CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF CARTOGRAPHY

1.1. Definition and Concepts of Cartography

Cartography derived from Greek “Chartis” which means “map”, and “Graphein” which refers
“write”. The collective of both term indicate that Cartography is all about Map making.
Therefore Cartography is a tool and a subset of Geography which includes Human, Physical and
Technology.
Cartography is also about map using. "Cartography is the art, science and technology of making
maps together with their study as scientific documents and works of art" (British Cartographic
Society).
Cartography is all about making and study of maps in their all aspects. Cartography includes any
activity in which the presentation and use of maps is a matter of basic concern. This includes;
 Teaching the skills of map use (reading, making analysis, and interpretation);
 Studying the history of Cartography; and
 Maintaining map collections with the associated cataloging and bibliographic activities,
 The collection, collation, and manipulation of data and the design and preparation of
maps, charts, plans, and atlases.

Cartography is concerned with reducing the spatial characteristics of a large area or a smaller
portion of it and putting it on map format and lets us see therefore the broader spatial relations
that exist over large areas. It is a carefully designed instrument for recording, calculating,
displaying, analysing and understanding the interactions of objects in space. Its most
fundamental function is to bring things into view.

Four processes are involved in cartography;

1. Collecting and selecting data for mapping.
2. Manipulating and generalising the data, designing and constructing the map.
3. Reading or viewing the map.
4. Responding to or interpreting the information.

Four forms of Knowledge representation

 Written language = literacy
 Spoken language = articulacy
 Numbers (Mathematics) = numeracy
 Graphics= graphicacy
 designs, diagrams, drawings, or pictures to capture the spatial structure of the environment

“A picture worth thousand words”

Cartography is an important branch of graphics. The graphic representation of the geographical
setting is map. An extremely efficient way of manipulating, analyzing, and expressing ideas and
relationships that occur in 2 and 3-dimensional space.
1.2. History of Cartography
Cartography is understood to have developed from making very simple and crude drawings to
the present-day sophisticated and refined map documents. Early maps and map-like drawings
were produced on mud slab, soft clay, rock, skin, cloth etc. The making of the drawings
constituted the beginnings of map making. In historical times, such drawings were probably an
expression of the thinking of mankind about his immediate environment in which he lived. They
were a record of his visual description of the places surrounding him. The oldest map discovered
is reported to have been drawn on a clay tablet in Mesopotamia (the land between rivers
Euphrates and Tigris, what is now part of eastern Iraq) at about 3800 BC. This map depicted
mountains, water bodies and other geographic features. The map showed a round, though
presumably flat earth with Babylon in the centre (Thrower, 1972). Recorded history also shows
that the ancient Egyptians carried out cadastral surveys along the Nile flood plains and made
cadastral or property maps at around 3,000 BC (Thrower, 1972; McEntyre, 1978). Possibly the
early maps were also a means of information communication. Robinson et al. (1984, p. 20)
observe that map making is probably as old as communication by written language. The rationale
in this may be based on the reasoning still held today that a diagram (or a map) says much more
than a thousand words. Indeed, graphics are to date the most efficient means of communicating
information as well as effecting data analysis and display in GIS environments. So the early
maps and map like drawings could have complemented the written/verbal language in the same
way they do today.
As mankind fought wars against himself, (man fighting man), he had to travel from one location
to another. In the process he learnt how to describe routes and locations, which were far from his
immediate neighbourhood. He had to describe locations where to find things as water, salt, game,
treasure, enemy dwellings, and so on. Most maps were then made for travellers, soldiers and
mariners (Brown, 1960). Seemingly, the major purpose of maps was then for navigation and
route finding. Unfortunately most of the maps that early man-made cannot betraced today partly
because some of them were drawn or carved on precious material such as gold, bronze and
copper which had to be smelted to make more useful things. Even rocks and stone on which such
drawings were carved were precious building materials. Moreover, maps were destroyed by fire
or by the very people who made them, fearing that the maps could be captured by enemies and
thus reveal the secret information they contained. Others became old and got torn perhaps
because the materials they were made of were too delicate to last for long times. These were
some of the reasons, which made the drawings (maps) not to be available to us today. The world
today owes a lot from ancient Greek thinkers, among them being Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.)
and Ptolemy (90-168 A.D.). Eratosthenes was a geographer and a librarian at Alexandria.
Through scientific measurements and calculation of the circumference of the earth, he laid the
foundation of scientific cartography. Ptolemy was also a librarian at Alexandria. He made maps
and wrote the Geographica, which was a guide to making maps. Arab scholars such as Ibn
Battuta (858 – 929 A.D.) used and improved on Ptolemy’s maps (Thrower, 1972; Bernhardsen,
1992). Several inventions and developments made significant contributions to the development
of cartography among them: The magnetic compass (13thCentury), the making of the sailing
charts (portolan) bearing compass roses (1300 A.D.), printing (15th Century) and map projections
(17th – 18th Centuries). The era of global explorations and national mapping programmes in
Europe (17th – 19th centuries) had great impacts on conscious development of cartography. The
invention of aerial photography, the development of photogrammetry and the two world wars,
accelerated the progress of mapmaking (Bernhardsen, 1992, p. 26). Maps were thence made not
based on visual description alone, but mainly from actual measurements obtained by surveying
and photogrammetry. Accurate maps emerged. Maps were made for various purposes of which
sea and land travels, military operations, tax collections and planning were just a few of them. In
this way, maps were made to meet specific demands. Good, effective communicative maps
appeared, and experts in map making emerged.
Theories of cartographic communication models have been developed (for example see Wood
(1972), Robinson and Petchenik (1975), Keates (1982), Tyner (1992) and Dent (1993)) to
analyse each stage of map making and map use processes, and to find out how they operated and
the factors affecting them. Such inquiries led to various researches in cartography, which made it
to be seen as a branch of knowledge and a discipline by its own right, as opposed to earlier
thinking which saw it as an aggregation of isolated techniques. It has been modelled as a vehicle
for graphic communication. Until fairly recently, whoever needed a map consulted the specialist
in cartography who would design, produce and cause the printing of the required map(s). In this
way cartography has been growing, and cartographers have been making a living out of it. Come
the Computer Age, also comes a revolution that has posed opportunities and challenges to the
land surveyor as well as the cartographer. All along, the surveyor had specialised in the science
of measurement, computing (data processing), analysis and displaying the coordinate values,
which have always been the cartographer’s raw data for mapping. The computer revolution has
brought with it the Global Positioning System (GPS), which gives the coordinates (that the
surveyors used to labour so much to get) in real-time. What goes on in the black box is no longer
the surveyor’s business. The cartographer has also not been spared by this scientific and
technological revolution. The development of computer software and Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) has made it possible for anybody who can operate a computer to get a map output
from the GPS coordinates. So any person, (not necessarily a surveyor or a cartographer) who
wants a map, takes out a GPS, goes into the field, gets coordinates, downloads them into a GIS
system and gets a map. Are the surveyors and the cartographers being made redundant by
technological advancements? Has GIS relegated the field of cartography? Ironically any GIS
user becomes a mapmaker overnight! Is this feasible? Perhaps to get answers to these questions
and others, we need to ask ourselves another question, the answer of which will guide us to the
probable solution. What’s the look of the map products we get from GIS systems with non-
cartography persons seated before a monitor like? Dent (1993, p. 19) summarises the situation
thus:
The possibilities today for maps without ethics are compounded by the proliferation of off-shelf
computer programs allowing non – cartography trained persons to produce maps that may look
good, but are not consistent with any established professional standards or conventions.
Bernhardsen (1992, p. 215) observes that GIS enables less skilled persons to produce maps, …
but it also has the drawback of permitting the production of artless maps that are at best
unattractive and at worst misleading (emphasis is of the author). Stat Map Web complements
these observations as follows: Maps are a great way of displaying and analysing statistical
information but they need to be properly designed. This can be a tricky business until you know
what you are doing and desktop mapping and GIS systems rarely provide much help. Most
software packages will allow us to produce really bad and misleading maps (emphasis is mine).
1.3. Scope of cartography
We can liken cartography to a drama played by two actors, the map maker and map user, with
two stage properties, the map and the data (all potential information that might be put on a map).
The map maker selects information from the data domain and puts into map format. The user
then observes and responds to this information.

Communication takes place between the cartographer and the map user via the map.
 The Cartographer is map maker
 The map is the medium of communication.
 Maps are symbolic abstractions- “generalizations” or “representations”- of reality
 communicate spatial information to the user
The world represented on a map is greatly simplified or generalized with symbols like words.
 The data (real world) is the source.
 Real world phenomenon (natural or man made)
 Noise – interferes map communication
Thus, there are four processes in Cartography:
1. Collecting and Selecting the data for mapping
2. Manipulating and generalizing the data, designing and constructing the map
3. Reading or viewing the map
4. Responding to or interpreting the information

Geographers are the primary users of maps, but they are not the only ones. People in the
sciences, engineering, and humanities also see the map as a valuable way to organize and express
ideas. Cartographers must be sensitive to the mapping needs of these diverse fields.

1.4. Analogue and Digital Cartography

The first maps were
 manually constructed with brushes, pen, and paper and
 cartographic processes were laborious and time consuming
 Products were varied in quality and limited in distribution.
 Analogue Cartography.
Cartography is in the midst of a revolution in technology.
  Transition
 Caused by a pervasive use of electronics and, in particular, computers.
 Digital Cartography.
Today computers individualized, not institutionalized, becoming more cheaper, and portable,
ubiquitous. The invent and advent of;
 Magnetic devices – Compass- for the creation of more accurate maps
 Mechanical devices – Printing press- for mass production
 Optical devices – telescope – for accurate surveying
 Computer Hardware devices – Plotters, printers, scanners, and analytic stereo plotters –
democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps
Analogue Cartography were
 technically demanding
 not available to society at large
 the ability to create mapping products was rather limited
Digital Cartography
- Electronic Mapping systems are available to anyone with a desktop computer
- Making it easy for even non-specialists to create cartographic products
- Demand for cartographic products is increased

1.5. Cartographic Communication Systems

The principal task of cartography is to communicate environmental information effectively.
Cartography is a means of communication.
Map is a communications medium between map maker and map user.
Mapping effectiveness (communication) is best achieved by treating the map making and
using of maps equally. The task of the map designer is to enhance the map user’s ability
to retrieve information. The burden of the map user is to understand the mapping process.
The mapping process is a series of information transformations, each of which has the
power to alter the appearance of the final product.

UNIT 2: TYPES AND USES OF MAPS

2.1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CARTOGRAPHY

In order to understand what cartography is, let us first define map making and cartography. Mapmaking
or mapping refers to the production of a tangible map and it is defined as the aggregate of those individual
and largely technical processes of data collection, cartographic design and construction (drafting,
scribing, display), reproduction, etc., normally associated with the actual production of maps. Mapmaking
or mapping is, then, the process of designing, compiling, and producing maps. The mapmaker may also
be called a cartographer.

Cartography, as a discipline, has matured and become broader in scope through time. As a result, many
professional cartographers have come to make distinction between mapmaking and cartography. In
general, cartography is viewed broader than mapmaking. Cartography requires the study of the
philosophical and theoretical bases of the rules of mapmaking, including the study of map
communication. It is often thought to be the study of the artistic and scientific foundations of mapmaking.
Cartography is defined as the art, science, and technology of making maps, together with their study as
scientific documents and works of art. According to this definition, all types of maps, plans, charts, and
sections, three dimensional model and globes representing the earth or any celestial body at any scale are
the products of cartography.

Even though, cartography is not separable, it can be as having two branches. They are theoretical
cartography and applied cartography. Theoretical cartography deals with the theoretical and conceptual
aspects of cartography. It tries to devise and design maps that satisfy the requirements of the users. On the
other hand, applied cartography is involved in the laying out and final drawing of maps. It is concerned
with the development of improved methods of drawing and reproduction of maps.

Geographic cartography is a part of cartography. However, Geographic cartography is also distinct from
other branches of cartography. It is a tool and product of the geographer. The geographic cartographer
understands the spatial perspective of the physical environment and has the skills to abstract and
symbolize the environment. He is skillful in map projection selection, mapping and understanding of
areal relationships. He has a thorough knowledge of the importance of scale to the final presentation of
spatial data. Geographic cartography involves intimacy with the abstraction of geographical reality and its
symbolization on the map. The geographic cartographer is capable of revising the processes since he has
the skill of map reading. For the most part, geographic cartographers are involved in producing thematic
maps, whether quantitative or qualitative. Geographic cartography is not usually associated with the
production of highly detailed, large-scale reference (topographic) maps, photogram metric products,
surveying methods, or remotely sensed images.
Geographic cartographers have the ability in reading of photomaps and other remotely sensed images.
They use these products in the preparation of their special purpose (including atlas) maps.

Geographic cartography has acquired new strength as computer visualization has been adopted by
professionals. Some geographers see the future strength of thematic mapping or of Geography in
Geographic Information system (GIS). Is the relationship clear between cartography and GIS? The
display components of GIS do not assume knowledge of cartographic methods or fundamental ideas
about good design principles. Those people from non-cartographic backgrounds consider cartography to
focus on map compilation, design, and production, whereas GIS focuses on spatial analysis. From this
perspective, cartography and GIS have a technical similarity, but a difference in objectives. The
traditional concept of cartography, as primarily concerned with map design, production, separates GIS
from cartography. In this case, cartography is a small part of GIS.

Hard copy maps have long been used to study spatial patterns. The rise of computer technology has
enabled cartographers to visualize data more efficiently. The analysis of spatial data is the primary focus
of GIS. Similarly, Cartographic data analysis is part of the cartographic process. For this reason, many
cartographers consider GIS a part of cartography.

2.2 USES OF MAPS

A map is a simplified, diminished, plane representation of all or part of the surface of the earth as
viewed from vertically above. Map is simplified, diminished, plane representation and viewed
from vertically above
Simplified
 a map cannot show a detailed picture of the earth’s surface
 Cartographers make two important decisions for Selection of information
 represent most important or necessary
 overcrowded and unattractive Summary of information
 Information on maps is represented by special language using conventional signs or
symbol.
 Blue color usually represented Water features on the map.
Diminished
 All maps show things reduced in size
 A picture of a place that is usually drawn to scale on a flat surface. Because of absence
of very huge paper that cover the area to be mapped and difficulty to draw
 plane representation
 the earth has a spherical shape
 A map is a flat piece of paper
 Transfer the surface of the earth on a plane sheet of paper
 The earth has ups and downs
 Use different methods of representing relief on maps. A map is two-dimensional,
geometrically accurate representation of a three-dimensional space.
Viewed from vertically above
 Map is neatly drawn bird’s eye view of the earth’s surface.
  Use view from straight above- bird’s eye view or vertical view to represent natural and
man-made objects on maps.
Although there are many kinds of maps, it is possible to adopt one definition. Map is a reduced, selective,
symbolized representation of an area on a flat piece of paper or similar material as if that area is viewed
vertically from above. What do you mean when we say a map is reduced representations of an area? We
mean that any given map is definitely smaller than the area it represents. For example, the map of Chiro
and its surroundings is not as large as Chiro and its surroundings. All maps are therefore reduced
representations of geographical realities since a map is never equal in size to the reality it represents. It is
very important to define or indicate the relationship in size between the map and the corresponding
geographical reality it represents. These are the dimensional relationships between the map and the
reality it represents. As you know, the scale attached to every map expresses this dimensional
relationship.

As described above a map is smaller than the corresponding area it represents. Hence, there is no
sufficient space to accommodate all the features that exist on the corresponding map. As a result, the
cartographer has to select the feature or features to be portrayed on the map. Large scale maps have more
space on the map than small scale maps. Consequently, large scale maps show many features than small
scale maps. For example, the topographical maps of Ethiopia with a scale of 1:50000 represents more
features than a map of Ethiopia with a scale of 1:8000000. Any way whether maps are of large or small
scale, both of them show selected features than the corresponding area they represent. That is why maps
are called selective.

Why do we say a map is symbolized representation? A feature on the surface of the earth is represented
by a symbol on a map. A symbol is a sign or mark, which represents a feature on the map. The legend or
key of the map helps us to read what feature is represented by what symbol. There are commonly agreed
symbols to represent features. For example, green color represents natural vegetation, and blue color
represents water bodies. Your can get more explanation about symbols in the last unit in Module 2.

A map provides orthogonal (view from vertically above), what does this mean? All maps represent
features on the map as if you are looking them from vertically above. For example, when you see one
classroom from above, you can see the view of the length and width of the classroom. Thus, vertical view
from above only enables us to see the two dimensions-length and width. All maps, except contours maps,
show two dimensions of objects as if you are looking from vertically above.

Map is representation of the three dimensional features of the earth on the two dimensional flat map. That
means, even though features on the earth have length, width and height, most maps (except contour map)
represent only the two dimensions (length and width). However, globes, which are also maps, have three
dimensions like the earth; also represent features with two dimensions.

What are the differences between a globe and a map, and between an areal photograph and a map? The
globe represents the whole earth with its accurate shape. Distances, areas, directions and shapes on the
surface of the earth are relatively truly represented on the map. The map, however, is plane surface which
is easier to use but with some unavoidable distortions, either in shape, area, distance or direction.

An aerial photograph shows all visible details of the area that is photographed whether they are relevant
to the purpose of taking photograph or not. The photographer has no control over the selection of the
geographical settings that lie within the focal range of the camera. Therefore, a photograph, no matter
from which level it is taken, shows details in their visible shapes and sizes. In addition, a photograph
shows only those elements, which are physically present. A map however gives only those details, which
the mapmaker wants to portray. Instead of showing the details in their true or visible shape and size, it
uses symbols, which may or may not have similarities with the things represented. A map may also show
invisible patterns, For example, it may show wind patterns, and air mass movements. These are unique
advantages of a map, which one does not normally find in aerial photographs.

Maps are very useful to the study and practice of geography. The geographer uses maps as a major
mode of communication, together with words and numbers. Maps provide us with a structure for storing
geographic knowledge and experience. Without them, we could find it difficult, if not impossible, to
orient ourselves in larger environments. Moreover, maps give us a means not only for storing geographic
information, but also for analyzing it, comparing it, generalizing it or abstracting from it.

A map extends our normal range of observation. It brings large areas such as countries, continents or
the whole earth at one glance. In this way, the map helps to overcome this limited range of observation of
human beings. This provides the map-reader to get geographical information about places, which
someone may not be able to view physically. The map provides accurate information concerning the
location of the place either in absolute location or in relative location. It also gives information related to
distance between two places.

A detailed map of a small region, depicting its landforms, drainage, vegetation, settlement patterns, roads,
geology, or a host of other detailed distribution, communicates the relationship necessary to plan and
carry on many types of work. Building a road, a house, a flood-control system or almost any other
construction requires prior to mapping.

Less detailed maps of large area showing flood plain hazards, soil erosion, land use, population character,
climates, income and so on are indispensable to the understanding of the problems and potentialities of an
area. Highly abstract maps of the whole earth indicate generalizations and relationships of broad earth
patterns with which we may study the course of the past, present, and future events. Thus, maps can
portray problems which may not be clearly seen by other means and help in the formulation of hypotheses
for studying the causes and consequences of the portrayed problems.

A map also supplies knowledge concerning the relationships of the physical, biotic, and cultural attributes
with in the given area, such as the relationship between topography, climate, vegetation and distribution
of population. As a result, a map is important teaching aid to the geography teacher and others. In
addition, historical sites, transportation routes, and natural features of interest shown on the map are
useful for tourists. They also play great roles in military operations. They show details of the topography,
locating strategic military bases, identifying strong enemy holdings, and so on. It is also useful for air and
water navigation.

