CARTOGRAPHY: ORIGINS, FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES AND

DEFINITION

o Cartography derived from Greek “chartes” or “papyrus sheet of paper” may be defined as the
practice of making or using maps by combining science, aesthetics and technique. It is based
on the premise that the reality or imagined reality can be modelled in ways to communicate
with spatial information effectively

o It is the art and science of graphically representing a geographical area usually on a flat surface
such as a map or chart

o Possible origin by the ancient Greeks for the purpose of navigations and accentuate
geographical knowledge of the world; Anaximander was the first to draw the map of the
world and hence considered one of the first cartographers in the world

o The term came to use in English in the 1840s based on the Latin term “carta” or map

o The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are: set the map agenda and select traits
of the object to be mapped, represent the terrain or map projection, eliminate non-relevant
characteristics or generalization, reduce complexities, orchestrate the best elements to
convey a message to the audience or map design
CARTOGRAPHIC PROCESS: MAP PURPOSE, AUDIENCE AND ASPECTS OF
MAP DESIGN

o Recent technical innovations have led to a decreased focus on production skill and an increase in
quality design and the attempt to create maps both aesthetically pleasing and practically useful for
intended purposes
o The cartographic process involves several stages conceiving the need for a map onto extending it to
the consumption of the audience with generalization, symbolization and topography to convey the
structure of the map’s design
o The aspects of maps design are many:

• Map projections
• Generalization
• Symbology
• Composition
• Typography or labelling
• Layout
• Map-type specific design
ORIENTEERING/SPECIAL MAP RELIEF MAP

BASIC TYPES OF MAPS: HOW CARTOGRAPHY EVOLVED

THEMATIC MAP TOPOGRAHIC/LOGICAL

MAP
SUPPOSED EARLIEST ATTEMPT AT THE ART OF CARTOGRAPHY OR MAP-MAKING CONSTITUTING A RUDIMENTARY IDEA OF A
ROUND WORLD; CULTURE EXISTED THROUGH EPIPALAEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC THROUGH IRON AGE; LATENCY IN
ROMAN DOMINANCE AND ULTIMATE ABSENCE IN MIDDLE AGES

VALCAMONICA ROCK ART: PASPARADO r.29 IN THE SITE OF THE SAME NAME IN CALMONICA VALLEY IN THE PROVINCE OF
BRESCIA, ITALY WITH LARGEST COLLECTION OF PRE-HISTORIC PETROGLYPHS IN THE WORLD (4TH MILLENIUM BCE)

RECOGNISED AS WORLD HERITAGE SITE BY UNESCO IN 1979

CARTOGRAPHY IN ANCIENT TIMES:

o Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük) has been dated to the
late 7th millennium BCE. Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (France) and
Valcamonica (Italy), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles
and lines are widely interpreted in archaeological literature as a depiction of cultivated plots. Other
known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600
BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian
city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE). The oldest surviving world maps are
from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu
and several cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus). Another depicts Babylon as being
north of the center of the world.

o The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps from the time of Anaximander in the 6th century BCE. In
the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemy's
world map – the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 8th century, Arab
scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic.

o Also map making seemed to be prevalent in ancient China in the warring states period from the sate of
qin where the oldest maps and geographical texts have been recovered from 5th century BCE, as well as
Su Song’s star map. In India rudimentary mpas were possibly used for navigational purposes with
depictions of the pole star and constellations.
IMPETUS TO CARTOGRAPHY: MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE,
MUHAMMAD AL-IDRISI AND MARTIN WALDSEEMULLER

o The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana (Book of
Roger) in 1154. By combining the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean, Europe, and the Far East
(which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the
information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of
a multitude of countries. Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map
influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from
multiple Arab geographers. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three
centuries.[17][18] The map was divided into seven climatic zones, with detailed descriptions of each
zone. As part of this work, a smaller, circular map was made depicting the south on top and Arabia in
the center. Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within
10%.[19]

o In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both
copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own, based
on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass,
telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer,
made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[20]

o n 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map
(Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". Portuguese cartographer
Diego Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). Italian
cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts. Johannes Werner
refined and promoted the Werner projection.
MERCATOR: CONTRIBUTIONS AND CONTROVERSY
REGARDING DECONSTRUCTION

