, just upstream of the reheater inlet manifold.
The purpose of these inline filters is to catch debris from the upstream
equipment and pipework, thereby preventing it from being blown into the
reheater.
Page 42 of 73
3.6 Boiler Pressure Part Damage Mechanisms

Despite the much improved knowledge of water chemistry and boiler
operation in general tube and pressure part failures in general still occur.
Boiler inspectors should be familiar with the main boiler failure mechanisms,
their root causes and repair solutions. The following notes are intended to
give an introduction to the most common types of failure. There is a large
amount of literature on the subject and many operating companies have
compiled their own guidelines. References 1 to 4 are considered particularly
useful.
Page 43 of 73
3.6.1 Short Term Overheating

Overheating failures are divided into two categories, short and long term with
quite distinctive features.
Location
Short term overheating can occur in any water or steam circuit when the flow
of cooling water or steam is significantly reduced by an unusual occurrence.
It often results from the loss of water when it is usual for a large number of
tubes to be affected, or blockage of an individual tube when the damage is
confined to the blocked or partially blocked tube. Further possible causes in
the superheater are due to priming of the boiler when a slug of water blocks a
few tubes for a short period or at start up when excessive heat is applied to
non drainable circuits
.
Appearance/Mechanism
The feature of this type of failure is the tube swelling and the failure is
generally thin edged purely because the metal overheats becomes plastic and
the internal pressure causes the material to blow up like a balloon to the point
of failure – see Fig 3.6.1. There are exceptions to this such as short water
failure in the presence of copper. The copper reaches its melting point and a
thick edged rupture results from inter-granular penetration. This is a similar
phenomenon to the problems experienced in trying to weld a tube with a
copper deposit inside. Short term thick edged ruptures can also be found in
superheater tubes where the tubes are subjected to very high temperatures.
If a short water failure is taken to the extreme, the metal becomes so hot that
the water present dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen and the heat
produced in the oxidation of the steel is sufficient for a self-sustaining
hydrogen fire to be started and which will continue as long as water is being
fed to the boiler.
Fig 3.6.1 Short Term Overheating
Page 44 of 73
Comments
Visual inspections are usually sufficient to identify the extent of the problem.
Dimension checks and metallography are used to increase accuracy.
Investigations should concentrate on the operations immediately prior to the

failure. The location of the blockage causing the problem is usually found by
visual and RVI inspections from headers and drums. Radiography on
pendant loops can also be useful.
Repair would normally be by butt welded tube insert.
Page 45 of 73
3.6.2 Long Term Overheating
Locations
Long term overheating occurs over a much longer period of time in either
water or steam circuits. It takes place where either the heat input is excessive
for the cooling steam or water flow or where the heat exchange is reduced by
insulating deposits. In water wall circuits it generally occurs in the high heat
flux zone around and immediately above the burners. In steam circuits the
most common locations are in the lower grade material at material changes
and in the final leg of tubing before the outlet header.
Blisters are formed and small longitudinal splits develop around the blister and
through the peak of the blister – see Fig 3.6.2. The metal thins and finally fails
as a creep rupture. The presence of oil tends to make this happen very much
quicker than with other types of deposit. In steam circuits the problem
(assuming that the design is correct) may be due to the use of wrong material.
But also, and this is more often the case, caused by excessive operational
temperatures, either continuous or a number of short term temperature
escalation’s e.g. during start-up or soot blowing. All these failures can be
termed ‘creep’ and can be recognised by a heavily-oxidised layer and a thick-
edged failure with numerous small longitudinal cracks adjacent to the point of
failure. Thick, hard water or steam side internal tube deposits are often also
present.
Fig 3.6.2 Long Term Overheating
Comments
In the worst cases visual inspections can identify the approximate extent of
the problem, in-situ or off site metallography of samples being required for an
accurate assessment.
Further investigations should include checks on the quantity and composition

of internal deposits and checks on operating conditions for an extended
Page 46 of 73
period prior to the failure. Design or operational features that could cause
local reductions in steam flows should also be examined.
Repair would normally be by butt welded tube insert.
Page 47 of 73
3.6.3 On-line Corrosion.