In addition to the above uses, maps have several uses. The uses and users are too long to write. As
societies have become more complex, production and uses of maps of all kinds is increasing.
Government, planning agencies, engineers, soil scientists, geologists, astronauts and various other
professionals use maps in their daily activities. We can therefore say that maps have become one of the
most powerful and effective means of communication.
The Ethiopian Mapping Agency was established in 1965 to produce maps for various purposes.
Topographical maps with scales of 1:50 000 are presently available for all parts of Ethiopia. However,
there is still a great need for other types of maps particularly up-to-date thematic or special purpose maps.

2.3. TYPES OF MAPS

Many maps are in use today. In order to make your understanding easy, and save time it is essential to
classify them. This is possible based on certain criteria. Thus, we can classify them based on scale,
function, and subject matter.

Types of maps based on scale

Based on scale, there are three types of maps. They are:

a) Small scale maps

b) Medium scale maps
c) Large scale maps
There is no consensus on the quantitative limits of the terms small, medium, and large scale.
Nevertheless, in the junior high school textbooks, maps with scales of 1:50 000 or greater are large-scale
maps. The term large refers to the relative sizes at which objects are represented on the map. Accordingly,
when little reduction is involved and features such as roads are large, the map is termed a large-scale map.
They show details of reality as shown in the topographical map of Ethiopia. Maps with scales ranging
from 1:50 000 to 1:250 000 are medium scale maps. The term medium refers to the relative sizes at which
objects are represented on the map. Accordingly, when medium reduction is involved and features such as
roads are medium in size, the map is termed a medium scale map.

Maps with scales greater than 1:250 000 are small-scale maps. Accordingly, when large reduction is
involved and features such as roads are small, the map is termed a small-scale map. For example, the road
from Adet to Bahir Dar is 42 km. On a map having a scale of 1:250 000, the road from Adet to Bahir Dar
will have a small length of 16.4cm. But the same road on a large-scale map of 1:50,000, the same road
will have a length of 84 cm on the map. Thus, reality is represented in a highly generalized or simplified
manner on small-scale maps whereas it is represented in detail on large-scale maps.

Types of maps based on Function

If we try to divide maps into classes based on their function, we find a great difference between extremes,
but the transition from one class to another is gradual. We can recognize three main classes of maps based
on function. They are:

1) General Reference Maps:- The are maps whose objective to show the locations of a variety of
different features, such as relief, natural vegetation, water bodies, coastlines roads, houses, and
railways. Large-scale general reference maps of land areas are called topographical maps. The
marine equivalent of topographic map is the bathy metric map. As mentioned earlier, these maps
in Ethiopia are made by Ethiopian Map Agency. Maps of much larger-scale are required for site
location and other engineering purposes. Great attention is paid to their accuracy in terms of
positional relationships among features mapped. In many cases, they have the validity of legal
 documents and are the bases for boundary determination, tax assessments, transfer of ownership,
and other functions that require great precision.
Small-scale general reference maps are typified by the maps of countries, districts, and continents in
atlases. Such maps show similar features to those on large – scale general reference maps. However,
small-scale maps are greatly reduced and generalized; and they cannot attain the details and positional
accuracy of large-scale maps.

Historically, the general reference map was the prevalent form until the middle of the eighteenth century.
Geographers, explorers, and cartographers were preoccupied with filling in the world map. Because
knowledge about the world was still accumulating and emphasis was placed on this type of maps.

1. Thematic maps: - They are maps designed to demonstrate the distribution of a single feature, or the
relationship among several features. They are typified by maps of precipitation, temperature,
population, atmospheric pressure, and average annual income.
What makes a thematic or general reference map is not the numbers of features they represent. Maps
showing soils, rocks, or population density can be classed as general reference map if the objective is to
show the locations of these features. On the other hand, map of the same features may be called thematic
maps if they focus attention on the structure of the distribution.

In the past, thematic maps tended to be of small-scale. One reason was that available data were rot
relatively having accurate spatial information. In addition, great reduction is necessary to show
geographical distributions occurring over large areas. At small scales, it is more important to capture the
basic structure of the distribution than to show individual map positions.

As better data have become available and our need for accurate spatial information has grown, thematic
maps have grown larger in scale. For example, when the area of interest is a city, there is demand for
maps to show the structure of individual feature at detailed level suitable for making site-specific
decisions. These maps may need to be of relatively large-scale.

Thematic maps may be sub-divided into two groups, qualitative and quantitative. The principal purpose
of a qualitative thematic map is to show the spatial distribution or location of nominal data. For example,
the mapping of only districts of Ethiopia and their boundaries does not show any quantities at all, but
shows only qualitative information. It is not precise but rather generalized in its record. On this form of
map, the reader cannot determine quantity, except as shown by relative area extent.

Quantitative thematic maps, on the other hand, display the spatial aspects of numerical data. In
geography, a single variable, such as temperature, rainfall, relief, natural vegetation or population, is
chosen. Then the map focuses on the variation of this feature from place to place. These maps may
illustrate numerical data on the ordinal scale (less than or greater than) scale or the interval /ratio (how
much different) scale. These measurement scales will be treated in depth in later chapter.

The principal operation in quantitative thematic mapping is in the transformation of tabular data (on a
spatial format) into the spatial format of the map. The qualities that the map format provides (distance,
direction, shape, and location) are not easily obtainable from the spatial tabular listing. If the
transformation does not add any spatial understanding, the map should not be considered as an alternative
form for the reader. The table will suffice.
There are few pure thematic maps or general reference maps. Most combine functions to some extent. For
example, the green colored areas on topographic maps show the distribution of forested areas, and the
representation of terrain shows the landform. Thus, while we classify topographic maps as general
reference maps, they may have thematic components.

Types of Maps Based on Subject Matter

It is also useful to group maps based on the subject matter they portray. But, there is no limit to the
number of classes of maps that can be created by grouping them according to their dominant subject
matter. Thus, there are soil maps, geological maps, climatic maps, population maps, economic maps,
statistical maps, cadastral maps, plans, and so on. Let us see cadastral maps and plans in detail.

Cadastral maps are probably among the earliest maps. Cadastral maps are drawings or maps that show the
official list of property owners and their land holdings. These drawings, cadastral maps show the
geographical relationships among land parcels. They are common today, and they record property
boundaries as they did several thousand years ago. The fact that cadastres are used to assess taxes helps
explain why cadastral maps have always been with us. Currently, Bahir Dar special zone administration
has also prepared cadastral map for Bahir Dar town.

CHAPTER THREE: MAP SCALE

INTRODUCTION
Maps, to be useful, are necessarily smaller than the areas they represent. All geographical maps are
reductions. Consequently, every map must state the ratio or proportion between measurements on the map
to those on the earth. The ratio between distance on the map, and the corresponding distance on the map
is called map scale. The map scale should be the first thing the map user notices. Let us take an example..

A 50km B

Figure 3. 1. Relationship between map distance and the same ground distance.

As shown in Figure1, the actual distance along the line from A to B is 50 km. What is the distance of A to
B on the map? Take a ruler and measure the map distance between A and B in centimeters. You will
measure that the map distance is 5 centimeters. But the same distance, as written above is 50 kilometers.
When you relate the map distance and the same distance on the ground, you can see that 5 centimeters on
the map is 50 kilometers on the ground. That means you have discovered the relationship between
distance on the map, and the same distance on the ground. This relationship is scale. Map scale can be
symbolically expressed as:

MD
S
GD Where S - stands for scale MD -stands for map distance GD-stands for ground
distance

The unit of distance in both numerator and denominator of the fraction must be the same.

For example :
 8cm
S
400,000cm

1

50000

This means one unit map distance is 50,000 units on the ground.

How can we select map scale for a map to be drawn? Scale selection has important consequences for the
maps appearance and its potential as a communication device. Scale varies along a continuum from large
to small scale. Large-scale maps show small portions of the earth’s surface, and it is possible to show
detailed information. Small-scale maps show large areas, so only limited detail can be carried on the map.
Which final scale is selected for a given map will depend on the map’s purpose and physical size. The
amount of geographical detail necessary to satisfy the purpose of the map will also act as a factor in scale
selection. Generally, the scale selection will be a compromise between these two controlling factors.

The type of scale selected has important influence on symbolization. In changing from large-scale to
small-scale, map objects must increasingly be represented with symbols that are no longer true to scale
and thus are more generalized. At large scales, the outline and area of a city may be shown in proportion
to its actual size. That means it occupies areas on the map proportional to the city’s area. At smaller
scales, whole cities may be represented by a single dot having no size relations to the city’s real size. The
selection of scale is perhaps the most important decision of a cartographer.

3.1. TYPES OF SCALE AND THEIR TRANSFORMATION

The scale of a map may be shown in many ways. There are direct and indirect ways of showing scale on
maps.

Direct Ways of Representing scale on Maps

There are three customary ways of expressing scale on a map. They are representative fraction, graphic
and verbal scale.

1) Representative fraction (RF) is a ratio expressing the relationship of the number of units on the map
to the number of the same units on the real earth. It can be shown either as 1:50000 or 1/50000.
The ratio is more preferred than the fraction. In this scale, it means that one unit length on the map
represents 50000 units of length on the earth’s surface. The unit of distance in both the numerator
and denominator of the fraction must be the same. For example, you can read the scale mentioned
above as one millimeter on the map represents 50000 millimeters on the earth’s surface. It is also
possible to read it as one centimeter on the map represents 50000 centimeters on the earth’s
surface. The RF usually refers to the scale of a standard line and in fact changes over the map,
depending on the selected projection.
2) Verbal (Statement) scale is expression of map distance in relation to the same earth distance in
words. For example, one centimeter to one kilometer or one centimeter represents one kilometer is
an example of a verbal scale. You cannot say, one centimeter equals one kilometer. This is
incorrect and logically inconsistent, because one centimeter is not equal to one kilometer.
Are you familiar with one centimeter to one kilometer or one inch to one mile? You are more familiar
with the metric units of length (i.e. millimeter, centimeter, etc.) than with the Imperial units of length (i.e.
inch, foot, etc.) in Ethiopia. We use the metric units of length in Ethiopia. As a result, the map scale
written as one centimeter to one kilometer is very easy to understand. This form of scale is easily
converted to an RF scale.

Can you transform (Convert) the scale one centimeter to two kilometer into RF? You can write the scale
in RF as follows.

MD
S
GD

2cm

1km

Then, make the numerator and denominator in the same unit of length, you multiply the denominator by
100 000 to change it into centimeters.

2cm.
S
1x100,000cm

2cm

100,00cm

The numerator should be one unit length. To do this, you divide the numerator and denominator by 2.

2cm  2
S
100,000cm  2

1cm

50,000cm

You cancel the unit of length (i.e. cm), and write the scale in fraction or ratio.

1
1 : 50000or
50000

3. Graphic or Bar Scale is a line or a bar subdivided to show map distance, and the same distance on the
earth’s surface. The left end of the bar is sub-divided into smaller units to provide more precise
estimation of ground distances. The distance between any two divisions can be measured with a ruler,
and you can read the map distance. This distance on the map has the ground distance as labeled on the
line or bar. This form of scale is very useful when the map is to be reduced during reproduction
because it changes in correct proportion to the amount of reduction.

Can you draw a graphic scale for 1:50 000? The scale 1:50 000 can be read as one centimeter on the map
to 50 000 centimeters on the earth’s surface. You can divide 50 000 centimeters by 100 000 and change it
to 0.5 kilometer. Now the scale becomes one centimeter to 0.5 kilometer. It is not common to write
decimal number on graphic scale. You multiply both by two. Then the scale becomes 2 centimeters to one
kilometer. You can draw the scale as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.3. Graphic scale.

Areal Scale

Areal scale refers to ratio of areas on the map to those corresponding areas on the surface of the earth.
When the sphere is transformed to a plane so that all area proportions on the earth are correctly
represented, the result is an equal area projection. On such projection, one unit area (one square
centimeter) is proportional to a particular number of the same square units on the earth. But all area
proportion on the map are not correctly represented by areal scale on non-equal areal projections. The
areal scale can easily be found by squaring the linear scale. This implies that the linear scale can be
defined as the square root of the areal scale.

Example 1: Change the linear scale 1:50 000 to areal scale.

 You square both of them-the map distance and the ground distance as shown below 12:500002
Example 2: Change the areal scale 12:10 0002 into linear scale. To get the linear scale put the map
distance and ground distance under square root as shown below.

2
12 : 10000

2 1 2 1
: 10000
2
1 2

1: 10000 This is the linear scale

Indirect Ways of Representing Scale on Maps

Sometimes scale may not be available on a map formally in any of the three ways stated above. This
happens especially in the case of maps designed for examination purposes. There are three ways of
showing scale indirectly on the map. They are explained in detail in this section.

1. Ground distance given or known between two points can be employed to estimate the scale of a
map. Can you find out the scale for Figure 3 using the ground distance between A and B as 4.3
km?
 Figure2. 3. Indirect way of showing map scale.

You follow the following procedures to get the scale of the map. You measure the map distance between
points A and B in Figure 3. The map distance between A and B is 8.6 centimeters. Then, the scale of the
map in Figure3 is 8.6 centimeters to 4.3 kilometers.

Can you convert the scale 8.6 centimeters to 4.3km into RF? You can convert it as follows.

8.6centimeter s
Scale 
4.3 x100000centimeter s

2centimeter s 1centimeter 1
  
100000centimeter s 50000centimeter s 50,000

2. Ground area given or known and appearing on the map can be also employed to estimate map
scale. To do so, you first find a region of known size. Then compute the area of that region on
the map. You can then determine the proportional relation between map area and earth area.
For example, let us assume that your measurement shows an areal scale of one square unit on
the map represents 6,250,000 of the same square on the ground. In order to change the areal
scale into linear scale, we should find the square root of the areal scale. For example:

1 1
The linear map scale = 6250000 = 2500

3. Latitude markings given on the border of a map can be also utilized to find out the map scale. Do
you know the circumference of the earth? It is about 40 000 kilometers. It has also angular
measure of 3600. We can divide 40,000 kilometers by 3600 and get 111 kilometers. You can say
that an angle of 10 latitude makes an arc having length of 111 kilometers on the earth’s surface.
Let us illustrate this. The approximate ground distance between Kosso Ber and Bahir Dar is
111 kilometers. This distance between Kosso Ber and Bahir Dar on the surface of the earth
makes an angle of 10 at the center of the earth.
Then if 10 or 60’ (the apostrophe indicates minute) at the center of the earth makes a ground distance of
111 kilometers, how many kilometers ground distance does 5 ’ make at the surface of the earth as shown
in Figure 3. You can get 9.25 kilometers. You measure the map distance for 5 ’ latitude in Figure 3. You
probably got 18.5 centimeters. Then, the scale of the map is 18.5 cm to 9.25 kilometers. When you
change it into representative fraction, you will get the scale 1:50 000. This is the same scale you have got
by finding the scale using the ground distance given or known between two points.

3.2. ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF MAPS

You may want to enlarge or reduce a given map for a certain purpose. For example, you may want to
enlarge a map with the purpose of adding some data in order to use it for teaching aid, or for using it as a
wall map. Your interest could be also to emphasize certain features. In this case, it may be essential to
reduce the map. There are graphical and instrumental techniques of enlarging and reducing maps.

1. Graphical Method

You may like to use a map that you find in a book as teaching aid or for a wall display. But the map in the
book is so mall that it cannot serve as teaching aid or as a wall display. This requires enlargement of the
map. Can you enlarge the map of Ethiopia in Figure 4 two times? You can enlarge it following the steps
given below.

1) Trace the original map on a piece of tracing paper.

2) Draw a frame for the map of Ethiopia
3) Draw a network of horizontal and vertical lines that are half centimeters apart.
4) Make the vertical lines perpendicular to the horizontal lines
5) Give letter and digit designations to horizontal and vertical lines respectively
6) Draw a new frame on another piece of paper. The new frame should be double to the former frame
and the distance between two consecutive lines should be one centimeter
7) You can then draw the boundaries of Ethiopia on the new grid by looking at the boundaries of
Ethiopia in the first grid.
8) If the enlarged map is for your personal use, you can cancel the grid lines. Nevertheless, you can also
keep the grids for your teacher so that he can check your work.
Figure 2.5. Map of Ethiopia (Enlarged).

Can you get the scale of the enlarged map of Ethiopia? You can get the scale of the enlarged map of
Ethiopia by multiplying the original scale by 2.

1 1
 2 
New scale 18000000 9000000

Then write this new scale for the enlarged map of Ethiopia.

Can you also calculate the percentage of enlargement? You can compute the percentage of enlargement as
follows.

1 1
If 18000000 is changed to 9000000 ’ 100 will be changed to what?

By cross-multiplying you will get

 1
 100
9000000
1 1 18000000
x  100
Percentage of enlargement = 18000000 = 9000000 1

= 200% The percentage of enlargement is 200%

Reduction of Maps

You may also like to use a large-scale map as an illustration in your notebook. But you cannot possible fit
the map on to the page of your notebook. You should have to reduce the map.

Figure 3.6. Map of Africa (original)

You can reduce the Map of Africa in Figure 6 by performing the following steps.

1) Trace the original map of Africa on tracing paper.

2) Draw a frame for the map of Ethiopia
3) Draw a network of horizontal and vertical lines that are one centimeter apart.
4) Make the vertical lines perpendicular to the horizontal lines
5) Give letter and digit designations to horizontal and vertical lines respectively
6) Draw a new frame on another piece of paper. The new frame should be double to the former frame
and the distance between two consecutive lines should be 0.5 centimeter.
7) You can then draw the boundaries of African on the new grid by 1ooking at the boundaries of Africa
in the first grid. You will get the reduced map of Africa.
Can you calculate the scale for the reduced Map of Africa? You can get the scale for the reduced map of
Africa by multiplying the original scale by half

1 1 1
 x
New scale 65000000 2 = 130000000

Then write this scale for the reduced map of Africa.

Figure 3.7. Reduced map of Africa

What is the percentage of reduction? You can get the percentage of reduction as follows.

1 1
If 65000000 is changed to 130000000 , 100 will be changed to what?

By cross multiplication, you will get the percentage of reduction

1
 100
130000000
1 1 65000000
x x100
Percentage of Reduction = 65000000 = 130000000 1 = 50% 2.
Instrumental Methods of Changing Map Scale

Instruments such as pantograph, camera, photocopier, overhead projector and computer can be used for
reduction or enlargement of maps. Let us see the pantograph in detail. Pantograph is an instrument used in
map enlargement or reduction. The different parts of the pantograph are shown in Figure 8. The
pantograph has three main operational points. These are the pivot (fulcrum), the tracer, and the pencil
holder. The values of enlarging or reducing factors are marked on the instrument. They are 1½, 2, 2 1/4,
23/4, 3, 31/2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10.

A is fulcrum, B is tracer and C is pencil. If you can obtain a pantograph, you can use it either to enlarge or
reduce maps. The steps to enlarge a map by a pantograph are:
1) Fix firmly the pivot end on the lower left-hand corner on the drawing table.
2) Set the required enlarging factor at point a and a* as shown in Figure _____.
3) Place the map to be enlarged under the tracing pin B.
4) Place a clear large tracing paper under the pencil holder C.
5) Stick both the map and the tracing paper to the table by scotch tape.
6) Guide the tracing pin along the boundaries of the map carefully. At this time, the pencil will write the
boundaries of the map on the tracing paper.

