CROSSING OVER

Akhmad Dakhlan
 DEFINITION

• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic

material between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes during meiosis,
which results in new allelic combinations in the
daughter cells.
Sister chromatids are two identical copies of the
same chromosome formed by DNA replication,
attached to each other by a structure called
the centromere. During cell division, they are
separated from each other, and each
daughter cell receives one copy of the
chromosome.
Chromosomes are the genetic information
coded into human DNA. Each person has 23
pairs of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes in
total. Homologous chromosomes are essentially
similar in size, and carry the same genetic
information.
Each diploid cell contains two copies of every
chromosome, one derived from the maternal
gamete and the other from the paternal
gamete. These pairs of chromosomes, each
derived from one parent, are called
homologous chromosomes.
When diploid organisms undergo sexual
reproduction, they first produce haploid gametes
through meiosis. During prophase I of meiosis,
homologous chromosome align with each other and
exchange genetic material, so that some of the
resultant chromosomes are recombinants –
containing a mixture of genes derived from the
maternal as well as the paternal chromosomes.
Haploid is the condition of a cell having a one
set of chromosomes. Ploidy refers to the number
of copies of the genome. Humans, and many
other organisms, are diploid organisms. This
means that the majority of their lifecycle is spent
with two copies of the genome in every cell.
Typically, haploid cells are created for reproductive
purposes. By reducing the genome to one copy,
different copies can be rearranged when creating a
zygote. By reducing the DNA material in the gametes
to haploid, many new combinations are possible
within the offspring. This increases the genetic
variation and helps populations adapt to their
environment.
Most organisms that undergo sexual
reproduction contain two types of cells in their
body – haploid and diploid cells. Diploid cells
are seen in most parts of the body and contain
two copies of every chromosome. Therefore,
they contain two genes to determine the
sequence of nearly every RNA or protein.
Haploid cells are usually male or female
gametes formed as a result of meiosis and are
seen in sexual organs. They contain only one
complete set of chromosomes and are
designed to fuse with another haploid gamete
to produce a diploid zygote – with one paternal
and one maternal set of chromosomes.
Though they code for the same genes, their DNA
sequences can vary slightly from one another. For
instance, the paternal chromosome may contain the
genetic information to result in antigen A being
present on red blood cells, while the maternal
chromosome may code for antigen B. These two
antigens are similar in function, but differ from each
other marginally in their amino acid sequence.
All the cells of an adult organism are derived from
the initial zygote and are therefore genetically
identical to each other. When this adult prepares
for reproduction, some specialized cells undergo
meiosis, producing four haploid daughter cells.
These daughter cells can then undergo maturation
to form male or female gametes.
During meiosis, chromosomes derived from the
maternal and paternal gamete can assort
independently from one another. In other words,
chromosomes from the mother or the father can be
chosen randomly for each gamete. A human sperm
can contain chromosomes 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 21 and 23 from
his female parent, and the rest can arise from the
male parent. Similarly, an egg can have only two
chromosomes from the female parent and the rest
from the male parent.
In addition, each of these chromosomes could be a
recombinant mixture of genes arising from the two
parents. One of the four haploid daughter cells arising
from meiosis could have a chromosome with 80% of its
sequence from the male parent and the remaining
20% from the female parent. Correspondingly, there will
be another daughter cell with the reverse ratio. This
occurs through crossing over, when replicated
homologous chromosomes are placed close to one
another and exchange segments with each other.
The image is a representation of one set of
homologous chromosomes, with genes being
represented by different letters of the
alphabet. The genes on one chromosome are
shown using capital letters and that on the
homologous pair using small letters.
Two of the four daughter cells formed after this
crossing over event have a recombinant chromosome
that is neither completely derived from the mother nor
the father. The image also demonstrates that genes
that are in close physical proximity to one another on
the chromosome are likely to be inherited together,
while those that are farther away might get
independently assorted during meiosis.
 FUNCTIONS OF CROSSING OVER

• Organisms that divide only asexually without the

chance of such recombination suffer from a
condition called Muller’s Ratchet. That is, each
generation of that species contains at least as many
genetic mutations as the previous generation, if not
more. In other words, when all the progeny are
genetically identical to one another, there is no
scope for genetic errors to be corrected, or for new
and beneficial combinations to arise.
 FUNCTIONS OF CROSSING OVER

• Crossing over increases the variability of a

population and prevents the accumulation of
deleterious combinations of alleles, while also
allowing some parental combinations to be passed
on to the offspring. This way, there is a balance
between maintaining potentially useful allelic
combinations as well as providing the opportunity for
variation and change.
 QUIZ

• 1. When does crossing over occur?

A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis II
C. Prophase I
D. Metaphase I
 QUIZ

• C is correct. Crossing over occurs during prophase I,

one of the longest phases of meiosis. Recombination
or crossing over has rarely been observed during
mitosis. It is completed before the cell proceeds to
either metaphase I or to the second meiotic division.
 QUIZ

• 2. Which of these statements about crossing over is

NOT true?
A. Is necessary for the formation of diploid gametes
B. Double strand breaks occur through the action of
ribonucleases
C. Leaves organism vulnerable to Muller’s Ratchet
D. All of the above
 QUIZ

• D is correct. Crossing over occurs during meiosis,

which is necessary for the formation of gametes.
However, gametes are not diploid. The enzymes that
act on DNA during crossing over are not
ribonucleases, but exonucleases. Genetic
recombination and crossing over protect the
species from Muller’s Ratchet rather than making it
vulnerable to the syndrome.
 QUIZ

• 3. Which of these numbers represents the

chromosome number in somatic cells and gametes?
A. Somatic cells are haploid, gametes are diploid
B. Somatic cells are diploid, gametes are haploid
C. All cells are derived from a diploid zygote and
therefore are also diploid
D. All cells are haploid
 QUIZ

• B is correct. In most organisms, somatic cells are

diploid and gametes are haploid.
THANK YOU