Evaluation Scheme

Component Duration Weightage Date & Time

Mid Semester Test 1:30 Hour 30 According to Academic Calendar
End semester exam 3 Hour 50 According to Academic Calendar
Assignments/Test 45 min 10 Class Timings
Case study 10 Class Timings

Make up examinations: Only on the production of valid and genuine reasons

Grading: Absolute
 References
• McCabe , W.L. and Smith, J.C., Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering, 5th
Edn., McGraw Hill, New York, 1993.
• Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J.F., Chemical Engineering, Vol. II, 4th Edn.,
Butterworth - Heinemann, 1991.
• Raymond A. Kulweic, Materials Handling Handbook, 2nd Edn., Wiley-
Interscience Publications, 1985.
• Badger and Banchero, Introduction to Chemical Engineering, 1st Edn.,
McGraw Hill, NewYork, 1954.
• Perry, R.H. and Green , W.D., Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Hand Book, 7th
Edn., McGraw Hill International Edn., New York, 2000.
 Course outcomes
• Apply the basic principles of particle characterization in different processes
involving solids

• Evaluate the crushing efficiency of different size reduction equipment’s by

applying crushing laws

• Analyze various mixing processes and calculate the power requirement

• Select the appropriate equipment for particle separation

 Learning Outcomes

• To know the difference between Unit operation and Unit process

• Importance of mechanical operations

• Characterization of solid particles

Industrial systems
 Introduction
• What is Unit process and Unit operation??
• Unit process involves chemical conversions leading to synthesis of new products
• Unit operations involve the physical change and separation of the products
• Unit operations
• Fluid flow operations
• Mechanical operations
• Mass transfer operations
• Heat transfer operations
• What is Mechanical operation?
 • Mechanical operations are those unit operations that involve physically changing a
material. It is all about dealing with the particles

• Why do we need knowledge of mechanical operations?

• In general the feed material in the earths crust wont be available in the desirable
form
• First mechanical operations will be used to convert the feed into the required
form and later continue with unit processes

• Mechanical operations classification

• Particulate solids – Characterization & Handling of solids (Transportation,
storage etc..), size reduction, screening
• Particle dynamics – Sedimentation, filtration, classification
• Mixing – Mixing of solids & liquids
CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID PARTICLES

• Individual solid particles are characterized by their size, shape and density
• Homogeneous solids have the same density as the bulk material
• Size and shape are easily specified for regular particles, such as spheres and
cubes
• How to define size and shape of an irregular particle?
• The shape of an individual particle can be expressed in terms of the
sphericity (Φs)
• Gives the closeness of irregular particle to the sphere?
 Sphericity
• Defined as the surface-volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp divided by the
surface-volume ratio for the particle
Surface area of sphere = Π 𝐷
Volume of sphere = 1/6 Π 𝐷
Surface to volume ratio of sphere = 6/Dp
Surface to volume ratio of selected particle = Sp/Vp

Therefore Sphericity =

• Equivalent diameter is defined as the size of spherical particle having the same
controlling characteristics as the particle under consideration
1. Find the sphericity of a cube of dimension a x a x a
Importance of Particle Size and Shape
• There is an optimum particle size or at least a smallest and largest acceptable
size, for most items involving particles
• The taste of chocolate is affected by of their respective ingredients.
• Extremely fine amorphous silica is added to tomato ketchup to control its
flow.
• Pharmaceutical tablets dissolving rates in our systems are determined by
particle size and exposed surface area.
• The settling time of concrete, dental filling, and broken-bone castes
procedure in accordance with particle size and surface area exposure.
 Learning Outcomes