On-line corrosion refers to Caustic Gouging, Hydrogen Damage and Acid
Phosphate Corrosion.
Locations
These three under deposit corrosion mechanisms occur in water side furnace
tubes in the high heat flux zones around or slightly above the burners. They
tend to form after a flow disturbance such as a bend or weld.
These mechanisms remain among the more common causes of failure in
utility pressure boiler plant. It should be stressed that although the three
mechanisms are superficially similar, the root causes and preventative actions
are completely different. Oxides, typically of iron and copper, are transported
into the boiler as a result of corrosion in the condensate/feed system or may
be generated within the boiler itself. These corrosion products, which at the
pH in the boiler are largely particulate in nature, tend to bake out in the areas
of highest heat flux, i.e. on the furnace-facing side of the tube. The deposit
changes the form of boiling from normal nucleate to damaging wick boiling,
with its inherent concentration mechanism. This results in the concentration of
the components that cause the breakdown of the protective magnetite
coating.
Hydrogen Damage
Acidic contaminants (e.g. Cl from seawater condenser leakage) are
concentrated by the wick boiling, breaking down the protective magnetite
coating and rapidly corroding the metal below generally resulting gouging
corrosion. The free hydrogen released reacts with iron carbide producing
methane under high pressure. The relatively large methane molecules force
open microfissures in the metal. Concurrent local decarburisation results in
loss of material strength worsening the fissuring and resulting the
characteristic thick edged brittle failures. Ref Fig 3.6.3b. The failure is often
extremely violent with sections of tube being blown out. This damage
mechanism can progress very rapidly, resulting in failures within 6 months.
Caustic Gouging
Caustic (NaOH) is concentrated by the wick boiling, breaking down the
protective magnetite coating and rapidly corroding the metal below generally
resulting gouging corrosion. Ref Fig 3.6.3a. A ductile thin edged or pin hole
failure then results. Rapid corrosion rates of up to 2mm/year have been
reported.
Acid Phosphate Corrosion

Mono and/or di-sodium phosphate (not tri-sodium phosphate on its own) are
concentrated by the wick boiling, breaking down the protective magnetite
coating and rapidly corroding the metal below generally resulting gouging
Page 48 of 73
corrosion. A ductile thin edged or pin hole failure then results. Rapid
corrosion rates of up to 2mm/year have been reported.
Fig 3.6.3a. Caustic Gouging Fig 3.6.3b Hydrogen Damage
Comments
All three mechanisms require analysis of the deposits to positively identify the
mechanism, although the hydrogen damage failure appearance is a reliable
indicator.
The extent of the damage should be determined by fast scanning thickness

testing such a Gravimat. RVI inspections can also be useful.
Repair would normally be by butt welded replacement of tubes or whole

panels of tubes.
Page 49 of 73
3.6.4 Oil/Coal Ash Corrosion.

Note: these gas side corrosion mechanisms are sometimes known as high
temperature corrosion or superheater and reheater fireside corrosion.
Locations
These external corrosion mechanisms occur on the hotter steam side tubes
subject to higher heat fluxes on the leading edges of the pendent and platen
banks and on the steam outlet tubes. The coal ash corrosion tends to take
place at the 10 and 2 o’clock positions, whereas oil ash corrosion is more
uniform across the side facing the highest heat flux. The onset of this
corrosion can often be detected by attack on tube alignment device
attachments which generally operate at higher temperatures that the tube
metal.
After removal of the ash by sandblasting the external surface grooving
appearance, also known as ‘alligator hide’, is a characteristic of coal ash
corrosion. Oil ash corrosion material losses are more uniform.
These damage mechanisms can be differentiated from long term overheating,

