Mineral Liberation and Particle Characteristics

• Liberation
• Generally, the objective of communition, at least in the mineral
industry, is to achieve liberation of the mineral species so that the
separation of the desired minerals can be attained.

• Comminution and liberation are intimately connected.

• It is always necessary to describe the relationship between mineral

liberation and size reduction

• Generally comminution circuits create several particle compositions

 Mineral Liberation and Particle Characteristics
• Liberation
• Generally, the objective of communition, at least in the mineral
industry, is to achieve liberation of the mineral species so that the
separation of the desired minerals can be attained.

• Comminution and liberation are intimately connected.

• It is always necessary to describe the relationship between mineral

liberation and size reduction

• Generally comminution circuits create several particle compositions

 Particle Characteristics
• Particles may be characterized by parameters such as
• size
• shape and
• density
• shape factor (Sf) – the property that determines the relationship between the
particle mass and its surface area and hence its response to frictional restraint

• 𝑆𝑓 = 𝑇 √(𝐿𝐵)
• where T is the thickness measured parallel to the direction of motion; L and B
are the length and breadth respectively
Particle Characteristics Cont’d
Average diameter (D) – after measuring the length of three
mutually perpendicular sides of a particle, the average diameter
may be calculated from the equation;
(𝐿+𝐵+𝐻)
𝐷= or 𝐷 = ∛(𝐿 + 𝐵 + 𝐻)
3

where, L, B, and H are the length, breadth and height of the particle
respectively. The average diameter of a sample of ore particles can
also be considered as the aperture width of a screen through which
80% of the sample passes in case of crushing and 95% in case of
grinding.
This parameter can be estimated by sieve analysis when the particles
are relatively coarse.
Particle Characteristics Cont’d

 specific surface – the total surface area of particles in a unit weight

of ground material

 mesh – the number of openings per linear inch of screen material

 equivalent diameter – most particles are irregularly shaped and

therefore their diameters cannot be measured. The equivalent
diameter refers to the diameter of a sphere of the same material,
which would behave in the same manner as that particle, when
submitted to some specific operation
 Particle Size Analyses
• Particle size analysis has several applications in the mineral, building,
chemical and pharmaceutical industry for effective control and regulation
of many technological processes

• In the minerals industry

it may be utilized in determining the quality of grinding and
establishing the degree of liberation of values from gangue at various
sizes

• It is also used in establishing the porosity and permeability of rocks and

soils
Particle Size Analyses Cont’d
• There are different methods of size analysis of ores, which can be
broadly classified as sieve and sub-sieve techniques.

• Sedimentation or dispersion, elutriation (hydrosizing), microscopy

and granulometry (LASER) are sub-sieve methods of particle size
analyses

• These techniques are preferred when the particles are finer than
what screens can handle, usually below 40 µm

• Microscopy may be used for individual grain analysis while the others
are for bulk sample analysis
 Screen or Sieve Analyses
• Screening or sieving is a direct sizing process.

• It is the process of separating a mixture of relatively coarse particles

into different size ranges by passing them through a screen (sieve)

• Sieve analysis is a process of estimating particle size composition and

distribution in a product

• The principle is that each particle is tested to find whether or not it

will pass an opening of a particular size and shape

• It may be carried out in test sieves connected in series with

decreasing sieve aperture.
 Screen or Sieve Analyses Cont’d
• A known mass of ore is passed through the set and the sieves should be
manipulated in such a way that all the particles have the chance of testing the
possibility of passing through the screen apertures

• Generally the sieve range should be chosen in such a way that no more than
5% of the sample passes the finest sieve or is retained on the coarsest

• When the feed material is screened, two products are obtained, oversize and
undersize

• Oversize material is the range of particle sizes above the screen aperture size
(opening), which remains on the screen and undersize is the range of particle
size below the screen aperture size, which pass through the screen
 Screen or Sieve Analyses Cont’d
• If the aperture width of a screen through which is screening is performed is
denoted d, then, the oversize product is denoted +d and the undersize
product –d

• Material which has passed through a sieve with aperture width d but
remains on a sieve with aperture width n, where n ˂ d is denoted (-d + n)