• Method of screen analysis & Tyler series

• Size analysis for mixed particle sizes

 Particle sizes Units
Coarse Inches or millimetres (in or mm)
Fine Screen size
Very fine Micrometers or nanometres (μm or nm)
Ultra fine Surface area per unit mass (m2/g)
The particle size can be measured using a wide range of measuring techniques, such as
(i) Screening (for particles of size > 10 μm) – Dry Screening ( > 44 μm), Wet Screening (> 10 μm)
(ii) Sedimentation (for particles of size range of 1–100 μm)
(iii) Elutriation (for particles of size range of 5–100 μm)
(iv) Electron microscopy (for particles of size range of 0.0005–5 μm)
(v) Light scattering (for particles of size range of 0.1–10 μm)
(vi) Laser diffraction (for particles of size range of 0.1–600 μm)
(vii)Photon correlation spectroscopy (for sizes ranging a few nanometres to a few μm).
SCREEN ANALYSIS

STANDARD SCREEN SERIES

• Standard screens are used to measure the size (and size distribution) of particles in
the size range between about 3 and 0.0015 in. (76 mm and 38 µm)
• MOC – Woven wire made of SS
• The openings are square. Each screen is identified in meshes per inch. The actual
openings are smaller than those corresponding to the mesh numbers, because of
the thickness of the wires.
Tyler Series
• Screens is based on the opening of the 200-mesh (0.074 mm) screen.
• The area of the openings in any one screen in the series is exactly twice that of the
openings in the next smaller screen.
• The ratio of the actual mesh dimension of any screen to that of the next smaller
screen is 2 1.41
• For closer sizing, intermediate screens are available, each of which has a mesh
dimension 2 1.189
• In general these intermediate screens are not used.
Sieve Analysis
Sieve shaker
• The screen through which the particles have passed is called the limiting screen
and which has retained them is called the retaining screen.
• Material that remains on a given screening surface is the oversize (>) or plus (+)
material and that passing is the undersize (<) or minus (−) material
• Set of standard screens is arranged serially in stack with the smallest mesh at the
bottom and the largest at the top
• The sample is placed on the top screen and the stack shaken mechanically for a
definite time
• The particles retained on each screen are removed and weighed, and the masses of
the individual screen increments are converted to mass fractions
Method of Reporting
I. By calculating the mass
percentage of each size
fraction
II. By calculating the
cumulative percentage of
size fractions retained on
each sieve
III. By calculating the
cumulative percentage of
size fractions passing
through each sieve.
Differential plots are the plots of the mass fraction (or the percentage of mass fraction)
retained on each sieve versus average sieve size, while cumulative plots are the plots of the
mass fraction (or the percentage of mass fraction) passing through or retained on each sieve
versus particular sieve aperture.
Mixed particle sizes and size analysis
• A sample of solid particles contains a wide range of particle sizes and densities
for which their analysis becomes extremely difficult.
• The whole sample is separated into a number of fractions, each of constant
density and nearly constant size by some mechanical means and then each
fraction is analysed separately
• For a sample of uniform particles having diameter as Dp, total mass as m and
density of each particle as ρp, the total volume of the particles is

• If the volume of one particle is Vp then the number of particles in the sample is
• If the surface area of each particle is Sp then the total surface area of particles
is

• For a mixture of particles the analysis is done for each fraction of constant
density and constant size. The above equations are applied to each fraction to
estimate the number of particles and the total surface area
• The results for all the fractions are added to give what is called the specific
surface of the mixture, Ass, or total surface area of a unit mass of particles.

Where xi is mass fraction of given size

Average particle diameter (average of smallest and largest particle diameter in the increment).
• For regular particles, the estimation of specific surface is easy, but the task is
difficult for irregular particles.
• Specific surface ratio (NSSR) is popularly used to overcome the difficulty, which is
defined as the ratio of the specific surface of the particle to the specific surface of
a spherical particle of the same diameter.
• The specific surface ratio is a function of average particle diameter. If Dp avg is
the average size of the particle then
where, Assp = Specific surface of the particle.
• The specific surface for a mixture of particles containing many different sizes of
particles of same density can now be expressed as
• For spherical particles NSSR = 1
Average particle sizes
Generally average size is used to describe the particle size of a mixture
Mean volume–surface mean diameter
• The volume–surface mean diameter (Dvs) is the most widely used among all
average sizes and is related to the specific surface area Ass. It is defined by

Replacing
• This is also known as Sauter Mean diameter

Mass mean diameter

Volume mean diameter
• Total volume of the sample divide by total number of particles.

