FILM CHARACTERISTICS

Film is Characterized by Characteristic Curve

A typical film characteristic curve, which shows

how a film responds to different amounts of
radiation exposure,
Characteristic Curve- It is the relation between film
density on the Y-axis and Log Relative Exposure on the
X-axis.
This curve is also Called D-Log E Curve, HD curve,
Densitometry Curve
This curve provides information related to Speed and
Contrast of a given film.
Speed: Denotes sensitivity of the film i.e. For the same
Quantity of Radiation, A FAST FILM becomes darker
(high density) than SLOW FILM
Contrast: Change in Density for a given exposure.
Large change in Density for a given change in
exposure is said to have high contrast. If the Density
difference is small for a given change in exposure is
said to have Low contrast.
High contrast films needs high intensity illuminators
to view the radiograph

FILM CONTRAST
Region of the curve, it takes a large
change in exposure to produce a
small change in film density.
Therefore, the sensitivity of the
film is relatively low.
Region of the curve, a relatively
small change in exposure will result
in a relatively large change in film
density.
It can be seen that changing the
log of the relative exposure from
0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film
density from 0.20 to about 0.30.
However, at film densities above
2.0, the slope of the characteristic
curve for most films is at its
maximum.

Radiographic Density

Radiographic density (or film

density) is a measure of the
degree of film darkening.
Technically
it
should
be
called "transmitted density"
when
associated
with
transparent-base film since it
is a measure of the light
transmitted through the film.
Radiographic density is the
logarithm
of
two
measurements: the intensity
of light incident on the film
(I0) and the intensity of light
transmitted through the film
(It). This ratio is the inverse
of transmittance.

Transmitta Percent Inverse of Film

nce
Transmitta Transmitta Density
(It/I0)
nce
nce
(Log(I0/I
(I0/It)
t))
1.0
100%
1
0
0.1
10%
10
1
0.01
1%
100
2
0.001
0.1%
1000
3
0.0001
0.01%
10000
4
0.00001
0.001%
100000
5
0.000001 0.0001%
1000000
6
0.0000001 0.00001% 10000000
7

Industrial codes and

standards typically
require a radiograph to
have a density between
2.0 and 4.0 for
acceptable viewing with
common film viewers.

Film density is measured

with a densitometer.

Densitometer

Radiographic Relative Exposures

A log scale is used or the values are reported in
log units on a linear scale to compress the x-axis.
Also, relative exposure values (No units) are
often used.
Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures.
For example, if one film is exposed at 100 keV for
6mAmin and a second film is exposed at the
same energy for 3mAmin, then the relative
exposure would be 2.
The image directly to the right shows three film
characteristic curves with the relative exposure
plotted on a log scale, and log relative exposure
plotted on a linear scale

Types of Commercially Radiographic

Films
Single
Coated

Very Low
Speed

Double
Coated

Very fine
Grain

High
Contrast

For Fine
Details

Low Speed Fine Grain

High
Contrast

For Light
Alloys

Double
Coated

Medium
Speed

High
Contrast

For Thick
Sections,
Welds and
Castings

Double
Coated

High Speed Medium

Grain

Medium
Contrast

For Thick
Sections

Fine Grain

Radiographic Sensitivity
Effectiveness of showing the smallest details in a given
thickness of object is known as Radiographic Sensitivity.
It is the percentage ratio of smallest size of an
artificially produced defect on the radiograph to the
thickness of the object under examination.
i.e. Sensitivity = (t/t) x 100
Where t = Smallest size of an artificial defect (also
called IQI)

t= thickness of the object

The smaller the numerical value of sensitivity the better
is the radiographic sensitivity

Image Quality Indicators

IQI are Artificial defects are made in the form of Holes,
Steps or wires of various dimensions.
These are also called PENETRAMETERS.
IQI are placed on the object to be radiographed. The
image size of IQI is used to evaluate the radiographic
sensitivity.
IQI are made of materials similar to that of the object
being examined.
Most commonly used IQI are of American, German,
French or British Origin.