Figure 3.8. Pantograph

When you complete the steps, you will get the enlarged map. The accuracy of the map depends on the
manipulation of the pantograph, and the precision of the instrument. When you guide the tracing pin
carefully along the boundaries of the map, you will get accurately enlarged map. In addition, the
pantograph made of metal helps you to draw accurate enlarged map.

You can also reduce a map by pantograph. The steps to reduce a map by pantograph include:

1) Fix firmly the pivot end on the lower left-hand corner of the drawing table.
2) Interchange the tracing pin and the pencil holder. Set the required factor at point a and a’.
3) Place the map to be reduced under the tracing pin (which is now in position c).
4) Place a clean tracing paper under the pencil holder (which is now in position B).
5) Stick both the map and the tracing paper to the table by scotch tape.
6) Guide the tracing pin along the boundaries of the map carefully. When you completed the
steps, you will get the reduced map.
 UNIT 4: COORDINATE SYSTEM OF THE EARTH
4.1 SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE EARTH

One of the uses of maps is to determine the geographical locations of places and features on the earth.
Geographical coordinate and national coordinate systems are used to specify geographical locations.
What is the shape of the earth? There were different answers at different times for this question. Some
people have maintained that the earth is flat or even disc-shaped which was advocated by Homer.
However, other people perceived the earth as being round or spherical. It is not exactly known when it
was first thought to be round or spherical in form. Pythagoras (sixth century B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322
B.C) are known to have decided that the earth was round or spherical. Aristotle based his conclusions on
the following arguments. They are:

1) A round object has attraction towards its center

2) The earth has circular shadow during eclipses on the moon.
3) The constellations you observe at the northern and southern hemisphere are different.
4) Sailing ships always disappear from view hull first and mast last.

Until the late 1600s, the earth was thought to be perfectly spherical shape. By that time, accurate
measurement of gravitational pull was possible. Most notably, Newton in England and Huygens in
Holland put forward a theory. The theory says that the earth was flattened at the poles and extended
(bulged) at the equator. This idea was later tested by field observation in Peru and Lapland by French
Academy of Sciences. The earth was indeed flattened at the poles. It is interesting to note that the first
indication of this flattening came from seamen who noticed that their clock were not keeping consistent
time as they sailed great latitudinal distances. The unequal pull of gravity, caused by the imperfectly
shaped earth, created different gravitational effects on the pendulums of their clocks.

Moreover, around 1670, Isaac Newton proposed that there would be a slight bulging of the earth at the
equator due to the greater centrifugal force generated by the earth’s rotation. It is the force of gravity,
which is largely responsible for the present shape of the earth. The force of gravity is directed towards the
center of the earth. Nevertheless, the centrifugal force pushes outward from the axis of the rotation of the
earth. As this force increases with distance from the axis of rotation, it is more effective at and near the
equator.

The sphere bulges at the equator and would produce a slight flattening at the poles. Newton predicted the
polar flattening to be about 1/300th of the equatorial radius. According to Newton, all the radii of the earth
from its center to all points on its outer surface are not equal. This is because any rotating body has a
tendency to bulge around its equator and flatten at the polar ends of its rotational axis (Figure 3.1)
Figure 4.1. The shape of the Earth (Source: Misra: 1969)

The amount of polar flattening (oblate ness) is given by the ratio f = (a-b)/a. Where a is the equatorial
radius b is the polar radius

For example: What is the polar flattening, if a = 6378.5km and b = 6357 km?

6378.5km  6357 km 21.5km 1

f= 6378.5km = 6378.5km = 296.7

The shape of the earth with slight bulge at the equator and flattening at the poles is referred to as oblate
spheroid or oblate Ellipsoid.

The shape of the earth has obvious deviations true perfect sphere due to the above reasons but also due to
topographic inequalities on its surface. The surface of the earth varies in elevation from the highest
mountain peak, Mount Everest at 8,848 meters above mean sea level to the deepest ocean trench, the
Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean at 11,035 meters below sea level. This makes a total difference of
nearly 20 kilometers elevation.

Why the shape of the earth further deviates from perfect sphere? Findings of recent studies from orbiting
satellites have shown that the earth has some distortions in the form of shallow depressions in wide areas
in certain latitudes with proportional bulges in the same latitudes of the opposite hemisphere (Figure 3.2)
All these distortions and irregularities on the earth’s surface make its shape very unique. That is, the
shape of the earth is so unique that it can be only defined as being geoid. Geoid means earth like. Geoid is
the three-dimensional shape that would be approximated by mean sea level in the oceans and the surface
of a series of hypothetical sea level canals crisscrossing the continents. In other words it is a surface on
which gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at mean sea level. The geoid deviates ever so slightly
from the ellipsoid in an irregular manner. If the earth were of uniform geological composition and devoid
of mountain ranges, ocean basins and other vertical irregularities, the geoid surface would equal the
ellipsoid exactly. However, due primarily to variations in rock density and topographic relief, the geoid
surface deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters in certain locations.

4.2. The Size of the Earth

Greek scholars tried to measure the size of the earth in ancient times. In fact, the earth’s size was
measured by a Greek scholar living in Alexandria. Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) calculated the equatorial
circumference to be 46, 250, remarkably close to today’s measurement of 40,072 km. Another Greek
mathematician, Poseidonius (130-51 B.C.) measured the earth’s equatorial circumference to be 38, 622
km.

How did Erathosthenes calculate the circumference of the earth, which is closer to present calculations?
Eratosthenes ingenious method of measuring the earth employed simple geometrical calculations (Figure
4.4). In fact the method is still used today.
Figure 4.4. Erathosthenes’ method of measuring the size of the Earth (Source: Dent: 1999)

Erathosthenes noticed on the day of the summer solstice that the noon sun shone directly down a well at
Syene near the present day Aswan in Southern Egypt. However, the sun was not directly overhead at
Alexandria but rather cast a shadow that was 7 0 121 of the vertical. Applying geometrical principles, he
knew that the deviations of the sun’s rays from the vertical would subtend an angle of 7 0 121 at the center
of the earth. This angle is 1/50 the whole circumference of the earth (360 0). The only remaining
measurement needed to complete the calculations was the distance between Alexandria and Syene. This
was estimated to be 925 km. He multiplied this figure by 50. He got a total circumference of 46,250 km.
This is only about 15% too large from today measurement (40,072 km). His method was sound, but his
measurements and assumptions were somewhat in error.

Three assumptions on Eratosthenes’ part led to error in the results. Alexandria and Syene are not on the
same meridian. Syene’s latitude is 24 051 3011. It is not at the Tropic of Cancer, where the sun’s rays are
perfectly vertical at the summer solstice. Finally, the actual distance between Alexandria and Syene is 729
km. Regardless of these sources of error, Eratosthenes made remarkably accurate calculations.

It is important to understand that for the purpose of geodesy, the science of measurement of the earth, a
regular geometric model of the earth is required. This is to say that precise measurements on earth could
be made by using an ellipsoid model. Ellipsoidal model is a geometric figure which is assumed to be
produced by rotating an ellipse around its minor (polar) axis and choosing the lengths of the major
(equatorial) and minor axes that best fit those of the real earth. In recent years, these dimensions of the
ellipsoid have been calculated with great precision. However, there are over a dozen principal ellipsoids,
which are used by one or more countries throughout the world for their official mapping programs. Such
decisions on the choice of the specific ellipsoids is based on the local precision of the adopted models in
describing their parts of the earth. Some examples of principal ellipsoids are given in Table 1.

Table 4.1. Official ellipsoids in use

Name Date Equatorial Polar Radius Polar Flattening

Radius (m) (m) (m)
WGS* 84 1984 6378 137 6356 752.3 1.298.26
WGS 72 1972 6378 160 6356 750.5 1/298.26
Australian 1965 6378 160 6356 752.3 1/298.25
International 1924 6378 388 6356 911.9 1/297.00
Clarke 80 1880 6378 249.1 6356 514.9 1/293.46
Clarke 88 1866 6378 206.4 6356 583.9 1/294.98
Everest 1930 6377 276.3 6356 079.0 1/300.8
*
World Geodetic System Source: Robinson et.al: 1995

Clarke’s 80 model is suitable for the whole of Africa. It is also in use in Ethiopia to measure distances on
topographical maps. As shown in the table given above, there are slight variations among the radii used
by different countries. The International Union of Geodesy and Geology has accepted the polar,
equatorial and mean radii to be 6356 km, 6378.5 km and 6371 km respectively. The radius of the earth is
measured from its center to any point on its curved surface. Since the earth is slightly elliptical, the
distance from its center to any point on its surface slightly varies. That is why the polar radius is 22.5km
shorter than the equatorial radius.

Taking 6371 km as the mean radius of the earth, can you calculate the area of the earth? Of course, such
mathematical calculations you should have to take the sphere as a reference. You learned in high school
that you employ the formula 4 ∏r2 to calculate the surface area of a sphere. Substituting the mean radius of
the earth for r, the total area of the earth would be:

A = 4x3.14 x 6371 km x 6371km = 509 805 891km2

Thus, one can say the total surface area of the earth is about 510 million square kilometers. In the same
way, using the radius of the equator, we can calculate the circumference of the earth round the equator.
This is done by using the following formula.

Equatorial circumference = 2 ∏ r

= 2x3.14 x 6378.5

= 40 056.98 km

What is the polar circumference of the Earth?

Polar circumference = 2∏ r

= 2 x 3.14 x 6357 km

= 39921.96 km

What are the equatorial and polar radii?

Equatorial diameter = 2r

= 2x 6378.5km

= 12.757 km

Polar diameter = 2r

=2 x 6357 km

= 12714 km

4.3. GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM

Location was the key idea behind the historical development of the earth’s coordinate geometry. During
the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries when exploration flourished, exactness in ocean
navigation and location became critical. Death often awaited mariners who did not know their way along
coasts. Naval military operations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries also required precise
determination of location on the globe, as is the case today. Considerable sums of money are now spent
on orbiting satellites that can beam locational information to earth. Hand held locational information
called Global position system (GPS) is now available on market.

Perhaps the best way to introduce the earth’s spherical coordinate system is to examine plane coordinate
geometry. Do you remember how you were locating a point in high school? It was with the help of plane
coordinate geometry or Cartesian coordinate system. This system has intersecting perpendicular lines on a
plane. It has also principal axes, called the x- and y-axes (Figure 4.5). The vertical axis is usually referred
to as the y-axis and the horizontal as the x-axis.

The plane of Cartesian space is marked at intervals by equal spaced lines. The position of any point can
be specified by simply indicating the values of x and y and plotting its location with respect to the values
of the Cartesian plane. In this manner, each point can have its own unique, unambiguous location.
Relative location can easily be shown by plotting several points in the space. For example, the location of
A is (5, 2). Cartography uses Cartesian geometry in a variety of ways. In addition to being a good method
of introducing the earth’s spherical coordinate system (because of similarities), Cartesian geometry is also
of use

Y-axis
5
4
3
2 A
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

X-axis

Figure 3.5. The Cartesian coordinate system

The development of computer maps, a process called digitizing. Digitizing involves specifying the
locations of geographical points on a map in a plane Cartesian space, usually be electronic means. The
Cartesian system is also used in hand map projections. In addition, the thematic cartographer often deals
with statistical concepts that are best portrayed in Cartesian space.
Cartographers often must change from one grid system to another. When cartographers specify Cartesian
coordinates into their geographic reference points, or when other source documents (air photos, remotely
sensed images) are referenced to a common coordinate system. This is called geo-referencing.

4.3. Geographic (earth) coordinate system

What do geographers use to locate a point on the surface of the earth? They use the geographic coordinate
system. Concepts similar to those used in plane or Cartesian coordinate geometry are incorporated in the
earth’s coordinate system. The earth’s coordinate system is the primary locational reference system for
the earth. The earth’s coordinate system employs latitudes and longitudes to locate a point on the surface
of the earth. The geographic coordinate system has always been used in cartography. It makes possible a
unique statement of location for each feature on the earth’s surface. It was introduced by astronomer-
geographer Hipparchus in the 2nd century B.C.

Our planet rotates about an imaginary axis called the axis of rotation. If extended; one of the axes points
to a fixed star, the North Star. This is not exactly accurate because this extended axis is actually about 0.5 0
off from the North Star. The place on earth where this axis of rotation emerges is referred to as
geographic north (the North Pole). The opposite or antipodal point is called geographic south or South
Pole.

If we were to pass through the earth an imaginary plane that bisects the axis of rotation and was
perpendicular to North-South poles, the intersection of the plane with the surface of the earth would form
a complete circle (assuming that the earth is perfectly spherical. This imaginary circle is referred to as the
earth’s equator. Thus, the geographic coordinate system is based on the North and South poles, and the
equator. These are the most important elements of the earth’s coordinate system.

Authalic latitude

To specify location on the earth in the geographical coordinate system, we use latitude and longitude
values. What is latitude? Latitude is an angle subtended at the center of the earth between a radius to any
point on the earth’s surface, and the equatorial plane. The latitude system for locating our north-south
position depends on the regular curvature of the earth’s surface. The equator, the line on the earth formed
by points halfway between the two poles, is the starting place for latitude
Figure 3.6. Latitude determination

Depending on our reference, we have authalic latitude and geodetic latitude. What is authalic latitude?
Authalic latitude is the angle formed by a pair of lines extending from the equator to the center of the
earth and then from the center of the earth to our position. It ranges from 0 0 (equator) to 900 N or S. This
range is shown from +900 to -900 when using digital data bases and map projection equations. It is
normally given in degrees, minutes, and seconds. Each degree is 60 minutes ( '), and each minute is 60
seconds (''). This angular measurement is based on sexagesimal scale (base 60), which was developed by
ancient Babylonian mathematician, Computer calculations & GPS often require the decimal degree
system. For example, 54030' N is expressed as 54.50 in the GPS.

The north-south distance on the sphere between each degree of authalic latitude is identical, and only
depends on the circumference of the sphere. For the WGS 84 authalic sphere of circumference 40,030.2
km, the distance between each degee of latitude is 111. 20km. On the Clarke 1866 authalic sphere, the
circumference is also 40,030.2km. It means that these two, and most other, authalic spheres can be used
interchangeably for small-scale mapping.

Geodetic latitude

Latitude is an angle formed between the equatorial plane and a line drawn from our position to the center
of the earth (Figure 3.7). Latitude on the ellipsoid is called geodetic latitude. It is defined as the angle
formed by a line from the equator toward the center of the earth, and a second line perpendicular to the
ellipsoid surface at one’s location (Figure 3.8).
The first line at the center of the ellipsoid is only at geodetic latitudes of 0 0 and 900. The north-south
distance between degrees of geodetic latitude is nearly the same, but not exactly the same. The distance is
greater in polar areas and less near the equator.

Table 4.2. Length of a degree of geodetic latitude (on WGS 84 Ellipsoid).

Latitude Kilometers
00 110.57
100 110.61
200 110.70
0
30 110.85
400 111.04
500 111.23
0
60 111.41
700 111.56
800 111.66
900 111.69
Source: Robinson et. al.: 1995

of distance for the WGS 84 ellipsoid, showing the steady increase from 110.57km at the equator to
111.69 km at the poles. This difference of about 1km in 110km from equator to poles is of little
significance when making small-scale maps, but cannot be neglected when producing large-scale maps
and charts. Geodetic latitude should always be used for large-scale mapping, whereas geodetic latitudes
of ground features can be thought of as equivalent to authalic latitudes for small-scale mapping.

Longitude

Longitude on the earth’s surface has always been more difficult to determine than latitude. It baffled early
astronomers and sea mean, not so much for its concept, but for the instrumentation required to record it.
Because the earth rotates on its axis, there is no fixed point at which to begin counting position.
Navigators, cartographers, and others from the fourteenth centuries knew that in practice they would need
a fixed reference point. They also knew that the earth rotated on its axis approximately 24 hours.
At first, each country specified some place within its boundaries as the fixed reference point for reckoning
longitude. By international agreement in 1884 most countries now recognize the meridian passing
through the British Royal Observatory at Greenwich as the fixed or reference line. The meridian passing
through Greenwich is referred to as the prime meridian.

The universal choice of Greenwich as the prime meridian equator established point of origin (0 0,00) of the
geographical coordinate system as being a point in the Gulf of Guinea. It also became the starting point
for the international system of time zones. The position of the 180 0 meridian in the Pacific Ocean opposite
the prime meridian provides a convenient place for the International Date Line. Days on earth must begin
and end somewhere, and only a few deviations from 180 0 are needed to keep from separating sparsely
populated areas into time zones with different days.

Longitude is the angle formed by a line going from the intersection of the prime meridian and the equator
to the center of the earth, and then back to the intersection of the equator and the meridian passing
through the position you want to measure (Figure 16). Although there are 360 0 in a circle, longitudinal
position is designated as 00 to 1800 east or west of the prime meridian. For digital databases and map
projections, it is from -1800 to +1800 (i.e. from 1800 W to 1800E).

Using the point of origin (00 latitude and 00 longitude), on a given world map you may give the location
of every point on the surface of the earth in degrees, minutes, and seconds. For example, Addis Ababa is
located at 90 02'0'' N. and 38045' 00' E. In the same way, you can state Ethiopia’s location as 3 1/20N to 150N
and 330 E to 480E. It is apparent that the latitude and longitude of any place on the earth’s surface are
peculiar to that spot alone. Any number of other sites may share given latitude or longitude, but not both.

For the location of the place you are standing, it is possible to use the values of latitudes and longitudes
on a map, or a GPS. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a group of 21 high-altitude satellites (called
NAVSTARS) that beam radio signals to earth-based receiver. The receiver provides location by giving
latitude and longitude positions. It also gives elevation and precise time from the received signals. In
cartography, GPS has revolutionized surveying and is fast becoming a necessary ingredient in geographic
information system (GIS) technology to help rectify satellite data to map bases.

Properties of the Graticule

A line joining equal angles of latitude is parallel. Similarly, a line joining the same angle of longitude is
meridian. The network of parallels and meridians on the earth is called graticule. The graticule has certain
geometric properties, some of which cartographers may try to preserve when making a map projection for
part or all of the earth. These properties deal with distance, direction, and area. Assuming the earth
spherical in shape, each property will be described.

Distance on the sphere and Great circles

The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. On the curving three-dimensional surface of
the spherical earth, however, it is obviously impossible to follow such a straight line. The shortest
distance over the surface between any two points on a sphere is the arc on the surface directly above the
true straight line. This are is formed by the intersection of the spherical surface with the plane passing
through the two points and the center of the earth (Figure3.9).
Figure 4.9. Great circle arc connecting A and B (Source: Robinson et. al.:1995).

The circle established by the intersection of such a plane with the spherical surface divides the earth into
hemisphere and is called a great circle. The equator is the only complete great circle in the graticule. All
parallels other than the equator are small circles. A small circle is a circle on the spherical surface whose
plane does not bisect the earth into two halves. A meridian is half of a great circle. A pair of two opposing
or anti-podal meridians make one great circle. For example, 0 0 and 1800 longitudes make one great circle.
The size of these small circles are not equal in length as their names imply. Let us calculate their lengths
using the formula C = 2∏rcos ө.

Where ө is the parallels’ geographic latitude, r is 6371 km (i.e. mean radius of the earth).

Example: 1 What is the circumference (length) of the parallel of 300 N latitude?

C = 2∏rcos 300

= 2 x 3.14 x 6371 km × cos 300 = 34809.5956 km

Example: 2. What is the circumference of the parallel of 900N latitude?