which tends to take place in the same locations, by the presence of molten
ash within the deposits. Low melting point ash compounds will increase the
corrosion rates, although there are no straightforward guidelines to identifying
these.
Coal ash fusion temperatures have been recorded as low as 552oC. Coals in
the US with a sulphur level above 2% have been shown to be more prone to
the formation of low melting point alkali-iron trisulphate formation
(Na,K)3Fe(SO4)3. Corrosion rates have been found to increase linearly in UK
coals with higher Cl levels over the range of 0.1 to 0.5. CaO and MgO have
both been found to have some beneficial mitigating properties for coal ash
corrosion.
The vanadium, sodium and to a lesser extent the sulphur content have been
found to be influential on oil ash melting points. The lowest melting point
compound of 538oC corresponds to V:Na ratio of approximately 3:1. Higher
ratio levels do not unduly increase the melting point, eg 5:1 has a melting
point of 540oC and 10:1 565oC. In contrast reducing the V:Na rapidly
increases the melting point, e.g. a ratio of 1:1 has a meting point of 575oC.
Comments
Visual inspection is not reliable in assessing the extent of these damage
mechanisms even after the ash has been cleaned off. The presence of molten
ash on high temperature steam tubes is an indicator of possible problems.
Fast scanning UT thickness checks should be used to confirm, material
losses. Analysis of the ash may also be useful in identifying the main
contributors, although changing the fuel may not be an option.
Page 50 of 73
As for the long term overheating further investigations should look at all
factors that could increase the tube metal temperature. This would include
the quantity and composition of internal deposits as well as checks on
operating conditions for an extended period prior to the failure. Design or
operational features that could cause local reductions in steam flows should
also be examined.
Repair would normally be by butt welded tube insert, although isolated tubes
could be plugged.
Fig 3.6.4a. Oil Ash Corrosion 3.6.4b Oil Ash Corrosion
Page 51 of 73
3.6.5 Water Wall Fireside Corrosion.
Locations
Fireside corrosion of (coal fired) water walls generally occurs in the high heat
flux zone immediately above and/or below the burners. It is often associated
with poorly set up or misaligned burners resulting in flame impingement and
usually affects whole areas of the walls rather than individual tubes.
The damage is usually associated with hard fired inner layer deposits below
more loosely bonded ash. As for coal ash corrosion of SH and RH tubes,
removal of the ash by sandblasting reveals external surface grooving also
known as ‘alligator hide’. The attack is generally centred on the crown of the
tube, including around 120o of the fireside tube circumference.
The most common cause of water wall fireside corrosion is believed to be the
presence of a reducing (substoichiometric) environment at the water wall, as
indicated by high CO or low O2 levels. As for coal ash corrosion of SH and
RH tubes corrosion rates have been found to increase with higher Cl levels in
the fuel. The formation of pyrosulphates, alkali-iron trisulphates may also be
influential in some cases.
Current trends to ‘stage’ combustion in Low NOx burners and by the use of
OFA/BOFA systems that promote reducing conditions require extra vigilance
to avoid this damage.
Comments
Visual inspection is not reliable in assessing the extent of these damage
mechanisms even after the ash has been cleaned off. Fast scanning UT
thickness checks, such as Gravimat should be used. Surveys are
recommended before and after retrofitting Low NOx burners and/or
OFA/BOFA systems.
Further investigations should consider the options for changing the fuel, the
set up of the combustion in the furnace including checks on the burners, any
OFA/BOFA systems, the mills, and the fuel and air distribution systems.
Design or operational features that could cause local reductions in water flows
and levels of internal deposits leading to increased tube wall temperatures
should also be examined.
Air curtains or blankets at the walls have also been adopted in severely
affected areas.
Repair would normally be by butt welded tube inserts, usually of whole

panels.
Page 52 of 73
Supercritical Water Wall Cracking is a related damage mechanism that occurs

in similar location to the fireside corrosion on the higher temperature wall
tubes. The cracks generally form circumferentially under a molten ash layer
and their appearance has led to the condition being labelled ‘elephant hiding’.
The underling mechanism is corrosion enhanced thermal fatigue thought to be
caused by tube surface temperature excursions resulting from the forming
and shedding of molten slag deposits. It has been found that controlling
internal ripple magnetite deposits can eliminate the problem and the
widespread introduction of oxygenated water chemistry regimes have helped
with this.
Page 53 of 73
3.6.6 Internal Corrosion Pitting
Locations
Corrosion pitting of the water and steam side surfaces can occur in any
location throughout the boiler where moisture and oxygen are present.
Modern deaeration and oxygen scavenging chemicals have made on-line
oxygen pitting very rare. It is normally caused by poor shutdown and/or boiler
storage practices. It can also be caused by acidic attack after a poorly
executed acid clean. In drum boilers mechanical carry over of Na2 SO4 is
preferentially deposited in the RH tubes increasing the corrosion rate in these
tubes. CO2 carried over into the condensate can depress the pH increasing
corrosion in the condensate and feed systems.
This pits formed from stagnant, oxygen saturated water are often covered with
corrosion product caps or scabs, – see Fig 3.6.6. Soft scabs, formed from
droplets of water adhering to surfaces during storage or shut-down conditions,
are soft and bright orange in colour
Fig 3.6.6 Scab Pitting
Pitting associated with a poorly executed acid clean is generally clean, sharp
edged and often the base of the pit is larger than the entry.
Comments
It is usually not possible to completely remove all water from boiler when
shutting down due to design features such as pendant tubes and/or due to
ageing features such as sagged horizontal tubes. It is however important to
remove as much water as possible by careful shutdown practices especially if
storage of the boiler cannot be arranged due to outage maintenance works.
Whenever possible an effective preservation regime should be implemented if
the boiler is be out of service for an extended period. This could include:
1. Water storage by completely filling the boiler with dosed water.
2. Nitrogen capping.
3. Nitrogen storage.
Page 54 of 73
4. Dehumidified air storage.
Pitting can be difficult to detect unless is extensive. Fast scanning UT