Arithmetic mean diameter

• Based on total number of particles
Surface area mean diameter is used in the study of mass transfer, catalytic
reactions. Volume or Mass mean diameters are useful in the study of spray
drying, in the gravitational free settling velocity of a particle in a liquid, etc.
 Learning Outcomes

• Properties of Particulate masses

• Crushing Laws
Properties of particulate masses
• Masses of dry solid particles have many of the properties of a fluid
• They exert pressure on the sides and walls of a container; they flow through
openings or down a chute/silo/bin.
• Unlike most fluids, granular solids and solid masses permanently resist distortion
when subjected to a moderate distorting force.
• When the force is large enough, failure occurs and one layer of particles slides over
another, but between the layers on each side of the failure there is appreciable
friction.
Distinctive properties
• The pressure is not the same in all directions.
• Pressure applied in one direction creates some pressure in other directions, but it
is always smaller than the applied pressure. It is a minimum in the direction at
right angles to the applied pressure.
• A shear stress applied at the surface of a mass is transmitted throughout a static
mass of particles unless failure occurs.
• The density of the mass varies depending on the degree of packing of the grains.
• The bulk density is a minimum when the mass is "loose"; it rises to a maximum
when the mass is packed by vibrating or tamping.
• Before a mass of tightly packed particles can flow, it must increase in volume to
permit interlocking grains to move past one another. Without such dilation flow is
not possible.
• Depending on their flow properties, particulate solids are divided into two classes,
cohesive (dry sand, grains) and noncohesive (wet clay).
 Size Reduction
• The term size reduction is applied to all the ways in which particles of solids
are cut or broken into smaller pieces.
• Chunks of crude ore are crushed to workable size: synthetic chemicals are
ground into powder; sheets of plastic are cut into tiny cubes or diamonds.
• Commercial products must often meet stringent specifications regarding the
size and sometimes the shape of the particles they contain.
• Reducing the particle size also increases the reactivity of solids; it permits
separation of unwanted ingredients by mechanical methods; it reduces the
bulk of fibrous materials for easier handling and for waste disposal.
• Solids may be broken in many different ways, but only four of them are commonly
used in size-reduction machines:
a. Compression (Coarse reduction of hard solids – gives relatively few fines)
b. Impact (gives coarse, medium and fine particles)
c. Attrition, or rubbing (very fine products from soft, nonabrasive materials)
d. Cutting (definite particle size & may be shape with few or no fines)