C = 2∏rcos ө

= 2 × 3.14 x 6371 km × cos 900 = 3 × 3.14 x 6371 km ×0 = 0km

Example: 3. What is the length of a meridian? As it is describe above, a meridian is half of a great circle.
Then, one can calculate its length using:

Length of a meridian = 2∏r cos ө ×1/2 = ∏r cos ө

= 3.14 x 6371km cos 00 = 20004.94km

What is the distance between two consecutive meridians (e.g. 0 0 longitude and 10E longitude)? This
distance varies considerably, but predictably. At the equator, it is about the same as that of one degree of
latitude. However, as distance increases pole word, the distance between two consecutive meridians
decreases. It diminishes to zero at the poles where the meridians completely converge.

On an ellipsoid surface, the distance between two consecutive meridians equals the distance between two
consecutive meridians at the equator multiplied by the cosine of the parallel’s longitude in question.

Symbolically: L = E cos ٨

Where L is the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians

 E is the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians at equator

 ٨ is the angle of longitude of the place in question
Example: What is the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians at 60 0N latitude?

L = E cos ٨

= 111.20km cos 600 = 111.20km x 0.5

= 55.6 km

Table 4.3 shows more examples of the distances between two consecutive meridians based on WGS 84
ellipsoid.

The latitude in which Kilometers

measurement is taken
00 111.32
100 109.64
200 104.65
300 96.49
400 85.39
500 71.70
0
60 55.80
700 38.19
800 19.39
900 0.00
Source: Robinson et. al 1995: 49

What is the great circle distance between Washington, D.C. (38 050’N, 77000’) and Moscow (55045’N,
37037’E? The great circle arc distance on the sphere between the two can be calculated using the standard
formula in spherical trigonometry.

The formula is:-

Cos D = sin a sin b + cos a cos b cos /δ٨ /

Wher D is the distance on the great circle

a is the geographic latitude of Washington, D.C. (38050’N)
b is the geographic latitude of Moscow (55045’N)
 /δ٨ / is the absolute value of the difference in longitude between

Washington, D.C and Moscow.

Cos D = sin 38.833 sin5.75 + cos8.833 cos 55.75× cos (│-77.0-37.62│)

= 0.627×0.827+0.779×.563×-0.417

= 0.518-0.335

D= cos-1 (0.335)

D= 70.430

Din km=70.430 ×111k

Din km= 7817.73km

Directions

Directions on the earth are entirely arbitrary, since a spherical surface has no edges, beginning or end. By
conventions, north-south is defined as direction along any meridian and east-west is defined as direction
along any parallel. Because of the arrangement of the graticule, these two directions are everywhere
perpendicular except at the poles. The directions determined by the orientation of the graticule are called
geographic or true directions as distinguished from the two other direction – magnetic and grid. Usually
direction is measured in a clockwise direction from geographic (true) north. The measurement of
direction can be given either in compass points or angular bearings (Figure 4.10).

Figure 4.10. Compass points and their bearings (Source: Roselius: 1980)

Compass points are directions indicated by North, South, East and West, their subsidiaries such as NE,
SE, SW, and NW, and subdivisions such as NNE, etc. Angular bearings are directions indicated exactly in
degrees. The direction is given as part of a full circle of 360 0. The reading starts from north and counts in
a clockwise direction. Let us see how direction is measured on a flat map.

What is the direction of A from B in Figure 19?

.A

Figure 19. Measurement of direction

First of all, draw a line joining A and B. Then draw another line parallel to north direction on point B.
Using a protractor, measure the bearing in a clockwise direction. The direction of A from B is 45 0 or NE
from B.

Magnetic north: The needle of a magnetic compass aligns itself with the earth’s field of magnetic force
which in most places is not aligned parallel with the local meridian. The reason is that the magnetic field
poles do not coincide with the poles of the earth’s rotation (90 0 N and S). The magnetic pole slowly
changes position over time so that the north magnetic pole currently is located at approximately 78 0N and
1030W, about 1300 km. south of the geographic pole. Consequently, there is usually a difference between
true and magnetic north. This difference is called compass variation on nautical charts and magnetic
declination on topographic maps.

TN

GN

MN

Figure 4.11. Magnetic declination

Cartographers usually show the angular differences between true and magnetic north, along with grid
north, by drawing a declination diagram (Figure 4.11). Furthermore, the slow but predictable changes in
the earth’s magnetic field make the declination value correct only for the date the map was issued. Often a
statement of the amount of annual change in declination is included with the diagrams on the
topographical maps of Ethiopia.
The third kind of direction is the grid north. It is the direction in which grid lines point towards the top of
the map. These grid lines running north to south are eastings. There is difference between true north and
grid north. This difference is referred to as grid variation (Figure 20).

The direction of a line on earth is called many things: bearing, course, heading, flight line, or azimuth.
Their meanings are essentially the same. They differ largely in the context in which they are used. Two
direction specifications of special importance in cartography are true azimuth and constant azimuth. From
observing the globe, directions on earth, established by the graticule, are likely to change constantly as we
move along the arc of a great circle (Figure 4.12 ). The true azimuth of any place, from the starting
point, is along the great circle arc to the northeast is stated as the angle between the meridian and the
great circle, clockwise from the meridian. Notice that the great circle arc intersects each meridian at
different angle.

4.4. NATIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

There are two types of coordinate systems in use to locate points on the surface of the earth. The older of
the two is the geographical coordinate system. As described in the previous section, geographical
coordinate system is useful for locating positions on the uniformly curved surface of the earth using
longitudes and latitudes.

The second type is the rectangular (plane) coordinate system. Such systems were used in Chinese
cartography in the 3rd century A. D. In modern form, the plane coordinate system evolved from the
Cartesian coordinate system.

For limited areas on maps with the property of conformality, variation between planar and spherical
calculations is not significant. Depending on the level of accuracy you want, you should select the type of
the coordinate system. It is therefore important to know the accuracy of each coordinate system and the
distortions resulting from the map projection used.

There is a good reason why the plane rectangular coordinate system came to appear on maps. With the
increasing range of artillery in World War I, it became more and more difficult for an army to arrive at
accurate azimuth (bearing or direction) and distance calculations to a target. Until World War I, battles
were hand-to-hand, or enemies were within sight of one another. The increased range of munitions meant
that visual sighting of targets was no longer necessary, but the curved path of an object fired had to be
calculated in real time in the field. Thus, as the range of munitions increased armies had to calculate
where to shoot without being able to see the target. Calculations involving latitude and longitude
(Geographical coordinates) were too involved for quick field calculation. To overcome this problem, the
French were the first to construct a series of local plane rectangular coordinate grids on their maps. This
proved so useful that other nations quickly followed it. Today the use of rectangular grid system is almost
universal.

The procedures to establish a plane rectangular coordinate system are

1. A map is made by transforming the spherical surface to a plane. In the topographical map of
Ethiopia with a scale of 1:50 000, the transverse Mercator projection is used for this purpose.
 2. A rectangular plane coordinate grid is placed over the map. The origin of the coordinate system is
usually located in the south-western most corner of the country. For Ethiopia, 0 0 latitude and 340
30' E crossing-points is the grid origin (Figure 4.14).

Figure 4.14. The origin of the Ethiopia’s coordinate system (Source: Roselius: 1980)

Each country has its won grid origin. That is why it is called national coordinate system. Sometimes, the
grid coordinate system of a country could be a part of a regional coordinate system. The grid origin used
on Ethiopian topographical maps is located outside Ethiopia. It is part of the regional coordinate system.
When we place the origin at the south-west of a country, only the upper right-hand quadrant of a plan
coordinate system is employed. This helps to make the values positive.

3. Distance is measured in kilometers starting from the grid origin (in this case, from 0 0 latitude and
340 30' E longitude origin) in kilometers. The distance between two vertical lines of this
coordinate system could be 100km, 10km or 1km. This depends on the scale of the map. On the
topographical map Ethiopia with the scale of 1:50 000, the distance between the vertical lines is
1km. These lines running from north to south to measure distance east of the grid origin are
called Eastings. On the other hands, horizontal lines running from west to east to measure
distance in km from the grid origin are referred as Northings.
Can you now give the six-digit reference location of B in Figure 24?

Procedure

Letter Eastings Northings

Designation (Vertical (Horizontal)
)
1 First read the big letters AU
2 Write the large number of the Easting value to the left of B 84
3 Measure the tenths of the side of the square from the 5
 Easting line to point
4 Write the large number of the Northing value below the 24
point
5 Measure the tenths from Northing line to point B 5
Six-digits reference location of point AU 845 245

Figure 4.15. A portion of national coordinate system of Ethiopia.

When using grid reference, you always read the big letters of the easting value and then the northing
value on the topographic map. Nevertheless, sometimes the digits may not be written in large and small
numbers. A grid reference is given as an even set of numbers run together. It could be four digits, six-
digits or eight digits. This depends on the scale of the map. Plane (rectangular) coordinate system is used
only on large-scale maps.

As shown on the topographical maps of Ethiopia, each square is 1km 2. The six-digit reference will give
the location to one decimal point. However, decimals are avoided. Moreover, the six-digit reference will
give the location of a point within 100 meter square. This system is only used to give only the location of
points. It is not used to locate areas.

UNIT 5
MAP PROJECTIONS
5.1. MAP PROJECTIONS: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS

One simple way of mapping the earth without distortion is to map it on a globe or on a spherical segment
of a globe (if a much larger-scale is desired). When we do so, all what we change is the scale or the size.
Relative distances, angles, areas, azimuths, rhumbs, and great circles are all retained without any
additional distortion. A globe is, therefore, an accurate model of the earth. The globe has the following
properties. They are:-

 It represents the earth and its other features in their true shape. It has the property of conformality
(orthomrphism). Conformality implies that the shape of the map surface at any given spot is
identical to the shape of the corresponding spot on the earth.
 All features represented on the globe maintain their proportional sizes on the ground. It, therefore,
has the property of equivalence or equal area.
 Distances between any two points are correctly maintained.
 Directions of points on the globe from a given point are the same as the directions on the surface
of the earth. In short, directions on the globe are truly represented as they are on the ground.
 The longitudes and latitudes are so arranged that it is convenient to locate any point with ease and
precision.
In addition, the meridians and parallels on the globe have the following characteristics. They include:

 The equator divides the globe into two haves-the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere
 The equatorial plane is perpendicular to the polar axis
 All the parallels are parallel to the equator.
 The spacing between any two parallels is almost the same along all meridians
 The equator is the only great circle of the parallels of latitude
 Each meridian is half of a great circle in length.
 All the meridians converge at the north and south polar points.
 The spacing between meridians is equal along a given parallel, but different along other parallels.
The spacing decreases pole wards.
 The parallels and meridians intersect at right angles.
 All areas are in correct scale ratio to earth measurements.

On the other hand, the globe has many practical disadvantages.

 It is a three-dimensional round model with only less than half of its surface absorbed at a time.
 It is cumbersome to handle
 It is difficult to store
 It is expensive to make and reproduce
 It is also difficult to draw and measure on it. One often needs to know distances between places,
areas of districts, zones, and regions, and direction of electronic signals, winds, and readings for
navigation.

It is a globe or a flat map, which is desirable for practicable purposes. For most practical purposes, the
globe is less desirable. All the drawbacks are eliminated when a map is prepared on a flat surface.
Nevertheless, construction of a map on a flat surface requires an important operation in addition to
altering scale. The spherical surface must be transformed to a flat (plane) surface. This combination of
scale alteration and a system of transformation of the curved surface to flat surface results in what is
called map projection. Thus, map projection is simply the method by which the spherical shape of a part
or the entire surface of the earth is transformed onto a flat surface. The transforming of the spherical
surface to a plane surface involves a basic assumption – the map viewer has an orthogonal (looking
straight down) relationship with all parts of the earth’s surface and to the map portraying it.

It has been the endeavor of cartographers since early times to develop a method of preparing a map on a
flat surface having the same properties the globe has. In other words, an ideal projection is one, which
represents the meridians and parallels in the same way as they appear on a globe.

Is there a projection that satisfies all the ten global characteristics? It has not been possible to develop a
projection, which satisfies all the ten global characteristics of the graticules and all the five properties of
the globe. That is, it is not possible to represent the globe on a flat surface without losing one or more of
these characteristics. All the methods of projections so far developed proved that any large part of the
spherical earth could not be represented on a plane surface without distortion through shrinking, breaking,
or stretching it somewhere. It is, therefore, impossible to lay out a flat unbroken network of lines that
would conform to the network of the globe. It is, however, possible to develop projections, which have
one, or more properties of the globe retained, though not all of them.

The best way to understand how a map projection is created is to see it as a two-stage process. First,
assume that the earth has been mapped on a globe reduced to the scale chosen for the flat map. We call
such a hypothetical globe reference or generating globe. Second, assume that the globe surface is
transformed by an appropriate method onto a flat surface. This means that the three dimensional
information on the globe’s surface is displayed on a two-dimensional, flat surface. The reference globe
will have a given scale called the principal scale. On the reference globe, the actual scale anywhere will
be the same as the principal scale. The scale factor (SF) will be 1.00 everywhere on the globe. Scale
factor is the ratio between actual scale and principal scale.

Symbolically:

Actual Scale
S= Pr incipal Scale

When all or part of this globe is transformed to a flat map, however, the actual scale at various places on
the flat map will be larger or smaller than the principal scale. All or part of the globe is not transformed to
a flat map without stretching, shrinking, or tearing. Consequently, the SF will always vary from place to
place on a flat map (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1. Distortions caused by projection process (Source: Dent: 1999)

To understand what happens, imagine the pattern of equally distant points on the reference globe when
they are transferred onto a flat surface. The mathematical scheme used to specify positions of the points
on the flat map defines the methods of transformation. Since the two surfaces are not applicable, distance
relationships among the points on the flat map must be modified. Consequently, it is impossible to devise
a transformation from the reference globe surface to a plane so that any figure drawn on one will appear
the same on the other. Nevertheless, by suitably varying the SF, one can retain (1) retain same angular
relationships, or (2) retain relative sizes of figures or (3) other attributes such as directions, distances, etc.

To visualize the fact that scale varies from a point on a flat map, draw an arc of 90 0 projected at right
angles to a straight line tangent at a (Figure 5.2). Imagine that a, b, c, j are the positions on the arc at 10 0
interval. Their respective positions after transformation to the line tangent at a are indicated by points a ',
b', c’ ...). Line aj’, therefore, represents arc aj. As clearly shown on the figure, the intervals on the straight
line, starting at the point of tangency, a, become progressively smaller as j ' is approached. If SF= 1.00
along the arc, then on the transformation of the arc, the SF is gradually reduced from 1.00 at a to 0.0 at aj '.
The rate of change is graphically indicated by decreasing the spaces between points on line aj '. Since it is
a continuous change, every point on line aj' must have a different SF.
Figure 5.2. Projection of an arc to a tangent straight line (Source: Robinson et. al: 1995)

How do you represent certain geometrical attributes of the earth without distortion? The science of map
projection tries to give solutions to such problems by using specific types of projections, which may allow
you to correctly represent the attribute you have in mind. At this point, it is important to know that there
is no one map projection that is better than the other. What you do is to choose a projection type, which is
useful in retaining the attribute (s) which you want to accurately transform to a flat map. The choice of
the projection type depends on the objective to be attained. For instance, if your objective is to retain area,
the map projection type that you must use is equal-area, or equivalent projection. In this case, equality of
area can be retained, but shape can be highly distorted. When the interest is to accurately retain shape, a
conformal or orthomorphic map projection is used. A conformal map is one on which any small area has
the same shape as on the globe and one spot is in true direction from any other as long as the points are
close together. In his case, at any point the scale is the same in every direction although it may change
from point to point. Moreover, the parallels are at right angles to the meridians. Thus, to correctly retain
shape size is distorted. For example, on conformal map, Greenland appears bigger than South America,
even though in reality it is one-tenth as large. Conformal maps are suitable for navigation, as directions
are not greatly distorted.

Distance representation is a matter of retaining consistency of scale. For finite distances to be represented
correctly, the scale must be uniform along the appropriate line joining the points being scaled. This means
that the scale on projected map must be the same as the globe from which projection was made. In other
words, the flat map must have a SF of 1.00. When the purpose in mind is to represent correct direction,
we frequently use azimuthal or zenithal projections. In this case, directions of points on the map will be
shown correctly with respect to the center of projection.

An important point, which you have to clearly understand here is that distortion is also dependent on the
area to be projected. As far as the area to be projected is small, the problem is not great. The distortion
that may be introduced is greater when you consider small-scale maps.
 5.2 TYPES AND DEFORMATIONS OF MAP PROJECTION

There are many number of map projections. In order to ease their understanding and save time, we should
have to classify them. However, there is no consensus on their consideration of the criteria they are
classified. Some of the broad criteria used in the classification of map projection are the methods of
drawing, the criteria they satisfy, and developable surface. Let us see each in detail.

I. Methods of drawing. With reference to the methods of drawing, there are three types of

map projection .They are:-

A) Perspective projection is a type of transformation, which is actually done from reference globes to flat
surfaces strictly following geometrical rules. They have one property in common. That is direction or
bearing from the center of the map is true. They are alternatively known as geometrical projections.
Variety within perspective projections is obtained by varying the position of the point of origin of the
projection. Gnomonic, stereographic and orthographic projections.

i). Gnomonic projection is transferring of the meridians and parallels on to a plane paper from a point
at the center of the globe (Figure 5.3). Plane paper could be tangent in any desired position. When the
plane is tangent at either of the two poles, the resulting projection is referred to as the polar case. When
the plane is tangent at some point on the equator, it is the equatorial case. When the plane is tangent
elsewhere, it is oblique case.

Figure 5.3. Gnomonic projection (Source: Kellaway: 1946)

As shown in Fig 5.3, AB is a plane paper, which is tangent to the globe at the North Pole (N). P is a point
on the surface of the globe, and the ray OP is produced to cut the tangent at P’. Then p’ is the geometrical
projection of P from the origin O on to the plane AB. P’ is in fact the gnomonic projection of P.
It is now very evident that the exaggeration in the radial scale becomes increasingly pronounced away
from the center. In all cases of gnomonic projection, in the equatorial and oblique eases, it is accordingly
more difficult to determine the scales along the meridians and parallels. In the polar case of the gnomonic,
the parallels of latitude are projected circles, described about the pole as center. The meridians of
longitude are projected as radii, uniformly spaced at their correct angular intervals.

The main properties of gnomonic projection are

a) The relative positions of places can be accurately and clearly shown.

b) The direction from the center is always true (in the polar case, either due north or due south,
according to which pole is selected as the center.
c) Distances are reasonably accurate in all directions
d) Great circled are projected as straight lines, and
e) The projection is easily constructed
f) It is neither conformal, equal area nor equi-distant.
Deformations (distortions)

i. Away from the center of the projection, distances rapidly become increasingly exaggerated, in the
polar case, more along the meridians than along the parallels.
ii. The shape of the regions, except in the case of those very near the center, is distorted, and the
amount of distortion increases away from the center.
iii. The area of regions, except in the case of those very near the center, is exaggeration increases
rapidly away from the center
iv. Direction, other than that from the centre, is not always readily apparent; and
v. This method of projection does not enable to project complete hemisphere on one map.
It is used along with the Mercator by some navigators to find the shortest path between two points. It is
also used in seismic work because seismic waves tend to travel along great circles.

2) Stereographic (Orthomorphic) projection.

Stereographic projection is transferring of the meridians and parallels on to a plane paper from a point at
the surface of the generating globe. The plane paper will be diametrically opposite to the point of origin
of the projection. The plane paper could be tangent to the globe in any desire position. For example, it
could be at the poles, at the equator or at any point between the equator and the poles (Oblique case).