thickness tests are useful as are RVI inspections, tube sampling and
metallographic analysis.
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) is a related topic that is receiving more

attention. Difficulties in measurement without wholesale insulation removal
have meant that this damage is usually quantified by a risk based assessment
and targeted UT thickness testing.
Page 55 of 73
3.6.7 Acid Dew Point Corrosion

This is also known as Sub-Dew Point, Low Temperature or Back-End
Corrosion. It is generally only a problem on-line for the ‘back-end’ boiler
components such as airheaters, duct and fans. Utility boiler tubes are not
generally affected on-line, although colder regions of HRSG’s can suffer from
this and economisers may be affected if the feed water temperatures are low.
See Fig 3.6.6.
Acid dew point corrosion occurs when sulphur in the fuel is oxidised from SO2
to SO3 to form sulphuric acid which condenses onto surfaces. The quantity of
SO3 formed and the temperature at which the acid condenses is dependent
on a number of factors:
1. Vanadium in heavy fuel oil ash acts as a catalyst for the conversion of
SO2 to SO3 .
2. Higher levels of excess air and air ingress can increase the conversion
of SO2 to SO3 .
3. Higher moisture levels can increase the conversion of SO2 to SO3.
It should be noted that this type of corrosion will occur if the water and hence
tube metal temperature is below the dew point even if the gas temperature is
above the dew point.
Acid dew point corrosion is generally less damaging as the much larger
amount of ash acts both as a physical barrier and as a neutralising agent as it
is generally alkaline.
Fig 3.6.7 Acid Dew Point Corrosion

.
Page 56 of 73
Comments
Boiler operators should take care to ensure that the back end temperatures
are not allowed to be reduced to levels where the corrosion is initiated and to
ensure back end low O2 levels are maintained. When this is not possible
dew point probes can be used assess whether corrosion is likely and
additives could be considered as an alternative.
During prolonged shut downs when limited access is required to the plant,
deposits containing acidic residues should be removed and consideration
should be given to using dehumidified air to arrest any off-line corrosion.
The extent of the damage can be surveyed visually and quantified by fast
scanning UT thickness tests tube sampling and metallographic analysis.
Page 57 of 73
3.6.8 Flow Assisted Corrosion.
Location
Can occur in any water or steam and water circuit. Temperature has a large
influence over the rate of damage and the operating temperature of the LP
evaporator circuits in modern HRSG’s is near the optimum for this to occur.
The damage shown in Figs 3.6.8 a and b occurred in about two years
operation.
Appearance
The damaged surfaces have a “burnished” appearance with no deposit
present. The surface is pock marked often described as an “orange peel”
appearance, The pock marks usually have an “arrowhead” rather than
rounded geometry.
Fig 3.6.8a HRSG LP Evaporator Fig 3.6.8b HRSG LP Evaporator
Mechanism
This form of corrosion has traditionally been known as erosion/corrosion, but
the term Flow Assisted Corrosion is now commonly used (FAC). There are a
number of known factors that affect the propensity for this to occur such as:
 Velocity
 Single/two phase flow
 Geometry
 Material
 pH
 Presence of oxygen
Page 58 of 73
 Temperature.
Comments
The damage can occur very rapidly and the repair will depend on the
circumstances. It may not be possible to alter certain things such as the
geometry; however changing the water chemistry or a change of material to
low chromium alloy can often give a simple solution.
Page 59 of 73
3.6.9 Sootblower Erosion.
Location
As the name indicates this is caused by soot blowers and is found adjacent to
sootblowers either within about 2m of furnace wall blowers or in the way of the
path of lance blowers.
Appearance
The appearance will be a burnished, scoured finish with no deposit present.
The surface can be somewhat pock marked
Mechanism
The erosion can be caused by poor design resulting in tubes being too close,
or misalignment in the case of long lance blowers. The steam must be
superheated and operation without sufficient warming through will result in
condensate impinging on tubes. Entrainment of flyash will make the steam
more abrasive, this is very common in the case of furnace wall blowers.
Damage can also be caused by a blower getting stuck in one position.
Comments
Clearly the repair technique will depend on the cause of the problem e.g. re-
aligning of a blower. Depending on fuel characteristics some sootblower
erosion in the furnace may be impossible to avoid. In these cases weld
buttering is often resorted to. Erosion shielding of the correct material can be
very effective.
Fig 3.6.9 Sootblower port set tube erosion flat.
Page 60 of 73
3.6.10 Flyash Erosion