American-Plaque Type
Available in thin plaques
Thickness equal to 2% of the thickness of the
material to be radiographed.
Three holes of diameters 1t,2t and 4t, Where t is
the thickness of the plaque.
Contrast is determined by the image of the outline
of the plaque
Sharpness is determined by the visibility of
the holes
High image sharpness is determined by the
visibility of the smallest hole on the plaque.
Plaques are available in the thickness of 0.125mm
to 3.75mm.
Sensitivity is expressed from 2-2T, 2-1T and 2-4T.
In this 2 represents 2% thickness and 2T, 1T and 4T
represents the diameter of the hole

American-Plaque Type
IQI

Size of the Plaque Based

on the Thickness of Object
to be Radiographed

Different Penetrameter Designs

German/ASTM
Wire Type IQI
Equidistant Parallel wires of Various
Diameters
Four series of IQI containing Seven wires,
with 5mm apart mounted between two
thin sheets of low X-ray absorption
First series consists wire nos. 1to7
Second series consists of wire nos. 6 to 12.
Third series consists of wire nos. 10 to 16
Fourth Series consists of wire nos.13 to 19
Visibility of thinnest wire on the radiograph
is the measure of sensitivity
Sensitivity (%)= (diameter of thinnest wire
visible/thickness of the object under IQI) x
100

German-Wire Type IQI sizes

ASTM- Wire type IQI

sizes

French-Step type
IQI
Consists Rectangular step wedge with

square steps.
Steps are drilled with one or more holes of
diameter equal to thickness of the step.
Steps with thickness of less thickness of
less than 0.8mm are drilled with two holes
of the same diameter.
Thickness of steps increases in geometric
progression.
Visibility index measures the image quality
Visibility Index (N) = (a-b)
Where a is the number of holes visible on
the image and b is the number of holes
visible in all steps having thickness greater
than or equal to 5% of the thickness of the
object under examination.
The value will be zero, negative and
positive
The sensitivity is better if N is positive

Placement
of IQI

Reading of Radiographs- Film

Viewing Conditions
Films are viewed in a Semi- Dark Enclosure
The interpreter should be adjusted to the Lighting system
in the enclosure
Avoid direct lighting and unimportant illumination in the
enclosure
Interpreter should have good eyesight.
Light intensity requirement in viewing the radiographs
depends on the film density
Industrial radiographs needs normal working density
varies from 1.5 to 3

Recommendations of International
Institute of Welding- For Illumination
Brightness

Illuminators with fluorescent tubes

are used to read densities up to 1.8
Electric bulbs generate heat, glass
baffle is introduced to avoid heat to
the screens.
Illuminator screens are commonly
made by milky white perspex sheets.
For high density films (i.e. from 2 to
4) illuminator provided with 500 watt
bulb is used.
Do not read the radiographs for more
than 90 minutes

Interpretation of Radiographs
If radiograph found acceptable next verify the following
1. Whether the radiograph pertains to the component
2. If more than one exposure involved for a
component, correlate
the zones for its identification
Evaluation of defects is done by comparing the test
object radiograph with the known standard reference
radiographs.
The reference radiographs developed by the
international agencies ASTM, IIW, BS

Defects verses Radiographs-Welding

Radiographic Film Interpretation has Three basic steps
(1) Detection,
(2) Interpretation, and
(3) Evaluation
All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity.
Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image.
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a
material. These interruptions may occur in the base metal,
weld material or "heat affected" zones.
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the
codes or specifications used to invoke and control an
inspection, are referred to as defects.

 Base Metal
Discontinuities
Lamellar tearing
Laminations and
Delaminations
Laps and Seams
Porosity
Uniformly
Scattered
Cluster
Linear
Piping

Weld Joint Discontinuities

Misalignment (hi-lo)
Undercut
Underfill
Concavity or Convexity
Excessive reinforcement
Improper reinforcement
Overlap
Burn-through
Incomplete or Insufficient
Penetration
Incomplete Fusion
Surface irregularity
Overlap
Arc Strikes

Inclusions
Slag
Wagontracks
Tungsten
Spatter
Arc Craters
Cracks
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Throat
Toe
Root
Underbead and
Heat-affected
zone
Hot
Cold or delayed

Heat-affected zone
microstructure
alteration
Base Plate laminations
Size or dimensions

Misalignment (hi-lo)
Definition: Amount a joint
is out of alignment at the
root
Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different
thicknesses (transition thickness)
Prevention: Workmanship. Transition angles not to exceed
2.5 to 1.
Repair: Grinding. Careful on surface finish and direction of
grind marks. Inside of Pipe /Tube difficult.

Undercut
Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left unfilled.
Cause: High amperage, electrode
angle, long arc length, rust
Prevention: Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal
before welding.
Repair: Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be
low hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge first.