Figure 5.4. Stereographic projection (Source: Kellaway: 1946)

As shown in Figure 5.4, AB is a plane paper, which is tangent to the globe at the North Pole. The point of
origin is at the South Pole (C). Let P be a point on the surface of the globe and let the ray CP be produced
to cut the plane of projection at P’. Then P’ is the geometrical projection of P, from the origin C, on to the
plane AB. That means P’ is the stereographic projection of P.

In the polar case, the parallels of latitude are projected as circles. The meridians of longitude are projected
as radii, uniformly spaced at their correct angular intervals. The scale along the parallels increases away
form the center of projection. At any point, the scale along the parallel is equal to the scale along the
meridian. As a result, of this equal-stretching, the stereographic possesses an important property, namely,
shape is preserved at a point. The projection is, therefore, said to be orthomorphic. In practice, the
property of orthomorphism (true representation of shape) can be extended to small areas. For example, a
small square anywhere on the globe would be projected as a square, but the size of the projected square
would depend on its position with reference to the center of the projection. Because of the variation in the
actual scale, from one latitude to another, orthomorphism cannot be extended to large areas. The shape of
small area is virtually preserved, but the shape of a large area is not.

The orthomorphic property of the polar case of the stereographic is also true for equatorial case and
oblique cases. For this reason, the stereographic projection is often called the Zenithal Orthomorphic
projection. Moreover, in this projection directions are true only from the point of projection. In the
stereographic projection, only those great circles which pass through both the point of origin and the point
of contact of the plane of projection with the globe are projected as straight lines. The meridians in the
polar case are great circles which fall in to this class; so also are the equator and the central meridian in
the equatorial case.

Deformations (Distortions):

Deformation is distortion in shape, direction, distance or area that occurs at the time of projection. The
increase in the scale, away from the center, though less than in the gnomonic, is nevertheless appreciable.
However, the difficulties introduced by the varying scale are to some extent offset by orthomorphic
properties of the projection.

3) Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is transferring of the meridians and parallels on to a plane paper from a point of
origin at infinity. The plane paper could be tangent to the globe in any desired position. Polar, equatorial
and oblique cases are all possible. The resulting projection seems a photographic view of a distant globe.
Figure 5.5. Orthographic projection (Source: Kellaway: 1946)

As shown in Figure 5.5 , AB is a plane paper which is tangent to the globe at the North Pole. The point of
origin is at a very far distance. Let P be a point on the surface of the globe. The ray MP will be produced
to cut the plane of projection at P’. Then P’ is the geometrical projection of P from an infinite origin.
Then P’ is the geometrical projection of P from an infinite origin onto the plane AB. That means P’ is the
orthographic projection of P. In the polar case the parallels of latitude are projected as circles, described
about the pole as the center. The meridians of longitude are projected as radii, uniformly spaced at their
correct angular intervals.

For a small area near the center of the projection, the representation (scale) is reasonably accurate.
However, a way from the center, the radial scale decreases rapidly. The distortion becomes apparent. The
scale along the parallels is therefore always correct. Since the meridian scale decreases away from the
center, distortion of shape and area is inevitable. It is particularly pronounced around the edges when a
complete hemisphere is shown.

For small area near the center of the projection, the orthographic is not markedly different from the other
zenithal projections. But, when large areas are mapped, the radial scale diminishes away from the center.
As the parallels are projected at their true lengths, distortion of shape becomes pronounced.

Deformations (Distortions)

Although frequently used for the complete hemisphere, the orthographic is not really suitable for such a
large area. This is due to the marked distortion of shape, which is caused by the great inequality in the
scales in different directions. In the popular mind, however, this disadvantage is offset to some extent
because the general effect is that of viewing a distant globe, and there is accordingly some pretence to
reality.

B) Non-perspective projections

The perspective projections have all been developed by geometrical methods. That is by rays radiating
from a point of origin, and falling upon a suitably placed plane. They are derived from their perspective
counterparts by suitable modifications. In such projections, the gaticules may be straightened or curved
and the space between parallels and meridians may be reduced or enlarged to suit particular requirements.
Zenithal equi-distant and zenithal equal area are examples of non-perspective projections.

1. Zenithal Equidistant Projection

In this projection the radial scale is adjusted so that every point on the projection lies at its correct
distance from the center. For example, in Figure 30, CP’ is made equal to the arc CP for all values of ө.
The projected position of P, namely, P’, therefore lies at a distance of rө c (Where r is the radius of the
globe and өc is the angle of latitude expressed in circular measure (radians) from the center. The meridians
are projected as radii of these circles, and correctly spaced at their true angular intervals

Figure 5.6. Zenithal equidistant projection (Source: Kellway: 1946).

The scale along the meridians, that is, radially from the center, is everywhere correct. It is in respect of
this property that the projection is said to be equidistant. The scale along the parallels, however, is not
correct. The scale along the parallels increases somewhat rapidly. It is much exaggerated around the edge
of the complete hemisphere.

For a small area near the center of the projection, the representation is very satisfactory. The projection
has one important merit, which is true distance from the center of projection. When the area covered by a
map is not too large, the projection makes dependable general map. But, when distances from the center
become considerable there is pronounced exaggeration of area and appreciable distortion of shape.

Deformations (Distortions)

Although the radial scale always remains true, the inequality of the scales in different directions produces
distortion of both area and shape. The projection is thus not really suitable for large areas. If, however, a
map is required for the specific purpose of showing equal distance from a particular center, the projection
is good.

2. Zenithal equal – area projection

In this projection, the radial scale is adjusted so that areas are everywhere correctly represented. Thus,
areas shall be strictly comparable over the entire projection. In the process of adjustment, shape and
distance may be both become distorted. Figure represents a section through the center of the generating
globe, at right angles to the plane of projection (AB). P is a point on the globe such that such that └ PON
= ө. The point N represents the North Pole. LMM ' L' is a cylinder which touches the globe along the
circumference (EE'), the plane of which is parallel to the plane of projection. The axis of the cylinder is
therefore coincident with the line ON. The area of the zone PEE ' P' on the globe is equal to the area of the
zone QEE' Q' on the cylinder (Figure5.7).

Figure 5.7. Zenithal equal area projection (Source: Kellaway: 1946)

It is now apparent that the scale along the meridians is everywhere too small, and that the scale becomes
increasingly diminished away from the center. This is only to be expected, for the scale along the parallels
is everywhere too great. The equal-area property can be, therefore, preserved by a compensatory decrease
in the scale along the meridians. Away from the center, shape becomes progressively distorted, due to the
inequality of the scales in different directions.

Deformations (Distortions)

A part from the one property of equal-area, which remains true over the entire projection,

there is appreciable distortion away from the center. Radial (meridian) compression is accompanied by
stretching of the parallels and when these distortions become appreciable, shape becomes grossly
deformed.

C) Conventional or mathematical projections

These projections are derived purely by mathematical computations and have little, if any, relation to
projected images. They have parallels and meridians simply drawn to conform to some arbitrarily chosen
principle. They are not projected in the usual sense of the word. They are not also modified from
perspective projections. Mollweide and Sinsusoidal projections are conventional projection.

1) Mollweide Projection
It is an equal-area projection designed to show the whole globe on one map. The distortion of shape,
although admittedly great away from the center of the map, is not so pronounced as in Sinusoidal’s
(Sanson-Flamsteed) projection. It maintains better shape at the expense of certain other properties.

Figure 5.8. Mollweide equal area projection (Source: Retrieved on 7 September 2006 from
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/gif/mollweid.gif

As shown in Figure 32, the parallels of latitude are all projected as straight lines. The parallels neither are
true to scale nor uniformly spaced along the central meridian. The equator is standard line, equally
divided. They are spaced equally along the central meridian. The meridians are, in general, ellipses. The
central meridian is actually a straight line, and the meridians 90 0E and 900W together make a great circle.
These may both be regarded as special cases of the ellipse. Although accuracy of scale is sacrificed along
both parallels and meridians, the particular method of construction does ensure the preservation of equal-
area, which is the predominant property of the projection.

Deformations (Distortions)

There is a complete absence of any uniformity in the scale. The projected total lengths of the equator and
central meridian are strictly comparable, but slightly reduced from their true values. Each parallel and
each meridian have their own particular scales; and in the case of the meridians, the scale varies with
latitude.

2) Sinusoidal (Sanson-Flamsteed’s) projection

The sinusoidal projection, a particular case of Bonne’s projection, is designed to show the whole globe on
one map. The standard parallel is the equator, which is projected as a straight line, at its true length, and
correctly divided for the points of intersection with selected meridians. The central meridian is also a
straight line, perpendicular to and one-half the length of the equator. This meridian is correctly divided
for the spacing of selected parallels.
Figure 5.9. Sinusoidal Projection (Source: Retrieved on 7 September 2006 from Website

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/gif/sinusoid.gif

As shown in figure 33, the parallels are all straight lines, parallel to the equator and of correct length,
namely 2∏ r. cos Ø, where Ø is the latitude. In Bonne’s projection, the projected parallels are all
concentric arcs, that is, parallel to the standard. All the parallels are correctly divided for the points of
intersection with selected meridians, which are then drawn as smooth curves through corresponding
points. The projected meridians are actually sine curves, a feature of the projection, which gives point to
the name sinusoidal.

As in the case of Bonne’s Projection, area is correctly represented. But, when the whole globe is shown
on one map, shape becomes very distorted diagonally away from the center, and it is on account of this
distortion that the usefulness of the projection for world map is restricted.

The scale along the central meridian and all parallels is true. Nevertheless, in the case of other meridians
there is a considerable variation from one part of the projection to another, because of the varying
obliquity of the intersection of meridians with parallels.

In this projection, there are serious difficulties concerning the question of shape in those parts of the
projection that lie diagonally away from the center. For certain smaller regions, however, the projection is
admirable. Thus, Africa, which is balanced on the equator, is projected very well indeed if the central
meridian is situated in about longitude 20 0E. It is also good for projecting South America if the central
meridian is placed in longitude 60 0W. In these latter cases, a good general map results, for the scale is
correct along all parallels and the central meridian. The scale along other meridians is only slightly
exaggerated; the equal-area property is preserved. The intersection of parallels with meridians are nearly
rectangular. Therefore, shape is quite good, and direction fairly easily known.
Deformations (Distortions)

It is not really suitable for world maps, on account of the varying meridian scale and the consequent
deformation of shape.

II. On the basis of the criteria they satisfy

There are four types of projections based on the global characteristic they satisfy. They are:

1). Equal area projection is projection that preserves the ratio of mapped area to the corresponding earth
area. Examples for this projection are cylindrical equal area, zenithal equal area, Bonne’s projection,
Sinusoidal projection, Molleweide’s projection Good’s interrupted homolosine projection, and Alber’s
equal area conic projection.

Let us see how these projections maintain area by taking one example (i.e. Equal area or Lambert’s
cylindrical projection). This is an equal area projection because the exaggeration in area caused by the
increasing length of the parallels toward the pole is equalized by the decreasing distances between the
parallels (Figure 33). The scale is, however, correct only along the equator. The parallels and meridians
intersect each other at right angles. The projection is not orthomorphic. The above deficiencies render it
unsuitable for areas, which extend to higher latitudes. Africa can be shown on this projection suitably as
the equator almost cuts it into two halves.

2. Orthomorphic (Conformal) projections

The term conformality implies that the shape of the map surface at any given spot is identical to the shape
of the corresponding spot on the earth. Mercator, stereographic, Gnomonic, and Van der Griten
projections are orthomorphc (conformal) projections. Let us see how Mercator projection maintains
shape. All parallels of latitude are projected equal in length to the equator of the generating globe. The
scale along the equator is therefore true, but away from the equator, the scale along the parallels is
exaggerated. The distances of the parallels from the equator are then adjusted to make the scale along the
meridians at any point equal to the scale along the parallels at the same point. In other words, the
inevitable east-west stretching is accompanied by an equal north-south stretching at every point over the
entire projection (Figure 5.10 ). However, the actual amount of stretching will clearly vary from one
latitude to another.
Figure 5.10 Mercator projection

Thus, at every point, the representation of shape is true. Nevertheless, a different scale is required for each
parallel of latitude. It is in respect of the correct representation of shape at any point that Mercator’s
projection is said to be orthomorphic. In practice, the property of correct representation of shape can be
extended to small areas.

Orthmorphism, however, is a property, which requires careful interpretation when large areas are under
consideration. Thus, a small square on the equator of the globe will be projected as a square. An equally
small square in latitude 600 (N or S) will also be projected as a square, but as a square on a very different
scale. Provided the areas under consideration are small, however, shape is accurately projected over the
entire map. In the case of large areas, on the other hand, the limitation of orthomorphism is at once
apparent, for there is ever present the difficulty of a changing scale over a continuous surface. In
additions, tropical areas show more reasonable shape than temperate or cold areas. For example, the
shape of Greenland is more distorted than South America.

In spite of the disadvantages introduced by the exaggeration in scale away from the equator, Mercator’s
projection will always be of value because it possesses one very important property. A straight line on the
projection is a line of constant bearing or rhumb-line. In view of the importance of constant bearing in
navigation, Mercator’s projection is widely used for navigational purposes, both over the sea and in the
air. It must be noted that great circles are not in general, projected as straight lines. Consequently, it is
usual to break up the great circle routes, which are the shortest possible over the surface of the globe, into
a number of a number of straight lines to maintain constant bearing. A change of bearing is then
necessary when leaving one straight line for the next. In this way, a succession of constant bearing
straight lines is made to approximate to the projected great-circle curve.

Deformations (Distortions)

Along the equator the scale is correct, but away from the equator there is marked exaggeration. Sine
exaggeration of the scale along the parallels is accompanied by equal exaggeration of the scale along the
meridians, areas become grossly exaggerated in high latitudes. For this reason, the polar regions cannot
be satisfactorily projected.

Universal Transverse Mercator Projection

Universal transverse Mercator (UTM) is oblique case Mercator projection. That means the cylindrical
paper touches the globe along the great circle formed by two selected opposite meridians. This projection
is commonly used in computer software. Thus, it is worthwhile to give detailed explanation for this
projection. The UTM grid system has been widely adopted for topographic maps, satellite imagery,
natural resources data bases, and other applications that require precise positioning. It is a metric system
(meter is the basic unit of measurement).

Fig
ure 5.11 Universal Transversal Mercator

The UTM has the following properties. They are

1. The most western edge of UTM is zone 1 and the most eastern edge is zone 60. Each zone has 6 0
longitudinal extent. That means zone 1 extends from 180 0 W to 1740 W. Ethiopia is largely in zone 37
(Figure 5.11 ).

2. The latitudinal interval is 80 latitude. The latitudinal extent is from 840 N to 800 S.
3. The rows of quadrilaterals are assigned letters C to X consecutively (With I and 0 omitted) beginning
at 800 S latitude. Row X which extends from 72 0 N to 840 N to cover all land areas in the northern
hemisphere is having a latitudinal extent of 120.
4. Each zone has a central meridian. Eastings are measured from the central meridian. The central
meridian is assigned a value of 500 km (500 000 meters). This is to avoid negative values. The central
meridian is the false easting.
5. For the southern hemisphere, the equator is assigned the value of 10,000 km. Equator is false northing
for the southern hemisphere.
6. For the northern hemisphere, equator is assigned the value of 0.
7. Each quadrilateral (60 x 80) is assigned a number and a letter combination. For example, the darkest
area is 37 N.

The scale Factor (SF) is constant along each north-south coordinate grid line, but it varies in the east-west
direction. Mercator projection is constructed for each zone to minimize variations in the SF over the
entire projection. Thus, along the center grid line of each UTM grid zone, the SF is 0.99960. At the
widest part (along the equator), about 363 kilometers from the center grid line, the SF is 1.00158. This
positioning of the coordinate grid relative to the map results in an overall accuracy for the UTM system of
one part in 2,500. Therefore, you can calculate distances and directions between two points in a UTM
zone to an accuracy of one meter in 2,500 meters.

3. Equi-distant projections

These projections provide distances true to scale. Distances are true along the parallels, which are drawn
to scale and spaced correctly. Similarly, the distances along the meridians are also truly drawn and spaced
correctly on these projections. Distances between two points either on parallels or on meridians are
correctly shown as the globe does. Hence, distances are true to scale. Examples for equi-distant
projections are Zenithal (azimuthal) equi-distant and gnomonic projections. Figure 5.12 shows
azimuthal equidistant projection.

Figure 5.12. Azimuthal equi-distant projection

4. Zenithal (Azimuthal) projections

These are projections true directions on the plane map or on the projection. These projections have the
property of showing direction or bearing from the center of the map correctly. They are therefore often
referred to as azimuthal projections.
III. Based on Developable Surface

A developable surface is one which can be flattened and which can receive lines projected or drawn
directly from an assumed globe. There are three types of projection based on developable surface. The
projections that are not based on developable surface are classified as the fourth type. Let us see four of
them in detail.

1. Cylindrical projections

Cylindrical projections are transferring of meridians, parallels and other points by wrapping a flat plane
(sheet) into a cylinder and making it tangent along a line or lines on the globe (sphere). Lines and points
on the spherical grid can be transferred to this cylinder, which is then unrolled into a flat map. The normal
aspect for these projections is the equatorial aspect, with the equator as the standard line (Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13. Map projections from developable surfaces

In other words, the axis of the cylinder is coincident with the axis of the generating globe. The cylinder
may then be regarded as either touching the globe along the equator, or intersecting the globe along two
symmetrically placed parallels of latitude. In the transverse position the cylinder may be regarded as
touching the globe along the great circle formed by two selected opposite meridians. Other common
features of these projections are treated in the next sub-section.

The simple perspective cylindrical, the non-perspective plate carree, Cassini’s projection, Gall’s
projections, Mercator projection, transverse Mercator projection and Lambert’s cylindrical equal area
projection are examples of cylindrical projection. Most of the common ones used to day are
pseudocylindrical versions. The popular ones include the Eckert Family, Mollweide, Boggs Eumorphic,
and Goode’s interrupted homolosine. Two recent developments are the Robinson and Tobler
pseudocylindricals. Cylindrical or rectangular projections are common forms frequently seen in atlases
and other maps, showing the world distribution of a variety of geographical phenomena.

The patterns of deformation for all rectangular projections depend on their method of development. Areas
of least distortion are bands parallel to the line (s) of tangency, with increasing exaggeration toward the
outer edges of the map plane. Distortions may appear in area, angle, distance or direction.

2) Conic projection

Conic projection is transferring of parallels, meridians and points from the generating globe grid to a cone
enveloped around the globe. This cone is unrolled into a flat plane. In the normal aspect, the axis of the
cone coincides with the axis of the sphere. This aspect yields either straight or curved meridians that
converge on the near pole and parallels are arcs of circles (`Figure 38). In the simple comic projection
(normal aspect), the cone is tangent along a chosen parallel, along which there is no distortion. In the
secant case, the cone intersects the sphere along two parallels. This reduces distortion.

The perspective conical projection, the simple conic projection, the one-standard equal area conic
projection, the two standard conic projections, polyconic projection, and Bonne’s projection are examples
of conic projection. Conic projections, simple or secant, are best for mapping earth areas having great
east-west extent than north south like the United States (Figure5.14).