(Also see note for coal particle erosion)
Location
This is found in coal fired and fluidised bed boilers, where it is the bed
material that causes the damage. This phenomenon is often also known as
“grit erosion”. Flyash is the entrained ash particles after the combustion
process has taken place. A common sense review of the side elevation of the
boiler will give a good indication of the likely areas of damage where the dust
laden flue gas will preferentially flow. Other areas are gaps between tube
banks and casing walls, or where damage to baffles allows gases to
preferentially flow.
Appearance
The appearance will be typical of a grit blasted surface.
Mechanism
The damage is caused by high velocity dust laden gas steam. Thus it is not
normally found in oil or gas fired boilers. The percentage of ash in the coal
and abrasive characteristics of the ash are the major factors in determining
whether this will be a problem.
Comments
Boilers and their gas passes are designed for certain velocities to deal with
specified coals. A change to a higher ash coal can put a boiler at risk from this
phenomenon. Tube replacement and erosion shields are the normal repair
techniques.
Note: There is a very similar phenomenon produced by pulverised coal

known as coal particle erosion. This is found in the pipework and fittings
between the coal mills and burners. Flowing pulverised coal is by its nature
abrasive and this is recognised by the abrasion resistant materials used.
Fig 3.6.10 Dust erosion on leading edge of tube removes protective

oxide layer - shows as corroded area after wash.
Page 61 of 73
3.6.11 Rubbing and Fretting

Location
The location is largely determined by the cause of the problem. The
phenomenon can be split into a number of categories:
1. Flow induced fretting. This is tube vibration induced by the flow of gas
over them. This type of damage can occur in any bank of tubes.
2. Fretting due to suspended tubes touching. This commonly occurs
where horizontal banks of tubes are supported by “stringer” or support
tubes. As these tubes pass through the banks there may well be
touching, this will result in fretting if there is relative movement between
the two.
3. Fretting due to differential thermal expansion of touching tubes. There
are numerous places in a boiler where tubes touch other tubes or
casings. Whenever the two parts have a different duty, or run at a
different temperature, there is the possibility of differential movement
and fretting taking place.
Appearance
Figs 3.6.11 a and b below show typical metal to metal contact giving a shiny
polished appearance. In this case a vertical tube HRSG had severe fretting
Fig 3.6.11a HRSG fretting Fig 3.6.11b HRSG fretting
Mechanism
As described above there are a number of originating mechanisms such as
flow, movement, differential thermal expansion etc which all result in rubbing
or fretting between two components.
Comments
The remedial work will depend on the actual mechanism involved. In the case
of flow induced fretting then anti-vibration bars can be very effective.
Page 62 of 73
3.6.12 Mechanical Damage
Location
The location is determined by the type of mechanical damage. There are a
number of categories:
1) Construction/Maintenance activity. There is any number of ways and
hence locations that pressure parts can be damage by careless
workmanship. A typical situation is the removal of refractory from
burner quarls using mechanical jack hammers causing accidental tube
damage.
2) Coal slag falls. As would be expected damage from slag falls is largely
confined to hopper slopes
3) Poor welding. Defects in welds such as undercutting or heavy arc
strikes
4) Dissimilar metal welds. Use of incorrect weld procedure when welding
different materials especially when welding ferritic to austenitic.
Appearance
Depends on the cause, can be almost anything from a split membrane in the
case of a slag fall to denting, marking gouging etc. The large amount of slag
can also lead to erosion and thinning of tubes in the hopper area.
Mechanism
Various
Comments
Repair technique selected to suit the cause.
Page 63 of 73
3.6.13 Low Temperature Creep Cracking