• The diameter of a particle is considered as the size of the minimum

aperture through which the particle passes

• Sieve Analysis can be performed dry or wet depending on the clay or

slime content of the material
Screen or Sieve Analyses Cont’d

Feed

+d

Oversize

-d

Undersize

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 11

Screen Aperture Shapes
• Some types of screen apertures (when w ≤ 3t then the aperture is a
w
rectangle, if w > 3t then it is a slot)
t t

square
circular w
w

t
t

rectangular slot
Prepared by Martin Beyuo 12
Screen Aperture Shapes
• Some types of screen apertures (when w ≤ 3t then the aperture is a
• rectangle, if w > 3t then it is a slot)
• For a given screen surface, the open screen area is in the order;
A (circle) < A (square) < A (rectangle) < A (slot

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 13

Screen or Sieve Analyses Cont’d
• Screens are arranged such that consecutive sieves have a constant
relationship between them.
• The three constants which correspond to three different series are
the square root of 2 (1.414), Tyler series; fourth root of 2 (1.189),
modern series; and the tenth root of 10 (1.259), metric series.
• For most practical purposes alternate sieves in the series are used in
building the nest.
 Screen or Sieve Analyses Cont’d
• The appropriate quantity of the ore sample is weighed, loaded onto the
uppermost sieve and covered

• This quantity depends on the size of the largest particle in the sample. The set of
sieves is placed on the appropriate vibrator and shaken for ten to thirty minutes

• At the end of this period controlled screening may be performed manually and if
the quantity of material passing through a sieve is not more than 1% per minute,
then screening is said to be complete
 Purpose Screen or Sieve Analyses
• Ore may be screened for any of the following reasons

To prepare closely sized feed for some purposes

To prevent the entry of undersize into crushing machines thereby

increasing their capacity and efficiency and also to conserve energy

To prevent oversize particles from passing to the next stage in closed
circuit fine crushing and grinding operations and

To produce a closely sized end product

Factors Affecting Screening
• The aim of every screening operation is to separate the feed into
oversize and undersize relative to the screen aperture.

• However, it happens that some oversize material report in the

through screen product while some undersize material are seen in the
over-screen product.
Factors Affecting Screening
• Factors, which depend on the feed material
moisture content of feed
stickiness of particles
electrostatic bunching
density and percentage of near mesh particles
thickness of material on the screen and particle characteristics such as shape,
orientation and kinetic energy used in approaching the screen opening
• Factors depending on the characteristics of the machine
angle of inclination,
motion imparted to the screen,
active section,
size of the screen and state of its surface,
the form and thickness of the screen apertures.
Thickness of Material on the Screen

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 19

Thickness of Material on the Screen Cont’d
• There is an optimum thickness of material on the screen at which
maximum screening rate is obtained. Three zones of different rates of
particle passage through a screen can be identified (Fig above)

• In zone I, passage of particles through the screen is minimum because

of the large amount of materials on the screen and the inadequate
segregation

• In zone II, there is a thin layer of particles on the screen and their
velocity of passage is maximum. The particles are closely packed and
are unable to escape from the screen surface

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 20

Thickness of Material on the Screen Cont’d
• In zone III, the surface of the screen is not fully utilised and there is
disorderly movement of the particles with the resulting low velocity of
passage through the screen

• The thickness of material on the screen at the feed end increases with
increase in the rate of feeding. This may lead to decrease in efficiency of
screening if not compensated for by a corresponding increase in amplitude
of vibration.

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 21

 Types of Screens
• The different type of screens includes grizzlies, vibrating, revolving, gyrating
and shaking screens

• Others are reciprocating, travelling belt and DSM screens. Most movable
screens are usually flat and inclined to facilitate flow of feed

• They are subjected to a periodic motion either parallel or normal to the

screen. In this way, particles bounce or roll on the deck as they simultaneously
move down the discharge end

• The motion imparted gives each particle a number of chances to fall through
the opening
Types of Screens Cont’d
Grizzlies
• Used in screening very coarse material and also to safeguard primary
crushers against overload