Undercut
(cont......)

Undercut typically has an allowable limit. Different codes

and standards vary greatly in the allowable amount.
Plate - the lesser of 1/32 or 5% (typ.)

Insufficient Fill
Definition: The weld surface is below the
adjacent surfaces of the base metal
Cause: Improper welding techniques
Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld
type and position. Use stripper beads before the cover pass.
Repair: Simply weld to fill. May require preparation by
grinding.

Insufficient Fill on the Root Side

(suckback)

Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces

of the base metal at the weld root.
Cause: Typically improper joint preparation or excessive
weld pool heat.
Prevention: Correct cause. (see next slide)
Repair: Backweld to fill. May requireremoval of weld
section by grinding for access to the joint root.

Cause for Insufficient Fill at the Root

Some liquids, like water or molten steel, try to
cover as much surface area of whatever they are
in contact with as possible.
Welding a root pass too wide can also cause the
bead to sag (overhead position).

Removing a root pass by grinding

1. Recreate the groove geometry as closely as
possible.
2. Use a saw or die grinder and 1/16 - 1/8 cut off
wheel to recreate root opening. Remember
repairs are sometimes required to be made with a
smaller electrode.
3. Open the groove angle. Be careful to leave the
proper root face dimension.
4. Feather the start and stop to blend smoothly
into and out of the existing weld.

Excessive Concavity or Convexity

Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet
weld which exceeds the specified allowable
limits
Cause:
Amperage and travel speed
Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques.
Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal.

Concavity

Convexity

Reinforcement
The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the
surface of the plate
Excessive
Insufficient
Improper
contour

Face Reinforcement

Root Reinforcement

Excessive Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard.
Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to
1/16(pipe) or flush to 1/8 (plate or structural
shapes).
Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low
Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.
Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the
weld toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.

Insufficient Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Underfill may be up to 5% of metal thickness not to exceed
1/32 as long as the thickness is made up in the opposite
reinforcement. Not applied to fillet welds.
Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will
cause thinning of the filler metal. In OH position, too hot or
too wide will cause drooping of the open root puddle.
Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing or
consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing.
Repair: Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement. If
backwelding is not possible, must remove and reweld.

Improper Weld Contour

Definition: When the weld exhibits less than a 1350
135
transition angle at the weld toe.
0
Cause: Poor welding technique
Prevention: Use proper techniques. A weave or whip motion
can often eliminate the problem.
Repair: The weld face must be feathered into the base plate.

Overlap
Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond the
toe of the weld
Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically, electrode
angles and travel speed.
Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper welding
technique will prevent this problem.
Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into
the base metal. Be careful of deep grind marks that run
transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT to be sure.

Overlap
Overlap is
measured with a
square edge such
as a 6 rule. No
amount of
overlap is
typically allowed.

Burn-through

(non-standard)

Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been

completely melted through the base metal. The hole may or
may not be left open.
Cause: Excessive heat input.
Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed,
use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding parameters.
Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.
Otherwise, removal and rewelding may be required. Some
standards may require special filler metal and/or PWHT.

Incomplete or Insufficient
Penetration
Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the
required depth into the joint root
Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast
travel speed, short arc length.
Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).
Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and reweld.

Incomplete Fusion
Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive
bond with the base metal.
Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel
speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too small,
unclean base metal, arc off seam.
Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.
Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely
remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.

Arc Strike
Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld zone.
Cause: Carelessness
Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.
Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded
smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be remove
and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.

Inclusions
Slag
Wagontracks
Tungsten

Slag Inclusion
Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld
in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical Down
Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out tight
areas to gain access to bottom of joint.
Repair: Remove by grinding. Reweld.

Wagon Tracks

(non-standard)

Definition: Slang term for a groove left at the toe of a root

pass which becomes filled with slag and is trapped in the
weld.
Cause: The contour of the root pass is too high, or the weld
toe is not bonded to the base metal
Prevention: Use proper technique to deposit the weld root.
Repair: Best repaired before applying the hot pass.
Carefully grind the root pass face flat. be careful not to
gouge other areas on the weldment.

Tungsten Inclusion
Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
AC balance on +, Upslope too high, electrode tip not
snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod, electrode split.
Prevention: Eliminate the cause
Repair: Grind out and reweld

Inclusions
fix when you see it. otherwise grind out & fix

Whiskers
Unsightly
Inhibits material flow in piping
Are inclusions
Can break off in pipes and damage equipment downline

Spatter
Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the
welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface.
Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high
amperages.
Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be protected
with coverings or hi-temp paints.
Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes must be
tested as if it were a weld.