This is also referred to as cold formed bend failure
Location
Failures occur in areas of high stress and at pipe/tube bends. Failures are not
in the highest temperature areas, but in economiser, furnace or primary
superheaters. The point of major concern for this type of failure is that it can
occur in unheated but wetted integral pipework i.e. cold formed risers and
supply pipes are at risk with the added risk to personnel.
Appearance
Failure is a thick edged crack. Microscopically the cracking will be inter-
granular. The appearance is very similar to a SCC failure and can only be
differentiated by looking under a microscope for cavities and voids not
normally found with SCC,
Mechanism
Failure mechanism is creep cracking in areas of high stress. Stress can be
the high residual stresses from cold forming bends, which is made worse by
pipe ovality. Hard tubes are more likely to fail. EPRI have a rule of thumb for
bends at risk i.e. ovality greater than 8% and HV greater than 220-240.
Comments
Cold formed bend failure has been a major concern in power plant in recent
years because the failure is not contained within the boiler envelope, so there
is a much greater risk to personnel.
Page 64 of 73
3.6.14 Fatigue
Location
Fatigue failures are often lumped together as corrosion fatigue cracking.
There are fatigue failures which are largely because of a corrosive
environment and these may be called corrosion fatigue, while others are
caused by thermal cycling and these may be called thermal fatigue cracking.
Fatigue failures tend to be initiated on the water side of pressure parts, and
nearly always associated with weld attachments in the case of thermal
fatigue.
Appearance
Multiple cracks initiated from internal surface, may be from pitting or other
surface defect. Cracks are wide open and oxide filled. Failure edge is thick
and can result in a section of tube blowing out on a “hinge”
Mechanism
Mechanism is a combination of cyclic loading in a corrosive environment. The
stress loading can be by thermally induced cycling e.g. boiler on two-shift
operation. The “corrosive” environment does not mean that the water
chemistry is poor, but it is sufficient simply that the surface is “water touched”
in some cases.
Comments
It is difficult to detect by NDT or visual inspections as the failure is often a very
small pinhole externally and associated with weld attachments that makes the
NDT difficult. Once failure occurs it is often necessary to remove sections of
tube from similar locations to be certain of the extent of the problem.
Page 65 of 73
3.6.15 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Location
Although less common than it was it continues to appear in water SH and RH
tubes and occasionally in stressed components in the steam drum, such as
bolts. In tubes it typically occurs at high stress locations and in pendant or
bowed tubes where the concentration of contaminants is highest when
residual water solutions are boiled off.
Appearance and Mechanism

Stress corrosion cracking results from the interaction of a tensile stress, a
specific corrodent and a sensitive material. An initiating defect such as a pit
enables the initial corrosive attack, stress then concentrates at the defect root
repeatedly rupturing protective films and forming a crack. The failures always
produce thick wall fracture faces, often with branching.
A specific corrodent for carbon steels would be sodium hydroxide and for
stainless steels sodium hydroxide or chlorides.
Comments
The most effective way of avoiding stress corrosion cracking is to eliminate
the corrodent by any of the following means:
1. Monitor RH and SH steam for key components such as Na and Cation
conductivity.
2. Check that mechanical carryover in drum units is minimised.
3. Ensure that the SH is backfilled during chemical cleaning of the water
walls to ensure that the cleaning chemicals do not enter the steam
passes.
4. Confirm that boiler feed water and spray water quality is within
acceptable limits. In particular ensure that alarms are raised promptly
in the event of a condenser leak.
5. Avoid ingress of gas side contaminants into the water or steam side
during tube failures or repairs, particularly in RH when vacuum is
drawn.
Page 66 of 73
3.7 Inspection and Testing Techniques & Tools Available

The following is a list of basic equipment required by an Inspection Engineer:
Basic Inspection Tools
 Note book & pens. (voice recorder if preferred)

 Clipboard for drawings, inspection plan and protocol sheets
 Camera
 Variety of torches, including large, pencil and head.
 Tape measure
 Binoculars
 Callipers
 Depth Gauge
 Laser alignment & distance measurement tools
 Sample bags/bottles
 Rucksack (for carrying tools & drawings hands free to allow safe use of
vertical and scaffold ladders)
Inspection Engineers require to be familiar with the following techniques,

including the equipment involved as well as with the strengths, weaknesses
and alternatives.
In-situ Metallography
 Replication
 Material checks (PMI)
 Hardness checks
 Creep dimensional measurements (creep pip measurements)
 Oxide thickness tests for steam tubes (TLP)
Laboratory Metallogrphy
 Analysis of tube/header/drum/support samples.
Non Metallurgical Material Analysis
 Fuel Analysis
 Ash Analysis
 Tube internal deposit analysis
 Tube internal deposit thickness measurement
 Tube external deposit analysis
 SEM analysis
 EDX analysis
Page 67 of 73
Standard NDT Techniques
 UT Flaw Detection
 UT thickness Measurement
 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI/MT)
 Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI/DT)
 Radiography
Specialist NDT Techniques