Figure 5.14. Albers equal area projection

3) Azimuthal (Zenithal) projections

Azimuthal projection is transferring of parallels, meridians, and points from the generating globe to a
plane sheet of paper enveloped around the globe. The plane sheet of paper can be tangential to the sphere
at a point or pass through the sphere, making it tangent along a small circle (secant form). There are
numerous versions of this group, distinguished from one another by the location of the assumed light
source for the projection. When the light is emanating from the center of the globe, it is azimuthal
gnomonic projection. When the light source is at the point opposite the point of tangency, the projection
is stereographic. When it is at infinity (outside the generating globe), an orthographic projection results.
The plane sheet of paper may be tangent at any point on the spherical grid, depending on the projection
aspect. Tangency at the poles is a polar aspect. At middle latitude, it is oblique aspect. At the equator, it is
an equatorial aspect. The normal aspect is the position that produces the simplest graticule. Normal aspect
for this family is the polar position when the plane is tangent at one of the poles. In this case, the
meridians are straight lines converging at the pole. Parallels are concentric circles having the pole as their
centers. Directions to any point from the point of tangency (pole) are held true. All lines drawn to the
center are great circles, as is also the case for equatorial and oblique aspects.

Normally, only one hemisphere is shown on these projections. Pattern of distortion is closely associated
with the manner in which each was developed. As is the case for all projections, distortions increase with
distance from either the standard point or the standard line.

4. Conventional or mathematical projections

Conventional or mathematical projection are mathematically derived projections from the above three
types. Sinusoidal, Mollweide, and Van der Grinten are examples of Conventional or Methematical
projections.

5.3. CHOICE OF MAP PROJECTION

In order to choose appropriate map projection, cartographers need to be thoroughly familiar with map
projections. They must understand the effects different transformations have on the representation of
angles, areas, distances, and directions. Only then can they make proper allowance when making
measurements or analyses on maps. For example, one should not measure areas on Mercator’s
projection.Cartographers frequently transfer data from one projection to another. Knowing the distortion
characteristics of each is necessary to maintain accuracy during the transfer. Computer software are of
great aid in this data transfer process. Cartographers are now relieved from the tedious work of
calculating and drawing map projections. Computers and plotter help the cartographer to complete this
work within short time, and little energy. The ease with which such operations can be performed
enhances the cartographer’s primary task, which is selecting the proper projection.

Many diverse factors may influence the choice of map projection. Geographers, historians, and ecologists
are likely to be concerned with relative sizes of regions. Navigators, meteorologists, astronauts, and
engineers are generally concerned with angles and distances. For example, for navigation, ocean currents,
and winds, Mercator is to be recommended. For most distribution maps, equal-area projections are
desired. A sinusoidal or equatorial case of the zenithal equidistant would be probably chosen for a map
showing the Cape to Cairo rail route, and a conic with two standard parallel or Bonne’s to show the
Trans-Siberian rail way. The atlas map maker often wants a compromise.

The choice of a projection also depends broadly upon the position and the extent of the area to be
mapped, and particularly upon the purpose and scale of the map. Consider the drawing of atlas maps first.
Regions in tropical, temperate, and polar latitudes would in general be mapped upon projections taken
respectively from normal cases in the cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal groups. The whole world on one
sheet could be mapped on various cylindrical, Sinusoidal, Mollweide, or Gall’s stereographic. For the
world in hemispheres choice would most likely lie between Mollweide, the stereographic or an equatorial
zenithal. The choice of a projection for a continent would depend largely upon whether it lay in both
hemispheres, as do Africa and South America, or whether it was largely in the intermediate latitudes like
the remaining continents. There is little visible difference in the shape of maps of small countries,
whatever projection is used.

You should keep several guidelines in mind when selecting a transformation to create your map
projection. The first thing to consider is the projections major property such as conformalety, equivalence,
azimuthality, reasonable appearance, and so on. Projection attributes such as parallel parallels, localized
area distortion, and rectangular coordinates may also contribute to a map’s success. For example, a small-
scale map of temperature distributions over large areas will be more effective if the parallels are parallel.
The map will be even more expressive if the parallels are straight lines that allow for easy north – south
comparisons. This is because temperatures normally decrease with increasing latitude.

A second important element is the amount and arrangement of distortion. Mean distortion, either
maximum angular or area is the weighted arithmetic mean of the values that occur at points over the
projection. When derived for similar areas on different projections, a comparison of the mean distortion
values provides one index of the relative efficiency of the projections. Therefore, a good match between
the shape of the region being mapped and the shape of the area of low distortion on the projection is
desirable. Certain general classes of projections have specific arrangements of the distortion. Knowing
these patterns helps considerably in choosing and using a particular projection.

Maps to be made in series, such as sets for atlases, have special projection requirements. For such map
series, you can choose a projection that shows the same pattern of distortion for large areas as small areas.
Thus, the large-scale maps in the series will have the same geometric characteristics as the small-scale
maps in the series. Most projections in which the meridians are straight lines that meet the parallels at
right angles satisfy this requirement.

Many times the format (shape and size) of the page or sheet on which the map is to be made is prescribed.
By using a projection that fits a format most efficiently, you can often increase the scale considerably.
This may be a real asset to a map with many details.

As mentioned above, you can also use the computer to create map projection. To do so, you specify the
mathematical and statistical criteria that you want the transformation to achieve. Based on indicator
valves, you can specify the distortion to tolerated for the specific region of interest.

UNIT 8

MAPPING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA

8.1. MAPPING QUALITATIVE DATA

In general conditions there are three classes of qualitative data. They are those which can be represented
by point symbols, line symbols and area symbols. It should be however, be bore in mind that symbols
used for various data will vary with variations in the scale of the map. For instance, the data which can be
shown by area symbols on large scale map may have to be represented by point symbols on a small scale
map. For this mining areas could be taken as an example, that is, mining area may be taken as area
symbol for larger scale map and point symbol for smaller scale. Further make, on a small scale map one
will find towns, capitals, churches, temples, light houses, bench marks, shafts, mines, hospitals, etc
marked by point symbols, but on large scale map they may be shown by area symbols.

Qualitative point symbolization

When data are available at a nominal (qualitative) scale of measurement, we can symbolize them with
differentiating visual variables. Here the visual variables of shape are used to form mimetic (pictorial)
symbols. If the map were printed in color, the visual variable of hue would also be a good choice for
symbol differentiation.

Qualitative area symbolization

Considering only nominally scaled attribute values, one can create effective area symbols using the visual
variable of shape which creates a pattern when repeated in the area. Some mimetic area patterns are so
standard that they must be used only that features. Like wise we are all familiar with standardized swamp,
desert and forest symbols.

Qualitative line symbolization

The primary visual variables of color and shape can be used to symbolize nominally scaled attributes of
line symbols. Shape of line symbols is defined as follows.

________________________

____ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___

____ . ____ . ____ . ____. ___

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

+ + + + + + + + + +

____ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___

Fig-8.1 Example of liens of differing characteristics which are useful of symbolization of nominal
linear data

Problems of representation qualitative data

1. Symbols for qualitative data are not always drawn to scale. When we put a small dot to show the
location of a town, the size of the dot does not have exact qualitative relation to the size of the
town. Consequently, all towns, big or small, are represented by the same symbol. Similarly a
symbol showing the location of mines has no relation to the size of the different mines.
2. Line symbols used for qualitative data have similar characteristics. The width of streams, roads,
rail ways or boundaries are not drawn to scale and their thickness is not necessarily based on their
importance measured in quantitative terms. A river drawn on a map may have a width of 1/15 th
 of an inch. The same river drawn on another map of the same scale may appear only 1/20 th of an
inch wide. Although political boundaries may be shown with liens having varying widths to
distinguish than as international, national state and local boundaries, their widths will not be in
proportion (quantitative) to their importance. Boundaries can also be shown by different lines
having the same width.
3. Area symbols showing qualitative values have the same characteristics. A forest area may be
shown any symbol (may be tree symbol) but his representation does not necessarily show the real
areal extent, nor does it show the density of the trees.
In general, we often read in some of the text books that the population density of a certain area is thin or
thick. The characteristics of density are also shown on maps. But such maps give only a qualitative value
which always remains a matter of dispute. Terms like much, less, high, Low, good, bad, hot, cold, rainy,
dry etc. give only qualitative values. Unless these terms are backed by quantitative measurements, they do
not mean the same to everyone.

Qualitative maps

There are three types of qualitative maps ( Misra and Ramesh, 1989)

1. General reference maps – most of the atlas maps that we see fall in this Category. These maps
specialize in giving locations of various places, political boundaries, and transport networks and
prominent physical features. Such maps are often called multiple – use maps because they give a
variety of information.
The purpose of these maps is to give as much information as possible without reducing the
legibility of the map. Too much of cluttering reduces legibility. In such maps no single item of
information is more important than the other. The general reference maps are of two types: Atlas
maps and wall maps. Atlas maps give more information than wall maps. Wall maps are made to
be seen from a distance, where as the atlas maps are to be read like a book. Because of this
differences wall maps give less of details but whatever is given very prominently.

2. Thematic maps – In this category are included most of the historical, political and cultural maps.
Some of the maps portraying socio-economic data are also qualitative in nature. Maps showing
the net works of transportation lines and irrigation canals can be given as examples of this type.
At times book illustrations show the crops or minerals produced in different areas by symbols.
These maps are not based on any quantitative value of area or production; they are designed to
give only locational information.
3. Pictorial maps – They are meant to show the distribution of various phenomena in popular way.

8.2. MAPPING QUANTITATIVE DATA (STATISTICAL MAPS)

This group of statistical maps includes those methods of statistical representation which, because they
stress the idea of location or spatial distribution, make use of a map as the basis of their construction. By
their nature they are essentially statistical maps, but they may be used in conjunction with other methods
of representation. Thus, in the foregoing section we discussed how qualitative data are represented on
maps. In this section we are going to deal with the methods of representing the quantitative data on maps.

For decades, cartographers have been using uniform point symbols as well as proportional or graduated
point symbols to portray data on maps. In the case of uniform point symbol, each point is assigned a
constant value and the same point is repeatedly plotted t represent the whole data referenced to a given
area. In proportional or graduated point symbol, the size of the point is varied to show different values.
In general, there are four ways of representing statistical data on the ma. They are dot maps, Isoclines,
Shading (choropleth) maps and flow maps.

8.2.1. Dot Maps

One of the simplest and most widely used types of distribution maps are the dot maps. Its simplicity is
attributable to the fact that basically it is a combination of two straight forward ideas. That is, the repeated
symbol, in this case a dot of uniform size and a dispersion map on which dots are placed location ally

Before we are going to discuss in detail, two words which are important for the location of dot maps have
to be raised

i. Distribution- a distribution map is essentially the representation of absolute or actual

quantities on a map; the dots used on the dot map are quantitative symbols each having a
specific and fixed value. Thus, it is possible to count the number of dots on this type of
map and then, multiplying by the dot value.
ii. A density map on the other hand is concerned with averages percentages or ratios. For
example, number of people or number of sheep or yield or rice per hectare. In other
words a relation ship between quantity and area, pre – supposing a uniform density
through out a given area.

How can one construct a dot map?

In construction a dot map so many problems faced both in preparation and drawing stages. Thus,
attention must be given for 4 problems that will present themselves.

a. The numerical value of the dot

b. The size of the dot
c. Dot location, and
d. How to draw dots on uniform size
Dot value: - The first question that has to be answered is for what one dot stands for. For example,
how may people? How many tones? What value? This will of course determined the number of dots
to be placed on the map. Too many dots will produce a map that is over crowded, especially in areas
of greater concentration; too few (if the dot value is too high) will give an equally wrong impression
(see figure-4.2 an 4.3)
Fig.8.2 A dot map in which the unit value
assigned to one dot is too small. May dots must
be drawn.
Source: Robinson et al p. 150
Fig.8.3 A dot map in which the
unit value assigned to one dot is
too large. Few dots can be drawn,
resulting in a barren map that
reveals little pattern
Source: Robinson et al p. 150

In deciding on the dot value attention must be given to the range of figures to be represented, as this will
directly affect both the value and the number of dots to be drawn. Thus, what conditions have to be done
to determine the value of the dot? In my own assumption it is better a quick trial map is prepared, though
not completely accurate. This will help us to achieve a great deal of success but it may consume labor and
time.

To determine the dot value let us take a simple example. Assume in the Amhara region there are 10,000
horses then how can we determine the dot value?

Necessary conditions

 Identify the number of horses in each administrative zone

 Assign each dot a definite number of horses.
 Say 1 dot represents 50 horses → this number is called the unit value of the dot
Thus, we assumed to represent the whole horses with 50 dots. Then, each dot represents 200 why? How?
Therefore, we have to plot 200 dots with in the entire political units of Amhara regional state.

b. Dot size

The size of the dot to be drawn (i.e., its diameter) must also be considered, but clearly, this can not be
decided in isolation- dot value and dot location must also be taken into account for. For obvious reasons
extremes of sizes must be a voided. In other words if a dot map is to convey a correct distributional
pattern, the size of the dot used and the unit value per dot must be carefully determined prior to mapping.
This means that the number and the size of the dots must be such that they convey a clear visual
impression of the differences in distribution, contrasting, as far as possible, areas of greater concentration
with areas of a more sparse or scattered nature (see figure4.4 an 4.5)

Fig-8.4. A dot map in which the individual
dots are so small that the distribution
appears sparse and insignificant
(Source: Robinson et al p. 150)
Fig-8.5. A dot map in which the individual
dots are so large that an excessively heavy
map is produced giving a wrong impression
that an abundant distribution exists.
(Source: Robinson et al p. 150)

Dot location

Two methods are possible in placing the dots

i. Having calculated the number of dots to be used, these are then distributed evenly
over the area concerned. It does, however, give a visual impression of comparative
densities and it is possible to construct a key indicating sample densities, but this is
not its purpose and is better represented by a shading (Chorpleth map).
ii. The second method taken into account not only the quantities to be represented but
also attempts to place the dots in their correct position on the map to give a more
accurate impression of the distribution. This can best be done by making use of first-
hand knowledge of the area, but in the absence of this, a reasonably accurate map can
be constructed by using information gathered from other maps of the area, for
example, maps depicting relief and drainage, geology, soils, vegetation, rainfall, land
use, communicated water supply and settlements. By analyzing and collating such
maps it is possible to concentrate dots in certain areas and to avoid others.
d. The drawing of the dot

The actual drawing of the dots often presents a very real problem. Preparation should first be made by
marking on the map the position of all the dots, very lightly, in pencil. The subsequent drawing of dots of
the correct size, circular and uniform in character but can not successfully is done with ordinary pen or
pencil. If available, dotting pens with round, flat tips of various sizes, may be used.

Probably the most satisfactory for the non- professional is to use fiber – or nylon- tipped pens which are
now reading and cheaply available. If used carefully, reasonable success can be achieved.

When we are drawing the dot map the following things must be considered

i. Drawing dots in high value areas always presents a problem

ii. The smaller the statistical area or unit, the more accurately can dots be placed
iii. The dot value should be kept as low as possible, provided that the map does not became so
over crowded as to impair its value as a distribution map.
iv. The key should include reference to the value of the dot and, a part from the title, a scale.
v. It is possible to show the distribution of two or 3 commodities of the same map by using dots,
but too many be a mistake to show too many commodities on the same map.
vi. The dot- value may also be calculated on a percentage basis. Explain the statement by your
own words (see figure 4.6)

Fig-8.6 A dot map in which the dot size and unit value were more wisely chosen

Advantages of dot methods

Many of the advantages of the dot maps have already been mentioned

 Its versatility and ability to illustrate spatial density.

 To show distribution and comparative densities
 Its ease of comprehension and its effectiveness in showing variations in distribution of a wide
variety of commodities especially in those areas where the distribution it self is uneven
 Its locational value depends on to a larger extent on the accuracy with which dots are placed
and on the density of the dots.
 It has a wide use
 More than one data set may be illustrated on the same map.
Possible disadvantages of dot mapping

 Dot maps on the other hand, suffer from several disadvantages a part from the deficiently
experienced in drawing the dots and the fact that they are not easily copied
 Locating the dots will reflect some biases such as subjective decision. Thus, rarely will two dot
maps using the same statistics be identical.
 Problems such as placing of one dot in a widely scattered area
 The fact that the area covered by the dot may not coincide with the actual area of production or
population
 The over crowding of dots in high value areas
 The incorrect impression that may be given by unwise choice of dot value or dot size.
8.2.2 Isolines Maps

One of the most widely used of statistical representation is isolines. Based on your previous knowledge
define the term isoline. Other terms used for this method are isopleths, isarithm and isometric lines, but as
there is no general agreement, the word isoline is used in this discussion because it is the simplest and
easiest to understand. The word isos is a Greek word which means equal. For specialized purposes special
terms are used such as isotherms (equal temperature), isobar (equal pressure), isohyets (rainfall), isoneph
(cloudiness), and isobaths (ocean depths), etc. Contour lines which, like the fore going are also isolines
retain the name by which they have long been known.

How can one construct isoline maps?

I. A base map having some many stations has to be available.

II. The second- step should be identifying the critical values. Besides, the extent and range of
the values to be represented have to be given more emphasis in the drawing of isoline maps.
III. The 3rd step should be determining the value of intervals. For example, 20, 40, 60, 80…. or on
a geometrical progression often used for population maps such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…. or on
natural breaks or gaps in a frequency distribution could be used to determine the intervals.
IV. In the fourth step smooth flowing lines are drawn in accordance with the intervals chosen,
joining all points of equal value. If it is necessary to insert an isoline when sufficient statistics
are not available on the map interpolation is possible. Interpolation can be done through the
assessment of the distance of an interpolated point from two adjacent points may be
calculated by joining the two points with a straight line and plotting (placing) the interpolated
point proportionally on that line (although in practice this is usually done by eye). For this
purpose it is generally assumed that the increase or decrease between the two adjacent points
is at a uniform rate.
After we completed the drawing of isoline maps we have to take care of the following information.

i. Coloring or shading between isolines assists in interpretation of the map and serves to draw
attention to the spaces or areas between the lines rather than to the lines themselves.
ii. Isolines should be numbered if coloring or shading is not employed (in which case a key is
necessary). values can be written either
1. By breaking the isoline
2. Or on the isoline so that the top of the number is nearest to an isoline of the higher value (
see Figure 4.7 )

Fig-8.7. Location of point value, Isarithm and Finalized Isarithm map respectively

In addition to the uses indicated above, isolines are also used to represent averages, percentiles or ratios.
For example, an average density figure, which has been calculated for a particular area or region may,
because it is a representative of the whole be regarded as the center of that area, the figure can then be
plotted in a central position with in the area in the same way as individual values were plotted above. As
with dot maps it is possible to make use of local knowledge in the placing of average figures.

Advantages and disadvantages of isoline maps

In the representation of quantities and their spatial distribution, few other methods are capable of a wider
range of use than isolines. Where ever, it is necessary to indicate places or points of equal value, whether
in absolute terms or as percentages, averages or ratios provided the statistical information is sufficiently
comprehensive; it is almost always possible to represent them by an isoline map. It is especially useful in
mapping climatic data, but its use is by no means confined to this.

The fact that isoline maps can be superimposed on other types of maps with out obsecuring too much
detail. Thus distribution of population could be super imposed on relief, yield /ha of crops on soils and so
on. But an isoline maps are liable to give the incorrect impression that increase or decrease between one
isoline and the next is at uniform rate. This can be evidenced by an examination of a small scale isoline
map such as world population.

8.2.3 Choropleth (shading) maps

It should be noted that shading can be employed in a wide range of maps, to which the general name of
charpoleth maps is often given. The term is derived from Greek words- choros area or space and plethos:
multitude or number – as a reminded that such maps quantitative areal maps, the basis of which is a
relationship between quantities and area.