Arc Craters
Definition: A depression left at the termination of the weld
where the weld pool is left unfilled.
Cause: Improper weld termination techniques
Prevention:
Repair: If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater. Generally
welding from beyond the crater back into the crater.

Cracks
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Throat
Toe
Root
Underbead and Heat-affected zone
Hot
Cold or delayed

Longitudinal Crack
Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld axis.
May be found in the weld or base metal.
Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by
shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.
Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also
preheat to even out the cooling rates.
Repair: Remove and reweld

Transverse Crack
Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse
to the weld axis direction.
Cause: Weld metal hardness problem
Prevention:
Repair:

Crater Crack
Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an X which
is found in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks.
Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the
outside of the weld pool, pulling the center apart during
cooling
Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination
and/or preheat to even out the cooling of the puddle
Repair:

Throat Crack
Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat
area.
Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.
Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding
procedure. May be due to crater crack propagation.
Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat may
prevent it. be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more ductile
filler material.
Repair: Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure.
Be sure to correct initial problem first.

Toe Crack
Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the toe of
the weld
Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ
brittleness problem.
Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more
ductile filler material.
Repair:

Root Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld at the weld root.
Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Same as a throat
crack.
Prevention: Same as a throat crack
Repair:

Underbead Crack
Definition: A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the
HAZ.
Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement
Prevention: Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat
Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and reweld.

Hot Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during
solidification.
Cause: Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling
apart weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid temp.
Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensil filler material.
Repair:

Cold Crack
Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has
completely solidified
Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds, Discontinuities
Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less constraint,
use a more ductile weld metal
Repair: Remove and reweld, correct problem first, preheat
may be necessary.

Repairs to Cracks
Determine the cause
Correct the problem
Take precautions to prevent reoccurrence
Generally required to repair using a smaller electrode

Base Metal Discontinuities

Lamellar tearing
Laminations and Delaminations
Laps and Seams

Laminations
Base Metal Discontinuity
May require repair prior to welding
Formed during the milling process

Lamination effects can be reduced by joint

design:

Welding Discontinuities-Cold LAP

Cold lapis a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base
metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into the base material without bonding.

Cold lap at Toe of the Welds

Welding Discontinuities-Porosity
Porosityis the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take
many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or
specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated
and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the
metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in
the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.

Welding Discontinuities-Cluster
Porosity
Cluster porosityis caused when flux coated electrodes are

contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas

when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped
close together

Porosity in Weld

Welding Discontinuities-SLAG
INCLUSIONS
Slag inclusionsare nonmetallic solid material entrapped in

weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph,

dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the
weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Welding Discontinuities-Incomplete Penetration (IP)

or Lack of Penetration (LOP)
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP)occurs
when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most
objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural
stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a
radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the
land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Welding Discontinuities-Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusionis a condition where the weld filler metal
does not properly fuse with the base metal. Appearance on
radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in
the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or
joining area.

Welding Discontinuities-Internal Concavity or Suck Back

Internal concavity or suck backis a condition where the
weld metal has contracted as it cools and has been drawn up
into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a
lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is
often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Welding Discontinuities-Internal or Root Undercut

Internal or root undercutis an erosion of the base metal
next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image it
appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the
weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP
because it does not follow a ground edge.

Welding Discontinuities-External or Crown Undercut

External or crown undercutis an erosion of the base metal
next to the crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as
a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.

Welding Discontinuities-Offset or Mismatch

Offset ormismatchare terms associated with a condition where two pieces
being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows
a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in
density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line
is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area

Welding Discontinuities-Inadequate Weld Reinforcement

Inadequate weld reinforcementis an area of a weld where the thickness of
weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very
easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement,
because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher
(darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.

Welding Discontinuities-Excess Weld Reinforcement

Excess weld reinforcementis an area of a weld that has weld metal
added in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The
appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A
visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in
excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.

Welding Discontinuities-Cracks
Crackscan be detected in a radiograph only when they are
propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness
that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes
appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Welding Discontinuities-Tungsten Inclusions

Tungsten inclusions.Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material
used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding
procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld.
Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it
shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.

Welding Discontinuities- Oxide Inclusions

Oxide inclusionsare usually visible on the surface of material
being welded (especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less
dense than the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as
dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.