 IRIS
 RFET
 Emat/Gravimat
 TOFT
Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)
 Mirrors
 Videoscopes
 Header and Pipe Inspection Equipment
Optional On and Off line Inspection, Testing and Measurement

Equipment
 IR spot test surface thermometer

 Thermal Imaging Camera (Thermography)
 Smoke Generators
 Acoustic Leak Detectors
 Displacement/Strain Monitoring including for boiler weighing.
 Thermocouples
 Heat Flux meters
 Optical Pyrometers
 Combustion Analysers.
 NOx & SOx Analysers
 Air and Gas Flow Measurement Devices including Pitots, Manometers,
vane and hot wire anemometers.
Page 68 of 73
3.8 Boiler Construction and Repair Techniques

Boiler Inspectors should have some familiarity with the following construction
and repair techniques both to investigate failures and for repair
recommendations:
3.8.1 Tube insertion with butt weld.

This is the most straight forward repair procedure and the one that should be
recommended where accessible. Points that need to be considered when
inserting sections of tube:
 Compatible materials
 Any step change in bore
 Inserting rifled tubes
3.8.2 Tube insertion with window welds.

Often it is not possible to get access all round a tube for welding and in this
case window welding allows installation of an insert with all the welding being
carried out from one side of the tube. Some Insurance inspectors do not like
window welds and they should generally be considered as a temporary repair,
to be permanently repaired with an insert at the next outage.
3.8.3 Tube Overlay weld repairs

When time, access or lack of materials prevent either insert or window weld
repairs it may have been necessary implement a repair overlay welding. Any
such repairs should be considered temporary and should be permanently
repaired at the nest outage. Overlay welding is often also used as a
preventitative maintenance technique in areas of high tube wastage due to
corrosion, dust or sootblower erosion.
3.8.4 Header and Pipework repairs

Advice from on or off site Metallurgists would generally be taken on the
appropriate repair techniques. This advice would include weld procedures
and any heat treatment required.
3.8.5 Pre & post weld heat treatment.

Alloy materials with a chromium content of greater than 2-3% generally
require a minimum of weld pre-heat, higher alloys may well also require post
weld heat treatment. It is important that a weld procedure is used that covers
all the circumstances of the particular repair.
3.8.6 Tube expansions.

Tube expanding is an important tube attaching technique used on low and
medium pressure water-tube boilers and on all shell fire-tube boilers. The
water tube boilers are typically industrial and marine boilers with a generating
bank between an upper and lower drum. All high pressure power plant boilers
are of a totally welded construction. Tube expanding is a specialist job and
Page 69 of 73
should only be undertaken by experienced contractors. There is skill in

expanding to ensure the tubes ends are correctly annealed, not under or over
expanding, both of which can cause tubes to leak. Re-rolling leaking tubes
can be a difficult task and can lead to disturbing adjacent expansions which
then start to leak. Tubes can only be re-rolled a certain number of times
before the strength of the expansion is lost and a seal impossible to achieve.
3.8.7 Pneumatic & Hydraulic Testing.

Hydraulic testing is a valuable tool for locating tube leaks and, once they are
repaired proving the repair to be successful. The rule of thumb is to only apply
the minimum pressure needed to achieve the desired result. In general a
working pressure test is all that is required to identify leaks and check repairs.
Design or proof tests in accordance with the specific design code should only
be carried out when the code requires it.
There are circumstances where pneumatic testing has considerable

advantages over hydraulic testing. Many operators pneumatically test boilers
as a preliminary to a hydro test. A low pressure air test saves water and
readily identifies any gross leaks e.g. blanks not fitted. Low pressure air tests
are also sometimes carried out through the boiler air cock with the boiler full
as a quick test to identify leaks on the steam side that may not have been
apparent on-line.
Page 70 of 73
3.9 Health and Safety Issues

Boiler Inspectors should have a comprehensive knowledge of the main
hazards involved and the appropriate control measures required to reduce the
risks to acceptable levels. A risk assessment should be completed prior to
commencing work or setting others to work. This should address the routine
following, as appropriate:
 Slips, Trips and Falls
 Access/Egress issues
 Working within Confined Spaces
 Working at heights
 Objects falling from height
 Working in hot and humid environments
 Working in noisy environment
 Potential exposure to hazardous materials in the atmosphere, e.g.