Although the commonest form of chorpleth map is one showing density (of population), it can also be
used for other aspects of ratios, for averages and percentages. The term density has to be interpreted as
those maps which depict average numerical values in relation to units of area.

What are the methods of construction choropleth maps?

Necessary conditions to the construction chorpoleth maps include

1. Calculate the average densities for each statistical unit as required.

2. Choose and draw the grades or scales of densities to be used For example, 200-249,
250-299,300-349--------
3. Indicate lightly in pencil on the map the grade of shading or coloring to be used for
each statistical unit
4. Shade or color the map, erasing figures etc, but leaving boundary lines. Conditions
that have to be considered in drawing charopleth maps.
a. Shading should show a progressive increase in density.
b. Two different systems of shading can be distinguished quantitative and non – quantitative. The
later as its name indicates do not take into account variations in density but represents different
categories by different methods of shading, coloring or indicative symbols. Thus, non –
quantitative shading is not included here.
c. The range of values may be divided into groups by various methods such as
 Simple arithmetic progression may be used as 1-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, etc.
 A geometrical progression may be used such as 1-20, 21-40, 41-80, 81-160 etc.
 Scale values often used in density of population maps are 0-64, 64-128, 128-256, etc.
 It is also possible to choose irregular intervals but this should only be used if the intention
is to draw attention to significant irregularities in distribution; a dispersion graph is useful
to analyze such groupings.
d. Variations in density can also be shown by proportional shading, that is, by drawing horizontal
lines closer together to represent increase in density or by retaining the same number of lines of a
uniform distance a part but increasing the width of the line
e. Do not attempt to show variations in density merely by drawing lines at different angles. For
example, horizontal, diagonal or vertical. But differences in density must be represented by
differences of shading also.
 f. Coloring can be used instead of shading. In such cases, shades of the same color are preferably
and care must be taken to avoid jumping from one color to the next. A gradual transition from
grade to grade must aimed at.
g. Use of the key can be made easier if boxes are drawn individually.
h. The key should be completed, that is, all grades of shading should be included in the key, even
though it may not be necessary to make use of all grades on a particular map.
i. Chorpoleth maps may also be used to show increase or decrease in, for example, population
densities average yields/ ha over a period of time, ratio of cultivated to uncultivated land, or any
other statistical information in the form of averages or percentages. Using the same shading
scheme as before for both increases and decreases a distinction between the two can be made by
shading, for instance, increase in red, decrease in blue( see Fig-4.8).
In general, besides most of the advantages indicated above choropleth maps have also some
disadvantages such as

i Boundaries of statistical units may assume under prominence and significance suggesting that
population densities, for example, change abruptly at the boundary.

ii. Despite its appearance, it must not be assumed that densities are uniform through out any statistical
unit.

Generally speaking, the smaller the statistical unit the more accurate will be the map.

Fig-8.7 Choropleth map

8.2.4 Flow maps

So far we discussed about statistical maps concerning quantity and time with a fixed location we now turn
into a form of statistical represent at that is primarily concerned with changes in location, that is, the flow
maps. The purpose of the flow map is to represent movement from one place to another. For instance it
may show the movement of good from area of production to market or point of export by rail, air, road or
water. The direction of flow is indicated by a line the amount by width of the line and the character
usually by coloring or shading of various types.

It is important to remember that this is not an areal representation. In this case the width of a line is an
important factor because the length of the flow line shows the direction of movement and the distance
involved but has no significance as far as quantities are concerned (see Fig 4.8).

How can one construct a flow map?

Important considerations in the construction of flow maps

1. The width of the flow line must be proportional the quantity or value of the commodity to be
represented. In this case, extremes of width, that is, too great or too small must be avoided.
2. The flow line can be drawn by solid line of varying width with the help of a scale or it can be shown
by a line chosen from a series of graduated band- widths, each band with representing a range of
values with in the total range, or it can also be drawn as a series of parallel lines of uniform width,
each line representing a fixed quantity.
3. In drawing the flow line on the base map, it is not necessary to follow all the twisting and bending,
of a road or a rail way. The line superimposed on the route, sharp angles and bends being rounded of
to give a generalized impression of the route followed.
4. The meeting place of various flow lines (for example, market, town, bus station, parts of import and
export and so on) can be shown by various methods. The easiest method is to bring all liens to meet.
This will result in an irregular shaped nucleus but as we are concerned with the movement of
commodities and not representing the meeting place, this is acceptable. The meeting place of flow
line can be represented by any convenient size of circles.
5. Color can be used to great advantage to represent different categories of commodities to distinguish
imports and exports.
6. Factual information may also be written on the flow line or along side it.
Fig- 8.8. Flow map

Advantages and disadvantages of flow line

This method of representing flow or movement has a wide variety of uses of practical value. It is, indeed
the only method of representing movement in common use and is capable of many refinements and
modifications.

Its disadvantages lies in its lack of immediate or exact interpretation, although it gives a visual impression
which is realistic and effective, while statistical information may be added on the map.

Activity 8.4

_________________________________________________________

What are the preconditions for the drawing of qualitative or quantitative maps?

___________________________________________________________________

So many things have to be considered when we are drawing maps. As usual clarity is one of the
conditions for the drawing of any maps. Besides, different kinds of pencils, ruler, eraser, and others are
also significant. More over, attitudes towards drawing maps and skills of drawing maps are also
paramount importance
Exercise 8.1

___________________________________________________________________

1. What are the methods of representing quantitative data on maps?

2. What are the methods of representing qualitative data on maps
3. A choropleth map represents quantitative geographical data
using___________________________

____________________________________________________

8.3. Check List

Dear students, now you will evaluate your progress in this unit. Please put a tick mark on the question
that you are going to answer

1. Can you now define a chropleth map?

2. Can you able to define dot maps and flow maps

3. Are you able to construct isarithmic and flow mapping fro a given data?

4. Are you able to state the main difference between isogram and flow maps?

8.4. SUMMARY

Under this unit, a thorough discussion has been made on qualitative and quantitative data. In general
conditions there are three classes of qualitative data. They are point symbols, line symbols and area
symbols. Some problems will arise when qualitative data is represented. For example, symbols for
qualitative data are not always drawn to scale. Moreover, area symbols showing qualitative values have
the same characteristics. A forest area may be shown any symbol but this representation does not
necessarily show the real areal extent, nor does it show the density of the trees. On the other hand
quantitative data as the name indicates are statistical maps. These methods of data representation stress on
location or spatial distribution a basis for their construction. In general there are four ways of representing
quantitative data on maps. They are dot maps, isolines, flow maps and shading

( chropoleth maps)

UNIT 9
MEASUREMENT OF AREAS AND DISTANCES ON
MAPS

CONTENTS

9.1 MEASUREMENT OF AREAS ON MAPS 119

9.2 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES ON MAPS 124

Objectives

At the end of the lesson the students will be able

- compare and contrast straight line distances and curved line distances

- calculate with their own the actual distances of the ups and downs of the relief of the land on the map

- measure the area of irregular shaped figures on the map

- calculate the area of their respective classroom

Resources

To complete your study of this unit you need to refer the books written by:
Robinson et. al. (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Turaan, H.C. (1985). A Practical guide to statistical maps and diagrams. Heinman Educational
books , London

9.1 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES ON MAPS

What are the instruments used for the measurement of distance?

Instruments used for measurement of distance are:

i. Pair of dividers to measure straight line distance

ii. Straight edge of paper
iii. Variety of compasses
 iv. Scale of the map is also important

Are there any rules for the measurement of actual distance on the map?

Rules for the measurement of Distances on the map are

1. For any exercise, if distance is asked for, it is always the real (actual) distance that is needed and
not any distance on the map. Obtaining the answer to any questions concerning distances in map
work, therefore, always involve the changes of any distance obtained through measurement on
the map to real distances in the field with the help of the scale.
Focus

Don’t give the answer like this. “The distance from Bahir Dar to Addis Ababa is 5,600,000 cm”

Say like this---- “The distance from Bahir Dar to Addis Ababa is 560 km.”

This shows that distances on the map are measured in centimeters and fractions thereof, but distance out
in the field are given in kilometers and fractions. As indicated above, do not put your answer in
centimeters. You are asked to put your answer by changing in to kilometers based on the given scale.

2. All distances obtained through measurements on maps and the use of the scale only are called
map distances. Such distances do not take in to consideration the ups and downs of the earth’s
surface which constitute the actual or field distance.
Focus

If the question does not contain the word FIELD distance or actual distance in the field it is the map
distance needed to be calculated.

Fig.9. 1. The relationship between field distance and Map distance

Different types of distances obtained through Measurements and calculations

1. Measurement of distances along a straight line

This type of measurement some times referred as the “Crow flies” because crow is a bird flying straightly
like an airplane. In this case map distances between two points could be calculated and it can be obtained
directly by using a ruler and the scale of the map.

Example: Calculate the distance from A to B on the map.

 ●B

A•

Fig-9.2. Calculation of distances

Steps

i. Draw a straight line joining point A and B on the map

ii. Measure the distance from A to B with the help of a ruler
iii. Change the paper distance into ground (real) distance with the help of a scale.

Solutions

5cm

Fig-9.3. Calculation of distances

The distance from A to B on the paper by using a ruler is equal to 5 cm.

Therefore, ground distance can be calculated using the formula given below

GD= Paper distance X Scale of the map

100,000
N.B. We divided the result by 100, 000 to change the calculated centimeter in to kilometer (1km =
100,000 cm).

Then, GD = 5 x 50,000

100,000

= 2.5 km

Activity 9.1

_______________________________________________________

From the map of Ethiopia calculate the straight (crow fly) distance between Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa.

2. Measurement of distances along curved or bending lines.

Dear learners, this kind of measurements are frequently used and more applicable. Distances along a
winding road or river must be broken down into a series of short straight line measurement, from
bend to bend. Distances measured in this method are roads, railways, rivers and boundaries of any
countries. Very common instruments used are a piece of strong cotton or thread. More commonly a
straight edge of a piece of paper could be used and practically more applicable. Questions asked in
this type of measurement are like this. “What is the distance along the road or river or railway from x
to yon the map?”

Example- What is the distance along the road from A to B on the map?

A B
Fig -9.4. Measurement of distance along the road

In this case we need a map distance not field distance, though it seems a field distance. Here, it is not
simple like the crow fly distance, but by using different methods we have to change in to a straight line
distance. The problem now facing the map reader is how to measure the length of a curved line with the
help of a straight ruler? Traditionally most books recommend using a string method. But string method is
not accurate as well as it is not an easy one and should be there for not be used commonly. In addition to
this, it is also time consuming.

Dear learners, the most accurate method would be to use a map measure. But this method is expensive
and not available for most students and instructors. Students, a satisfactory result can be obtained with
the help of the edge of plain sheet of paper. Therefore, to measure the actual distance along the road from
A to B, we have to follow those steps indicated below strictly.

i. Divide the road section A-B by light pencil and mark in to portions that are nearly straight
ii. Car fully measure each of these sections with dividers recording each distance, or transfer the
sections directly to the edge of a piece of paper.
iii. Using a ruler or directly with the help of a graphic scale find the total distance between the points of
the dividers, or by now it has been changed to a straight line along the edge of the slip of paper.
iv. Finally, by using a scale you can calculate the real distance along the road from
A to B.

Solution

A B

Fig-9.5. Measurement of distance along the road Ato B

Assume the distance along the road from A to B is 5.3 cm. Based on the scale, therefore, the actual
distance along the road could be
 Pd .xScale 5.3 x100,000
MD = GD = 100,000 = 100,000 = 5.3 km

It is possible that the graphic scale could be used to find the distance between the two points A and B
directly with the help of a scale and the edge of the paper only. With the point A and B clearly marked on
the edge of the paper put the slip of paper, as shown, along the scale. Make sure that A has to be placed to
the left side where as B has to be placed at the right side of the scale. This means that B can be read as
‘full kilometer while A is can be read as fractions /parts of km.

Read path of km here

Read full km here

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A B

Fig-9.6. Measurement with the help of graphic scale

Activity 9.2

________________________________________________________________________

1. From any map of Ethiopia measure and calculate the distance along the road from

i. Bahir Dar to Gondar

ii. Bahir Dar to Addis Ababa
iii. Railway distance from Addis to Djibouti
________________________________________________________________________

Field Distances

As discussed before, field distances account for the ups and downs of the earth’s surface. Field distance
like that of straight line distance can not be obtained with this simple measurement but it needs some
combined calculation. Dear learners! What are the necessary conditions for the calculation of field
distance?

Necessary conditions for the calculation of field distances are

a) The map distance /measurement distance/ between two points concerned (MA)
b) The difference in altitude between the two points (AD) altitude difference can be obtained with
the help of contour maps. Of course, it is not the right place to define contours, but to give some
hint …..Contour is an imaginary line joining all points which have the same altitude with fixed
height interval above seal level. In this regard you will learn more about contour in detail in the
next unit. For the time being remember only that a contour line helps us to get the altitude of a
place. Try to use any of the maps present in this material to find the altitude of points with the
help of contour lines.

Students, in this case a question should be asked like this which is different from straight line distance and
curved line distance. “What is the actual distance in the field between the points x and y on the map”?
After calculating the two necessary conditions (MD and AD) the next step is the application of
Pythagoras theorem. This theorem has been used because of the sides form roughly a right angle triangle.
The formula for a right angle triangle = C2 = A2 + B2

Now it is possible to change this in to Field Distance by substituting

C = FD A = MD B = AD

Therefore, according to Pythagoras theorem field distance is equal to

FD2 = MD2 + AD Or A2 + B2 = C2
Example: Calculate the field distance between A and B

2700
2900
B 2900
B
2500

Field distance
6.5 cm

A 400m

Map distance

Fig-9.7. View on the map Fig-9.8. Illustration how to calculate the field
distance between A and B
Steps

1. Calculate the horizontal distance (MD)

2. Find the difference in altitude before A and B.
3. Use the formula and calculate the field distance between two points

Solution

MD = Paper distance x Scale

100,000

= 6.5 x 50,000

100,000

= 3.25 km

AD = 2900 – 2500 (the unit is meter, because contour is given always in meter).

= 400m or 0.4 km

Therefore, FD2 = MD2 + AD2

FD2 = 3.252 + 0.42

FD2 = 10.7225

FD = 3.27 km

Activity 9.3

______________________________________________________________

1. With the same map calculate the field distance along the road from A to B?

_________________________________________________________________

In general, measurement along a line with the help of edge of paper is satisfactory for short distances, but
over longer distances errors are likely to occur as there will be bends in the roads and the rivers that the
map maker was unable to show because of the limitations of scale. Rail way distances generally involve
less difficulty since most railways follow more direct routes involving fewer bends and no sharp changes
in direction.
A handy inexpensive map-measurer (the opisometer) can be obtained from most books shops and
stationeries. This consists of a small wheel with counting dial calibrated in meters and kilometers. A
pointer ticks up the distances as the measure is wheeled over the map. Always check the setting of the
dial by first running over the scale line. If there is a discrepancy between the number on the dial and the
values given on the scale line, then after taking your measurements from the map run back the pointer to
zero along the scale-line, noting from the scale-line the distance traveled.

Activity 9.4

Calculate the following

a. The distance along the round from Deber Markos to Addis Ababa
b. The international boundary of Ethiopia
c. the length of Abbay river
d. Airplane flight from Addis Ababa to Djibouti
___________________________________________________________________
9.2 MEASUREMENT OF AREAS

Area is the direct function of distance. A map reader may be asked to find the area of two different types
of piece of land: Areas with regular shapes and areas with irregular shapes. To put in another way, if one
wants to wish to calculate the area of land or sea, or perhaps lake shown on the map simple graphic
methods can be employed. The procedures of how to get the area of irregular and regular shaped figures
are different.

Regular shaped figures

These include squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, etc. From geometry you should know the formulae
for calculating the area of these figures when you know the necessary facts about them (Sides, base,
height, etc). These facts are obtained through measurements on the map.

Activity 9.5

________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the area of your classroom

_______________________________________________________________________

Steps for calculating regular shaped figures (assume your classroom is rectangle).

1. Measure the side (Length) of the room using meter.

2. Measure the side (width) of the room using meter
3. Calculate the area using a formula, that is, L x W= M2.

A C

1: 50,000
 Fig-9.9 How to find the area of the figure

B D

Steps

1. Measure A to C in cm
2. Measure C to D in cm
3. Change the length and width in meter or kilometer based on the scale
4. Finally apply the formula and calculate the area of the room

Areas of irregular shape

Most areas to be measured from maps are however, irregular in shape. An instrument known as plani
meter will help you to measure the area of irregular shape figures on the map. You can also use the
following methods to find the areas of irregular shapes with out using sophisticated instruments.

i) The geometrical figures method

In the first case what should be done is drawing regular shaped figures approximately covers the area
wanted. Not that the regular shaped figures can be drawn in such a way (by approximation) that the parts
of the figure that are out side to the drawn figure are equal to the areas inside the drawn figure that are not
part of the figure.

This means that we can draw geometrical figures by balancing areas left out side and areas included out
of the boundary of irregular shapes you want to find as shown in

Fig- 5.10 ( a). Then you can find the area of each geometrical figure with the help of the scale (1:50,000).

Area of rectangle one (R1) = Length X width

= 2.45 km X 1.3km

= 3.185 km2

Area of rectangle two (R2) = 1.1km X 0.2 km

= 0.22 km2

1
Area of triangle on (T1) = 2 base x height

1
= 2 x 0.6km x 1.45km
 = 0.435km2

1
Area of triangle two (T2) = 2 x b x h

1
= 2 x 0.8km x 0.75km

= 0.3km2

The total area of the irregular shape

= 3.185km2 + 0.22km2 + 0.435 km2 + 0.3km2

= 4.140km2

ii. The strip method

By now it is possible to cover the area of irregular shape with strips of known width. In other way round,
use strips of equal width instead of squares in the succeeding example. The give-and take principle is
applied in the same way to both ends of each strip but it is easier to apply, because the broken areas are so
much smaller. To obtain the total area, add together the lengths of all the strips and multiply by the width
of one strip.

Example-

Calculate the area of the Figure-5.10 (c) by using strip method

N.B The total length of the strips and the width of the strips are in centimeter, and change then in to km
based on the scale (1:50,000).

The total length of the strips in cm =

1.3+2.2+2.8+3.5+3.60+3.2+3.0+3.16+3.4+3.07+3.29+1.3

= 33.43cm
As we discussed earlier actual distance must be given in km. Therefore, the actual distance of the total
length of the strips is equal to

If 1cm = 0.5km

33.43cm = ?

= 16.715 km

As indicated, the width for all the strips is the same, that is, 5mm (0.5cm). If we change the width in to
km based on the scale it becomes 0.25km.

Finally, the area of the irregular shape according to this method

= total length of the strips X width of a strip

= 16.715km X 0.25 km

= 4.179km2

iii). Square method

The area of an irregular shape can be found by transferring the area on the millimeter or centimeter or by
covering the area with squares of a known size as shown in Fig -5.10 (b).

Necessary conditions

1. Cover the area with small squares of known size

2. Scale must be given
3. Count full squares, half squares, quarter squares
4. Then change in to cm2 based on the area of a single square

If for example, a single square on the map has a side of ½ cm its area = ½cm x ½cm (½cm) 2= ¼ cm2

Assume - Full square is equal to 42

- Half square is equal to 15

 - Quarter is equal to 4

The areas of squares will be

- Full square = 42x ¼ cm2 = 10.5cm2

- Half square = 15 x ½ x ¼ cm2 = 1.88cm2
- Quarter square = 4 x ¼ x ¼ = 0.25cm2

Total areas on the paper

= 10.5cm2 + 1.88cm2 + 0.25cm2

= 12.63cm2

Finally if 1cm2 = 0.25 km2 → areal scale

12.63 cm2 = ?