Welding Discontinuities- Burn Through

Burn-Throughresults when too much heat causes excessive weld metal
to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld,
creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of
metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as
dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
The vast majority of radiography concerns the testing and grading
of welds on pressurized piping, pressure vessels, high-capacity
storage containers, pipelines, and some structural welds. Other
tested materials include concrete (locating rebar or conduit),
welder's test coupons, machined parts, plate metal, or pipewall
(locating anomalies due to corrosion or mechanical damage).
Theoretically, industrial radiographers could radiograph any solid,
flat material (walls, ceilings, floors, square or rectangular
containers) or any hollow cylindrical or spherical object.
For purposes of inspection, including weld inspection, there exist
several exposure arrangements.

Radiographic Techniques

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

- film inside, source outside

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

- film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

INSPECTION TECHNIQUES-SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUES

Both sides of the specimen are accessible

Used for plates, cylinders, shells and large
diameters pipes
Source outside and the film inside or vice
versa

PANAROMIC TECHNIQUE
Radiation source is kept in
the centre of the pipe and
the film is fixed around the
weld on the outer surface
of the pipe
Reduces the examination
time, IQI can be placed
either on source side or
film side and SFD is
sufficient enough to ensure
the proper sensitivity

Double Wall Penetration Technique

Used when the inside

surface of the pipe is
not accessible
Double Wall Single
Image
Double Wall
double Image
Superimposing
Technique

LATITUDE TECHNIQUE
Multiple thickness recorded on the radiograph within
the useful range of film density
High contrast film-less latitude and vice versa
Double Film Technique
Selection of films and exposure conditions, the
thicker sections will be recorded on the faster
film and the thinner sections on the slower film
Use with or without lead screens
A centre screen between the two films may also
be used

Multiwall Penetration Technique

Multiwall single
image

For double envelope pipe

of more than 90 mm OD
and the interpretable
length is ascertained by

Multiwall double
image

For double envelope pipe

of 90 mm OD or less.
4 exposures are taken for
each weld

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE FOR

FLAT PLATE
The fourth is reserved for
flat objects, such as plate
metal, and is also
radiographed without the
source coming in direct
contact with the item. In
each case, the
radiographic film is
located on the opposite
side of the inspection item
from the source.

Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in
industrial radiography is heavily
regulated by state and federal
organizations due to potential
public and personal risks.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

There are many sources of radiation. In general, a person

receives roughly 100 mrem/year from natural sources and
roughly 100 mrem/year from manmade sources.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which
means that they have the ability to form ions in the material
that is penetrated. All living organisms are sensitive to the
effects of ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray food
pasteurization, etc.)
X-rays and gamma rays
have enough energy to
liberate electrons from
atoms and damage the
molecular structure of
cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.

Radiation Safety (cont.)

Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring
devices that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them
when they are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter

Pocket Dosimeter

Radiation Alarm

Radiation Badge

Radiation Safety (cont.)

There are three means of protection
to help reduce exposure to radiation:

Advantages of
Radiography
Technique is not limited by material type or density (i.e both

ferrous and non-ferrous materials)

Can inspect assembled components for condition and proper
placement of components
Method is extensively used for castings, weldments and
forgings to justify the internal flaws.
Well suited for the inspection of semiconductors devices for
detection of cracks and unsoldered connections.
Used to inspect the liquid level in sealed components.
Minimum surface preparation required.
Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks,
and material density changes.
Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
Provides a permanent record of the inspection.

Disadvantages of Radiography
Cracks cannot be detected unless they are parallel to the

radiation beam.
Defect usually at least 2% of the thickness of the material
before it can register on a radiograph.
Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity
radiation.
Many hours of technician training prior to use.
Access to both sides of sample required.
Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional
angled exposures.
Expensive initial equipment cost.

Digital Radiography

One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging

is Digital Radiography.
Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are
captured using either special phosphor screens or
flat panels containing micro-electronic sensors.
No darkrooms are needed to process film, and
captured images can be digitally enhanced for
increased detail.
Images are also easily archived (stored) when in
digital form.

Digital Radiography (cont.)

There are a number of forms of digital
radiographic imaging including:
Computed Radiography (CR)
Real-time Radiography (RTR)
Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
Computed Tomography

Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital
imaging process that uses a special
imaging plate which employs storage
phosphors.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors. The
stimulated phosphors remain in an excited state.