Asbestos, Ceramic Wool after exposure to temps > 500oC, Vanadium
Pentoxide etc.
Inspectors should wear the PPE deemed appropriate by their risk

assessment.
3.10 Documentation
The following documents are typically required for a boiler Condition
Assessment:
 Proposal.
 Issues and Concerns Document.
 Inspection Plan
 Inspection Check or Protocol Sheets
 Access, scaffolding, lighting, and preparation works requests.
 Risk Assessments.
 Programme.
Page 71 of 73
 Interim Site Report.
 Final Report.
Page 72 of 73
REFERENCES
1. Nalco Guide to Boiler Failure Analysis

2. EPRI Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Practice
3. HSE Plant ageing, Management of equipment containing hazardous
fluids or pressure.
4. Metallurgical Failures in Fossil Fired Boilers, by DN French.
Page 73 of 73

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7 Technical Services Boiler Inspection Module A

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Technical Services

BOILER DESIGN AND OPERATION TRAINING PROGRAMME

Prepared by: J.H. McMillan

Date: 15th November 2008

Date: 15th November 2008

Date: 15th November 2008

Technical Services Department

Tel: +44 (0)1293 584755

3.5.2 Protective Oxide formation on Boiler Surfaces.............................37

1 TECHNICAL SERVICES INSPECTION INTRODUCTION

 Power station once-through sub or super critical boilers.

On smaller industrial, marine and utility boilers TS Inspection Engineers often

2 TECHNICAL SERVICES BOILER INSPECTIONS METHODOLOGY

1 Investigations into specific boiler component or system failures.

2 Through Life or Remnant Life Inspections of Boilers

2.1 Inspections as Part of an Investigation into Specific Boiler

1. Carry out inspections to identify the damage mechanism/s from the

3. Provide recommendations for short and long term remedial actions.

2.2 Through Life or Remnant Life Inspections of Boilers

Fig 1 ‘Bathtub Curve’

During this phase the first thorough or benchmark confirmatory inspection

This Terminal stage is generally deemed to be an extension of Stage 3 with

2.3 Inspection Approach

2.3.1 Phase 1 - Pre-Site Preparation Phase

Pre-Site Technical Preparation

1. Working copies of the following data sheets, drawings, diagrams and

5. Tube and other pressure plant history, including replacements and

6. Boiler operating history including the operating hours, availability

7. The duration and methods of boiler storage during any lay-up or

8. Recent operating data from DCS systems, PI data systems and/or

9. Fuel analyses and history of fuel usage.

 The boiler water and steam chemistry control regime used.

Log sheets and/or trend information for a typical period of operation

This information would assist Doosan Babcock in identifying the deterioration

When required by the Client, the Clients Insurance Inspector or Competent

Pre-Site Logistical Preparations

2. The removal of hazardous materials or excessive combustion product

3. Provision of power supplies for inspection equipment and lighting.

5. Surface preparation for thickness checks, NDT and metallurgy work.

6. Removal of selected drum internals, cyclones, baffle plates etc.

7. Opening up and reinstating spray attemperators for inspection.

8. Removal and replacement of header inspection caps.

9. Removal and replacement of tube cut-outs.

10. Refractory removal to expose pressure parts for inspection particularly

11. Insulation removal.

12. Casing removal to expose external tube surface, tie-bars, buck-stays,

14. Risk assessment and method statements preparation and agreement

Where required, an outline programme of the inspection work would be

On larger inspections it is generally more time efficient if the provision of the

2.3.2 On-Site Implementation of Inspections and Reporting

* Site Report Defect Categorisation

A Defects of such severity that the safe, and/or immediate continuous

C Defects which may arise from marginal weaknesses or early signs of

2.3.3 Off-Site Final Inspection Report

2.3.4 Optional Additional Tests and Inspections

The following inspection/tests/assessments and reviews are generally offered

Main Steam Pipework

Ancillary Plant Inspections

Performance and Emission Tests of Boiler or Components

Water/Steam Chemistry Deposit Analyses

 Waterside deposit thickness or weight.

Review Of Operations And Procedures

Combustion investigations may require fuel and/or fireside deposits to be

3 BOILER CONDITION ASSESSMENT – KEY ISSUES