Principles of comminution
Criteria for comminution
• Comminution is a generic term for size reduction (Crushers, Grinders)
• Ideal crusher or grinder would (1) have a large capacity, (2) require a small power
input per unit of product, (3) yield a product of the single size or the size
distribution desired.
Characteristics of comminuted products
• The objective of crushing and grinding is to produce small particles from larger
• Smaller particles are desired either because of their large surface area or because
of their shape, size, and number.
• One measure of the efficiency of the operation is based on the energy required to
create new surface
• Unlike an ideal crusher or grinder, an actual unit does not yield a uniform product,
whether the feed is uniformly sized or not.
• The product always consists of a mixture of particles, ranging from a definite
maximum size to very small particles.
• If the feed is homogeneous in particle shape and in chemical and physical
structure, the shapes of the individual units in the product may be quite uniform
• The diameter ratio of the largest and smallest particles in a comminuted
product is of the order of 104
• Because of this extreme variation in the sizes of the individual particles,
relationships adequate for uniform sizes must be modified when applied to such
mixtures.
• Unless they are smoothed by abrasion after crushing, comminuted particles
resemble polyhedrons with nearly plane faces and sharp edges and corners.
• The particles may be compact, with length, breadth, and thickness nearly equal,
or they may be plate like or needlelike.
• For compact grains, the largest dimension or apparent diameter is generally
taken as the particle size. For particles that are plate like or needle like, two
dimensions should be given to characterize their size
Schematic for creation of new surface
Energy and power requirements in comminution
• The cost of power is a major expense in crushing and grinding, so the factors that
control this cost are important.
• During size reduction, the particles of feed material are first distorted and strained.
• The work necessary to strain them is stored temporarily in the solid as mechanical
energy of stress
• As additional force is applied to the stressed particles, they are distorted beyond
their ultimate strength and suddenly rupture into fragments (new surface)
• Since a unit area of solid has a definite amount of surface energy, the creation of
new surface requires work, which is supplied by the release of energy of stress
when the particle breaks.
• By conservation of energy, all energy of stress in excess of the new surface energy
created must appear as heat
Crushing efficiency
• The ratio of the surface energy created by crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid
is the crushing efficiency (ηc)
• If es is the surface energy per unit area, Awb and Awa are the areas per unit mass of
product and feed then the energy absorbed by a unit mass of the material Wn is

• Experimental efficiency is usually measured by estimating es from theories of the solid

state, measuring Wn, Awb, Awa
• Usually the crushing efficiency is in the range of 0.06 to 0.15
• The energy absorbed by the solid (Wn) is less than total energy (W) fed to the machine.
• Part of the total energy used to overcome the friction in the bearings and other parts
• The ratio of the energy absorbed to the energy input is (ηm) the
mechanical efficiency

• If 𝑚 is the feed rate, the power required by the machine is

Comminution Laws
• It is not possible to find out the accurate amount of energy requirement for size
reduction of a given material, because
i. There is a wide variation in the size and shape of particles both in the feed
and product
ii. Some energy is wasted as heat and sound, which can’t be determined exactly
• But, a number of empirical laws have been proposed to relate the size reduction
with the energy input to the machine. They are Rittinger’s Law (1867), Kick’s Law
(1885), and Bond’s Law (1952).
Rittinger’s Law : The work required for size reduction is proportional to the new
surface area created
Where K = 1/ηc
• Replacing specific surface area gives

• The inverse of Rittinger’s (KR) is known as Rittinger’s number.

• Rittinger’s law is applicable for fine grinding where the increase in surface per unit
mass of material is predominant.
• This law is applicable for feed size of less than 0.05 mm.
Kick’s Law : The work required for crushing a given mass of material is constant for
a given reduction ratio irrespective of the initial size.
Where Kk is Kick’s constant

The reduction ratio is the ratio of initial particle size to final particle size.
• Kick’s law is based on stress analysis of plastic deformation within the elastic limit.
• This law is more accurate than Rittinger’s law for coarse crushing where the
surface area produced per unit mass is considerably less.
• This law is applicable for feed size of greater than 50 mm.
Bond’s Law : The work required to form particles of size Dpp from a very large
particle size is proportional to the square root of the surface to volume ratio (sp/vp)
of the product.

This law is applicable for feed size between 0.05 and 50 mm

• The Bond’s constant (Kb) is dependent on the type of machine used and on the
material to be crushed.
• It is found more accurately using work index (Wi).
• It is defined as the gross energy requirement in kilowatt hour per ton of feed
(kWh/ton of feed) to reduce a very large particle to such a size that 80% of the
product will pass through a 100-µm or 0.1-mm screen.

• If P is in kW, 𝑚 in tons per hour, and Dpp is in μm then Kb = 10 Wi, and if Dpp
is in mm then Kb= 0.1Wi = 0.3162 Wi
• All the above three laws can be derived from a generalised differential
equation relating to work required for crushing and the particle size.
Mathematically, this can be written as

• For n =2, 1, and 1.5 and integrating between suitable limits, We can obtain
Rittengers, Kicks, Bonds law