CR Phosphor Screen
Structure X-Rays
Protective Layer
Phosphor Layer

Phosphor Grains

Substrate

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
After exposure:

The imaging plate is read

electronically and erased for reuse in a special scanner system.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is
emitted where X-rays stimulated the
phosphor during exposure. The light is then
converted to a digital
Opticalvalue.
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube

Laser Beam
A/D
A/D
Convert
Convert
er
er

Imaging
Plate

110010010010110
110010010010110

Motor

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Digital images are typically sent to a
computer workstation where
specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.

Computed Radiography
(cont.)
Examples of computed radiographs:

Real-Time Radiography

Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term used to

describe a form of radiography that allows

electronic images to be captured and viewed in
real time.
Because image acquisition is almost
instantaneous, X-ray images can be viewed as
the part is moved and rotated.
Manipulating the part can be advantageous for
several reasons:
It may be possible to image the entire
component with one exposure.
Viewing the internal structure of the part from
different angular prospectives can provide
additional data for analysis.
Time of inspection can often be reduced.

Real-Time Radiography (cont.)

The equipment needed for an Computer with frame

RTR includes:
grabber board and software
X-ray tube
Monitor

Image intensifier or
positioning system
other real-time detector Sample
(optional)
Camera

Real-Time Radiography (cont.)

The image intensifier is a

device that converts the

radiation that passes through
the specimen into light.
It uses materials that
fluoresce when struck by
radiation.
The more radiation that
reaches the input screen, the
more light that is given off.
The image is very faint on the
input screen so it is intensified
onto a small screen inside the
intensifier where the image is
viewed with a camera.

Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)

A special camera

which captures the

light output of the
screen is located near
the image intensifying
screen.
The camera is very
sensitive to a variety
of different light
intensities.

A monitor is then connected to the

camera to provide a viewable

image.
If a sample positioning system is
employed, the part can be moved
around and rotated to image
different internal features of the
part.

Real-Time Radiography
(cont.)
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography

Real-time images are lighter

in areas where more X-ray
photons reach and excite
the fluorescent screen.

Film images are darker in

areas where more X-ray
photons reach and ionize
the silver molecules in
the film.

Direct Radiography
Direct radiography (DR) is

a form of real-time
radiography that uses a
special flat panel detector.

The panel works by

converting penetrating
radiation passing through
the test specimen into
minute electrical charges.

The panel contains many

micro-electronic
capacitors. The capacitors
form an electrical charge
pattern image of the
specimen.

Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) uses a realtime inspection system employing a
sample positioning system and special
software.

Computed Tomography
(cont.)
Many separate images are saved (grabbed)
and complied into 2-dimensional sections
as the sample is rotated.
2-D images are then combined into 3dimensional images.

Real-Time
Captures

Compiled 2-D
Images

Compiled 3-D
Structure

STANDARDS
IS 2478: Glossary of terms to Industrial Radiography
IS 2953: Glossary of terms to interpretation of welds
and castings radiographs
IS 1182:Recommended practice for Radiographic
examination of fusion welded butt joints in steel plates
IS 2595: Code of Practice for Radiographic Testing
IS 3657: Radiographic Image Quality Indicators
IS 2598: Safety code for Industrial Radiographic Practice

Acceptance Standards

STEREO
TECHNIQUERCC Testing
Stereo radiography is used for quantitative
measurement of depth and diameters of
steel reinforcements.
Figure shows the principle of the
procedure. It needs two different source
positions. The reconstruction can be done
by a graphical back projection or a
computerised one.
The simple graphical back projection is
sufficient for so called simple structures.
This is usually some separated steel parts
or one layer of steel bars.

Testing for
Masonry
radiography allows an
exact determination of the
cross-sectional dimensions
of the tie member and the
verification of its
anchorage in the corner
pillar (fig. 6). Fig. 6e shows
a typical arrangement of
this anchorage. It could be
observed that the flat bars
are arranged vertically
staggered in the corner
area above the vault. For
the anchorage the flat bars
are bent around a vertically
situated round bar.

Radiographic Picture of Corner

Masonry Pillar for the Verification of
Tie bars.
Conclusions
flat bar in the corner
pillar is shifted
vertical
flat bars are led
around round bar
running vertical for
the anchor

Radiographic Testing of Steel

Castings

Cable
Anchorage
ZoneRadiographic
Testing