o In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator
projection, which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel
latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this
construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines
for navigation. The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map
because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from
the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to
describe a collection of maps. In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create
his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a
chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was
unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made
to the Atlas after his death and new editions were published after his death.[23][24]

o There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance:[26]

o General descriptions of the world

o Navigation and wayfinding
o Land surveying and property management
o In medieval times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common
than the use of maps. With the Renaissance, cartography began to be seen as a
metaphor for power.[26] Political leaders could lay claim on territories through the use
of maps and this was greatly aided by the religious and colonial expansion of Europe.
The most commonly mapped places during the Renaissance were the Holy Land and
other religious places.
PRINTING TECHNOLOGY, INCEPTION OF LETTERING AND COLOUR IN MIDDLE
AGES

o In the Renaissance period map-making primarily followed two major techniques: woodcut method and copper
plate intaglio referred to the medium used to transfer the image onto the paper
o In woodcut method, the maps are basically rubbings and hence do not need a printing press. A relief image is
chiselled from medium grained hardwood and the areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against
the sheet. As a result of which the raised indentations causes the map lines to be depicted on the paper. It
was durable enough to create prints from after arrival of printing processes rather than having to create new
ones.
o In intaglio method, lines are engraved into workable materials like copper or brass. After spreading a thin
sheet of wax over the metal surface, the engraver uses ink to draw the details to the same or a stylus to etch
them on the plate beneath. Then ink is spread over the metal surface and scraped of such that it remains only
in the etched channels, after which it is held to a paper to have a print
o Lettering came about in this period as a means of denoting information. Since fine lettering was not possible
on woodcut it tended to be blocky, however chisels helped in the stylized, looping cursive in Italy called
Cancellaresca. Custom made punches came later alongside freehand writing
o Colour also came along in this period possibly to denote information on the map, or possibly for the purpose
of aesthetics eventually evolving to the former. Not all maps were coloured but mostly depiction of rivers was
possible reason for its inception
BEYOND THE AGE OF DISCOVERY: EARLY MODERN PERIOD, THE
ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE MODERN ADVANCEMENTS

o Saw the convergence of cartographical techniques across Eurasia and exchange of mercantile mapping
technology via the trade routes in the Indian ocean
o Selden map created in the early 17th century by Chinese cartographers. Although the date has been pointed at
around 1620 historians have continued to debate on its validity, based on the premise that east Asians were
ignorant of cartography before arrival of Europeans
o Shows a system of navigational routes from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in Fujian province stretching on to
Nagasaki, Hoi An etc., complete with compass rose, scale bar and clear depiction of trade routes
o 1689- meeting at Nerchinsk under the intermediation of Jesuits and resolving of boundary disputes between
the Tsar and Qing rulers in Eastern Siberia with river Amur as the agreed border
o Enlightenment period saw the greater usage of copper intaglio method, double hemispheres and map
projections evolved further, Mercator’s projection made more appearances
o Due to paucity of information and difficulty of surveying, the maps in this period were often plagiarized from
those earlier cartographers in the Renaissance Period; for instance, “The Beaver Map” of North America
published in 175 by Herman Moll, originally a work of Francois de Creux and copied by 4 others from 1664
on
o Later the title of map or “cartouche” along the name of the original cartographer
o In the modern period map making has seen lesser human efforts and greter reliance on advanced
technological tools: magnetic stooge, lithographic representation, aerial photography or satellite imagery;
most recently Global Positioning system or GPS and Google earth
REFERNCES AND FURTHER RESEARCH:

❑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography
❑ https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography
❑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wsidXGshNgA
❑ https://unearthlabs.com/blog/modern-cartography/
❑ http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/technical-information/catography/what-is-cartography
❑ https://flowingdata.com/2019/06/05/the-role-of-cartography-in-early-global-explorations/#:~:text=They%20would%20not%2
0have%20been,made%20specifically%20to%20guide%20travelers.
❑ https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/maps/topic/maps-during-the-age-of-exploration
❑ https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V3_Pt1/HOC_VOLUME3_Part1_chapter30.pdf

Thank you!!!!