• It consists of an assemblage of bars laid across the path of the feed

with suitable spacing

• The bars are normally inclined and may be powered to shake or

vibrate in order to remove oversize material effectively
 Types of Screens Cont’d
Revolving screens
• Slightly inclined rotating cylindrical screens used for both wet and dry
screening.
• The slight inclination allows the feed material introduced at the feed
end to roll about towards the discharge end and may pass through the
screen as undersize.
• The trommel is an example of a revolving screen.
• Compound trommels use a number of concentric cylinders with
coarsest mesh in the center. Trommels are mounted at the end of the
most SAG mills to prevent scats from entering and blocking the
discharge launder.
Types of Screens Cont’d
Types of Screens Cont’d
Vibratory Screens
• Handle material of size 25cm down to 250µm.
• These screens can handle relatively fine, dry, moist or sticky material.
• Its periodic motion is normal to the screen and can be induced either
mechanically or by electrical devices.
• Mechanically vibrated screens are for coarser feed while electrically
vibrated screens work better on fine wet feed.
• In multiple deck systems the feed is introduced on the top coarse
screen and the undersize falls through thus producing a range of size
fractions.
Vibratory Screens Cont’d
Vibratory Screens Cont’d
Vibratory Screens Cont’d
 Laboratory Sieve/Screen Analysis
Precautions
• Consider the reaction of material in ambient conditions
• Fine powders adhere to screens/sieves in dry conditions
Sample Size
• Use a sample splitter to reduce sample to different representative weights;
25g, 50g, 100g, 200g
• Screen 50g of the sample on the finest sieve and if it gives about the same
percent passing as the 25g sample whereas the 100g sample shows a much
lower percentage passing than that of the 50g sample, then the 50g sample is
the appropriate size
• Use the larger sieves on top of the smaller ones in a nest of sieves to protect
the smaller sieves.
 Sample dividing techniques

Riffle sampler Rotory sampler

31
Laboratory Sieve/Screen Analysis Cont’d
Procedure
Weigh accurately in grams the required weight
• Prepare a stack/nest of sieves
• Weigh all the sieves and the receiving pan separately
• Deliver sample onto the top sieve, place lid over it and clamp
• Adjust the timer to between 10-15 minutes
• Stop the shaker and measure the mass of each sieve and material
retained
Laboratory Sieve/Screen Analysis Cont’d
Start sample weight is compared with finished sample weight

If weight of finished sample deviates by more than 2% from the initial

weight, the analysis and sample should be discarded. Difference should
be less than 1%

• NB// wet screening is done to negate static charges, break down

agglomerates and lubricate near-size particles to enable them pass
through the sieve
 Results of Screen Analysis
Particle size Sieve fractions Nominal Cumulative Cumulative
range, µm Aperture size, Percent Percent
µm Oversize, % Undersize, %
Weight, g Percent,
%
250 0 100
-250+180 8.0 10 180 10 90
-180+125 11.2 14 125 24 76
-125+90 12.8 16 90 40 60
-90+63 14.4 18 63 58 42
-63+45 16.0 20 45 78 22
-45+0 17.6 22 0 100 0
Prepared by Martin Beyuo 34
Graph of Results of Screen Analysis
100

80

60
cum % retained

cum % passing

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Graph of cumulative percent against nominal sieve size

35
Prepared by Martin Beyuo
 Results of Screen Analysis Cont’d
• From the graph of cumulative percent against particle size as shown in figure
above, it is possible to estimate the percentage composition of any particle
size range of the sample.
For example:
The percentage composition of the material passing 180 µm, x = 90%
The percentage composition of the material passing 90 µm, y = 60%
Therefore,
The percentage composition of the material between 90 and 180 µm is given
by;
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 90% − 60%
= 30%
Prepared by Martin Beyuo 36
 Results of Screen Analysis Cont’d

• These graphs may be plotted on a semi-log sheet or log-log axes. The use of
log axes reduces the degree of scatter and is suitable for skewed distributions.
Other plots include that of the Rosin-Rammler relation as modified by Bennet
(Gilchrist, 1989):
100
𝑙𝑜𝑔. log = log 𝑏 + 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
𝑅

where R is the weight percent over size x. If a distribution conforms to this

relationship, then a plot of log.log (100/R) against log x is linear.

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 37

Results of Screen Analysis Cont’d
• Another relationship is the Gates-Gaudin-Schuhman (GGS)
relationship where,

𝑥 𝑚
• 𝑦= 100( )
𝑘

Where y is the percent passing size x, and k and m are constants.

Prepared by Martin Beyuo 38

 Moisture Content of the Sample
• Water, which is contained in fractures of particles, as well as chemically bonded
water, has virtually no influence on screening.
• The influence of material dampness is greatly felt when screening fine particles due
to their large specific surface area become dampened.
• Damp particles may stick together to form larger particles and blind the sieves.
• These result in restricted spreading of materials on the sieve and, hence the passage
of fines is also hindered and may remain in the oversize product.
• The efficiency of screening decreases with increasing moisture content up to a
certain limit beyond which the mobility of the particles increases and the material
enters into a condition of wet screening.
• Here, increase in moisture content increases the efficiency of screening as in figure
below
Moisture Content of the Sample Cont’d
• Moisture Content, %
Sub-sieve analysis

Sedimentation

• Sedimentation is basically the act of settling solid particles in a fluid

medium under the force of gravity. It needs not necessarily be a
downward movement and electrical, magnetic and centrifugal forces
could be used to increase the settling velocities.
•
• The principle of sedimentation could be illustrated by dispersing some
test material uniformly in water contained in a measuring cylinder.
When the particles are dropped, they undergo an initial acceleration
before settling with their different terminal velocities. After a time, t,
a percentage of the particles would settle through a distance, h, (Fig
3.5) and the terminal velocity is given by:

• V = h/t
Sedimentation test in a cylinder

• These particles would include those with terminal velocities greater

than V. However, smaller particles with terminal velocities less than V
could settle if they are attached to or sandwiched between two
bigger particles. These fines could be removed by re-pulping to the
original level and repeating the experiment (up to 5 repetitions would
be most appropriate).
• Based on the velocity calculated from this experiment, the particle
size can be calculated by inserting the velocity component in Stokes
equation.
• After time t, all particles larger than d, would have fallen below the level
h, and particles of diameter less than d, say d1, would have fallen below a
level h1 where h1< h. The efficiency of removal of particles of size d1 is
given by:
E = (h – hi)/H
Since t = h/V and V α d2 →h⁄d_2 = h_1⁄〖d^2〗_1
• Hence,
E=(〖h-h(〗_d^(d_1 )))/H
• For n decantations, efficiency of removal of particles of size d1 at a
separation size of d is
= 〖1 – [1 – E]〗^n
• When combined with the pipette technique, samples may be taken
periodically at a given cross-section above the settled material in and
analyzed to monitor the settling rate. Sedimentation tests may be
utilized in the design of industrial settling tanks, thickeners and
tailings dams.
 Elutriation methods
•

• Elutriation separates particles by means of a current

of water moving upward through a sorting column at
constant velocity as illustrated in Fig 3.6.
• Particles with terminal velocity greater than that of
the fluid velocity appear in the underflow while
particles with lesser terminal velocities report in the
overflow. The process continues until classification is
complete.
• Fig 3.6. A schematic diagram of an elutriation system
• For a sorting column of depth h, sorting material at a separating size
d,
• V α d2
• where, V is the upward velocity of water. Particles of size s, where s <
d will move up the sorting column at a velocity Vs where,

• Vs α (d2 – s2)
• The time required for a particle of size s, to move through the column
is given by h/vs and that required for a complete volume change is
h/v. To remove all particles of size s, the number of volume changes
required would be;

• (h⁄v_s )/(h⁄v)=d^2/(d^2-s^2 )= 1/(1-〖(s⁄d)〗^2 )

Electrical resistance methods, laser granulometry and microscopy

• An electrical resistance method used in particle size analysis is the

coulter counter. In this technique, particles pass through an
electrolyte (in a tube) one at a time. As a particle passes through,
some fluid is displaced which causes a change in the resistance
between electrodes mounted in the unit. The voltage produced and
measured is proportional to the volume of the particle. It is suitable
for particles in the range 0.5 – 400 µm.
• Laser granulometry is based on diffraction of a coherent light beam by
particles. Samples are prepared by dispersing the powder in a liquid by
means of an ultrasonic bath and circulated through a glass cell. The values
of illumination of the beam, with and without the sample are read by a
detector and the results given in cumulative percent undersize.

• Microscopic techniques are utilized in determining the size of single

particles based on its projected area. Both the optical and electron
microscopes may be equipped with a graduated device for taking these
measurements. The optical microscope is very suitable in the range 0.25 –
50 µm while the electron microscope can handle particles as small as 0.005
µm.