= 3.1 km2

Another example

Look the Fig -5.10 and try to estimate the actual area of the figure. As you did there are 32 full squares
and 20 squares made up from fractions.

The side of one full square in cm is 0.6 cm and its area is equal to (0.6)2 = 0.36cm2 therefore the area of
32 full squares

= 32 x 0.36cm2 = 11.52cm2

¾ square = 12 x ¾ x 0.36cm2 = 3.51cm2

½ square = 8 x ½ x 0.36cm2 = 1.44cm2

Total = 15.84cm2

Areal Scale = 1cm2 = 0.25km2

16.47cm2

= 4.117km2
N.B. Though the methods are many the results are the same. Dear students, you can use for the methods
which seem simple for you, but all the steeps have to be done with great care other wise exaggerated
results may appear and leads to wrong conclusions.

Fig-9.10 Measurement of irregular shapes

Worked examples

1. If a perfect square has an area of exactly one ha, what are the dimensions of that square? 1 ha =
10,000m2
Because it is a square and area = s2

Area = 10,000m2
 Then the side will be

10,000m 2
= 100m

Therefore, the dimensions of the square = 100m x 100m.

2 A perfect square having an area exactly 1 km2 would of course, have dimensions of one by one
km, what would be the dimensions of a perfect square whose area is 100km2.

Answer = 1000m 2 = 10km, that is 10km x 10km

3 . Assume our map is at a scale of 1:250,000 and circle is used to depict the amount of forest by area.
The procedures are as follows. In certain province there are 100km2 of forested area, if the circle is to
be used.
Area = ∏r2 = 100km2

r2 = 100km2

r = 5.64 km

The circle will not be on the ground but on the map at a scale of 1 cm = 2.5km

Therefore, 1 cm = 2.5km

? = 5.64km

= r = 2.26cm

The area of the circle on the paper in cm2 is equal to ∏ x (2.26cm) 2 = 16cm2

UNIT 10

RELIEF FEATURES ON MAPS

Cartographers have always been keenly interested in portraying the landform. The surface of the earth is
characterized by a variety of different heights or altitudes. Relief is the difference in altitude and surface
structure of the surface of the earth. Until recently, they did not have accurate elevation data on which to
base their representations. In the western world, such measurements have come only in the last two
centuries. As late as 1807, the heights of only about 60 mountains had actually been measured.
The story of how terrain portrayal developed is a search for suitable methods. The problem has been that
the most effective visual techniques did not give precise terrain information. Likewise, methods that gave
accurate terrain values were the least effective visually. Cartographers constantly sought ways to balance
these opposing conditions.

10.1 OLD METHODS OF RELIEF REPRESENTATION

Early terrain representations on small-scale maps showed only undulations of great magnitude. These
depictions consisted of crude stylized drawings of hills and mountains (Figure. 10.1 ).

Figure.10.1. Portraying of hills and mountains (Source: Robinson et. al.!995)

From the 15th to 18th centuries landform portrayal developed along with landscape painting of the period.
Thus, perspective like, oblique, or birds eye views for limited areas became popular. Beginning in the 16 th
century, lines connecting points of equal elevation (isarithms) were used by Dutch, and later French,
engineers and cartographers. They first used isarithms to portray forms of the underwater surface. Later,
they used isarithms to show the dry-land configuration of the earth’s surface. These lines on land came to
be known in English as contour lines.

Another metric method became known in 1799 when Johann Georg Lehmann, an Austrian army officer,
systematized the use of short linear symbols. These symbols were called hachure in English and French.

During the 18th century, the great topographic surveys of Europe were initiated. Landform portrayal
shifted from the oblique to the plan view (looking straight down). Symbols were developed to show the
landform without planimetric displacement. Another advance came when lithography was developed
early in the 19th century. It thus became easy to produce continuous tonal variations or shading. Shading
stimulated the appearance of the irregular land surface. Shading stimulated the appearance of the irregular
land surface. These developments helped by perfection of the airbrush, led to a surge of interest by
cartographers in hill shading.
At the same time, people began to understand the profound effects of elevation upon temperature,
vegetation, etc. Once they realized elevations importance, they began to collect accurate altitude data. For
the first time, cartographers could map precise elevation figures. Thus, contouring, which gives
measurable information, emerged as a dominant landform portrayal method.

However, contouring and hill shading could not satisfy all the needs for showing landforms on maps,
particularly at small scales. As early as the first half of the 19 th century, cartographers began to
experiment other methods. The can be categorized into three general groups- perspective pictorials
portrayals, morphometric maps, and terrain unit maps. They are discussed below after giving a short
remark about computers.

The later third of the 20th century brought computers, space-born cameras, and electronic sensors of high
metric accuracy. These combined to provide cartographers with good data and new possibilities for
landform portrayal. Digital terrain model data and images are quickly surpassing conventional contouring
and hill shading for maps produced by automation and appearing on a computer screen.

Frequently a digital terrain model is used as a base to form a perspective surface upon which raster-based
image data are draped. Map-readers can rotate or tilt the resulting view in whatever way they wish. They
can also extract precise information. This approach is revolutionizing landform portrayal.

Now let us see the three general groups of landform portrayal. They include:

1. Perspective pictorial maps: These are pictorial representations of landforms. In the last 30 years,
the computers ability to manipulate landforms has added greatly to terrain visualization methods.
There are three types of perspective pictorial maps. They are block diagrams, oblique regional
views, and schematic maps. Let us see block and physiographic diagrams in detail.
Block diagrams

Block diagrams are pictorial representation of relief as if you are viewing a block of the earth’s crust from
an oblique vantage point. It is a reduced replica of reality, which is remarkably graphic (Figure.10.2).
They show structural relations of subsurface formations. They are usually restricted to small segment of
the earth.
Figure.10.2 . Block diagram (Source: Robinson: 1995)

To day, block diagrams are easily produced by computer driven plotters. Consequently, almost any kind
of surface distribution may be readily displayed on a perspective landform base. The viewing distance,
elevation, and oblique angle of view are easily adjusted. Map users can take a tour through, over, and
under the portion of the portrayed in the block diagram.
Physiographic diagram

From block diagrams and oblique views other map types have come. They are called schematic maps.
These maps combine the perspective view of undulations of the land and the planimetric (two-
dimensional) precision of conventional maps. On schematic maps, the pictorial treatment of the landform
is highly symbolic. One type of schematic map is physiographic diagram (Figure.10.3). On such maps,
cartographers attempt to relate landforms to their geology and geomorphology. They do so by varying
value (darkness) and texture. Thus, they suggest the major structural and rock-type differences, which
have expression in the landforms.

Figure.10.3 Physiographic diagram (Source: Robinson et. al 1995)

Activity 10.1

1. What are the similarities between block and physiographic diagrams?

2) Morphometric Maps

Morphometric maps are maps that give structural information about the landform. This information
includes average elevations, slope categories, relative relief, degrees of dissection, and so on. This
information is correlated with variations in human activity and may be used as background data in place
of the simple elevations shown on general reference maps.

The ability to create contour, aspect, and slope maps from digital terrain model data forms the modern
basis for morphometric analyses. The portrayal of such data is straight forward. Area symbols may be
used to reinforce either isarithms or dasymetric lines. Color variations on the screen allow cartographers
to highlight any desired statistic relating to the land surface form. The two types of morphometric maps
are slope zone map and slope direction or aspect map.

Slope zone map is useful type of morphometric map. It shows categories of slopes in several ways. For
instance, they may show slopes in forms of average gradients, degrees of inclination, or percentage
slopes. They may also designate areas by such terms as flat, gently sloping, steep, and so on (Table ).
Slope zone maps are useful in evaluating relations between kinds of soil erosion, such as mudslides,
gullying or runoff rates. It is easier to make such evaluations with maps showing different categories of
slopes than from maps showing only elevations. They could be developed in either small- scale or large-
scale.

Table-10.1Category of slopes

Category of slope %
1 Flat 0-2
2 Gently sloping 2-6
3 Sloping 6-13
5 Moderately steep 13-25
6 Steep 25-55
7 Very steep >55

3) Terrain unit maps

The terrain unit method uses descriptive terms to give map users an idea of an area’s landform. The
terrain unit may be mountain, hills, or plains. They may be also residual, topographic descriptions such as
maturely dissected hill land. Terrain unit methods are essentially forms of dasymetric mapping. That
means the lines bounding the area symbols have no meaning other than being zones of change. Hachures,
contours, layer tinting and hill shading are used to represent terrain unit.

Hachures

Hachures are short lines drawn close together to represent an area’s landform. Each line is drawn in the
direction of greatest slope. They are drawn at right angles to the contours. The widths of these hachures
are proportional to the steepness of the slopes on which they lie. The steeper the slope, thicker is the line.
The sense of down or up is not shown. Thus, on some map, it is difficult to tell whether a blank area is a
flat, upland or lowland.

The use of hachures turned out to be particularly useful on large-scale topographic military maps. For
much of the 19th century, hachuring was widely employed. On hachure maps, we can assume the light
source to be orthogonal to the map or on one side. Figure.10.4 show examples of hachures. Nowadays,
hachures are used only in rare cases in association to contour maps. They indicate minor landforms that
fall in between the vertical intervals of the contours.
Figure-104 Hachure (Source: Roselius: 1980)

10.2. MODERN METHODS OF RELIEF REPRESENTATION

Contouring is the most precise and modern way to give elevation information to map-readers. Contours
are lines connecting points of equal elevation. They are isarithms. Generally, contours are not visible on
the land. They are traces that result from passing parallel, equally spaced, horizontal surfaces through the
three-dimensional land surface and projecting these traces orthogonally to the map surface. The elevation
of points used in the drawing of contour lines is measured with respect to datum. Datum in this case is the
mean sea level. Mean sea level is the average of high and low tides at a location over a 19 years period.
Contours present a less dramatic visualization of the landform surface than hill shading. Nevertheless,
they provide an immense amount of information to the skilled map analyst and interpreter. For analytical
purposes, therefore, contouring is by far the most useful way of portraying the landform.

The principle underlying contouring can best be understood if you imagine an island amidst an ocean
whose water level fluctuates to submerge and uncover the island. If successive lines are drawn along the
water levels at different heights of the island at different times, the contour lines will appear.

To give you another example, assume a big glass into which a model of a mountain. Then place a vertical
scale in the dish. Assume that the bottom of the dish on which the model rests represent the sea level
(datum). Add water until it reaches the first mark on the scale and drop a bit of white point into the water.
This will leave a trace of paint along all points at which the model intersects with the surface of the water.
You can now make one contour line by tracing all points along the white mark with a pencil. Then add
more water until it fills up to the second mark of the scale and trace the second contour line. Do the same
until the whole model is submerged. Finally, drain the water out and photograph from above the model
mountain with all contour marks. This view now gives you a contour map.
Figure-10.5 Model mountain and contour lines (Source: Roselius: 1980)

We believe that you have now understood the theoretical aspect of contour drawing. From this discussion,
we hope that we cannot practically cover the earth with water to determine the position of the contour
lines to draw the contour map of all or a part of the earth. Other practical method has to be found.

The traditional way of making contour maps is based on elaborate measurements in the field. It involves
first the finding of numerous points spaced regularly over the area to be mapped. The next step is actual
drawing of the contour map using these point measurements.

Contour Intervals

The usefulness of contours depends on their vertical spacing. Yet the choice of contour interval is not an
easy task. Cartographers must play detail against space available to show contours on the map. As
contour interval is increased, more surface detail is lost between contours. Sometimes, because of small
scale or lack of data, contour intervals must be excessive. In such cases, contours can only approximate
the surface form. In these cases, it may be better to use other methods of presentation, such as hill
shading. If you do come across a small-scale contour map, you should be suspicious of its accuracy.
Avoid using such maps for detailed interpretation and analyses.

The cartographer has to consider several factors to decide the contour interval. The factors are:-

1. The landform data should be accurate and complete. The better the data, the small the vertical
interval will be.
2. The purpose of the map is also important consideration. A very large-scale topographic map, to
be used for engineering and planning, requires a very small contour interval. A small-scale
 regional map, on which only major land-surface forms are needed, can be effective with a
relatively large contour interval.
3. The map scale is the other consideration. On a small-scale map, if we make the contour interval
very small, there will be unwanted contour lines crowding.
4. The relief of the land may also influence the vertical interval to be used. Areas having high
relative relief area can be given higher vertical interval. But, areas with low relative relief can
have smaller vertical interval. Nevertheless, this creates inconvenience. For example, the
calculation and visualization of slopes become difficult. Thus, it is desirable to maintain a
regional consistency in contour intervals whenever possible. For example, the topographical maps
of Ethiopia having a scale of 1: 50 000 has a contour interval of 20 meters.

One way to help attain such consistency is to use supplementary contours. These contours are usually
established at a simple fraction of the basic interval. Supplementary contours are particularly useful on
floodplains and other areas of low relief when the basic interval for the rest of the map is too large to
delineate minor forms that are significant locally such as natural levees and banks.

Choosing contour intervals and adding supplementary contours are problems associated with the rigidity
of traditional maps. Digital cartography can help us solve these problems. For example, digital methods
give us the ability to change easily contour intervals.

Drawing of contour lines

Figure-6.6 shows the result of a systematic location of spot heights in a certain area. Note that the spot
heights are transferred to the map and marked in their proper positions according to scale.

Figure-10.6 Spot heights

Can you draw contour lines with a vertical interval of 100 meters in Figure-10.6 ? Where the contour
lines exactly should pass can be found out by interpolation. Interpolation is a procedure for the careful
positioning of the contour lines (in this case) in relation to the values of the data points. The following
procedure for drawing of contour lines is a good example. The procedures are:

1. In the southern margin, there is one spot height of 300 meters. This will be our starting point. In
order to draw the contour line of 300 meters, the contour line must pass through this point.
2. For the continuation of this contour line, we should look into the surrounding of this point to find
two spot heights in which we can get 300 meters attitude. The only two points fulfilling this
requirement are spot heights of 530 and 185. A point with an altitude of 300 meters will be at
proportionate distance between these two points.
3. Join the points of 350 and 185 with a straight line and measure the length of it. It is 28 mm. The
difference in altitude between the two points is 350-185 = 165 m.
4. The contour line of 300 meters should pass below point 350 and above 165. Point 300 has a
difference of 50 m from point 350. Point 300 has also a difference of 115m from point 185.
5. Now based on these altitude differences, you can calculate the proportionate distance.

50
 28mm
The distance of point 300 = 165

from point 350

= 8.5mm

115
x
The distance of point 300 = 165 28

from point 185

= 19.5 mm

6. Draw the 300 meters contour line, 8.5 mm away from point 350 and 19.5 mm from

point 185.

In this way the plotting should continue. The next pair of points between which the 300 m contour should
pass is 350 and 250. To find the exact place, carry out the same procedure as above. To complete this
single line drawing, it will require no less than twelve separate calculations. Note that the formula used
above could be symbolically written like this:

Distance between two points = Altitude difference between point and contour

Altitude difference between spot heights

× distance in mm between points

This way of plotting contour lines is time consuming and laborious. The introduction of computer
mapping and digital plotting has made rapid and iterative calculations possible. Thus, drawing of contour
lines and other isarthmic lines has become much easier. The conceptual basis remains the same, but
automation makes it possible to vary interpolation schemes in accordance with the mapping task.

Other properties of contour lines

Now let us see the other properties of contour lines. One of the properties of contour lines is discussed
above.

1. Numbering of contours: Contour lines are numbered towards which altitude increases.

There are two ways of printing numbers on contour lines.

They are:-

a). By breaking the contour line and writing the numbers along its trend with the higher

ground above the figures (Figure 10.7 a)

b). By printing the number along the trend on the side of the contour line pointing to the

higher ground (Figure 10.7 b).

Figure -10.7. Numbering of contour lines (Source: Roselius: 1980).

All points in the field with, for example, an altitude of 100 meters will lie on the 100 meter contour line
and no point outside this line will have that altitude. All other points will have altitudes of more or less
than 100m depending on which side of the contour line they are located. For example, in Figure-10.8
Point P has an altitude of more than 100m but less than 150m. Point R is exactly 100m and point Q is less
than 100m but more than 50. If a contour line has no number attached to it, the altitude can be found with
the help of the vertical interval.

Figure-10.8 Height determination on contour

map (Source: Roselius: 1980).
2. Contour lines do not branch. Lines that frequently branch on maps are not contour lines. They rather
represent features such as rivers, roads, boundaries, etc. Sometimes, in very special cases, it seems as
if a contour line is actually branching. This is the case when we have to represent a vertical mountain
wall or cliff with the help of contours. However, this is not a case of the branching of one contour
line. This is running of two contour lines together for the length of the cliff and then separating.

3. Contour lines do not normally cross one another. Contour lines run together for a while in case they
come across a cliff as shown in Figure-6.9. The crossing of contour lines can, however, occur only in
one special case when they come across an over hanging cliff. If a cave under the overhanging cliff is
to be shown with the help of the contour lines. This is possible only by making the contour lines cross
one another. Note that the invisible contour lines should be indicated with dotted lines.

Figure- 10.9. Over hanging cliff and contour lines (Source: Roselius: 1980).

4. Contour lines can be drawn with a difference in thickness. This is to make the reading of contour
lines easier, especially when the vertical interval is very small. The contour lines come very close
together when relief is steep. On the topographic maps of Ethiopia, the contour lines are drawn at an
interval of 20 meters, and there are thicker lines at an interval of 200 meters.
Complementary methods of relief representation

The main way of indicating altitude on a contour map is with the help of the contour lines. As stated
earlier, every point on a contour line has the altitude indicated by the number printed on the contour line.
If the number is missing on the contour line, the altitude can be deduced for the line with the help of the
vertical interval. However, mountain peaks, the bottom of river valleys and other important features might
not fall on the altitudes shown by a specific contour as they are drawn at specific intervals.

How does a contour map give information about the altitude of such important features? Such features are
shown on a contour map through the use of several complementary methods.

 Benchmarks: They represent precise heights along highways or railways. Benchmarks are shown on
stones, bricks or bronze plates, on walls of buildings and other convenient places. They are very useful
for road construction engineers and others who wish to know the precise altitude of the main
 transportation network. Thus, there are marks on the ground, and they are shown with abbreviation
(BM) or with an arrow on topographical maps. Example: BM 1700. This indicates that the point where
it is located has a height of 1700 meters above mean sea level.
 Spot heights: They are accurate altitudes for individual points of mountaintops, along roads, on valley
bottoms, etc. There are no artificial marks in the field to show the presence of such spot heights. Spot
heights are only marked on the map usually with a dot followed by a number indicating the accurate
altitude in meters.
 Trigonometrical points or stations: In the preparation of topographical maps, distances are rarely
measured in the field. Instead, angular measurements are made between points occupying the corners
in the network of triangles and the distances between these points are then calculated with the help of
trigonometry. Usually points are located on mountaintops from where the view is unobstructed for
considerable distances. Each such trigonometrical or triangulation point is marked permanently by
means of concrete pillar or inscriptions hewn directly in the solid rock on which is written the spot
height in meters. On maps, triangulation points are written as ∆ 4620. This is triangulation point on
top of Ras Dejen.
A triangulation network is made by having one known (measured) side in the initial triangle, which serves
as base line for new triangle. For the horizontal network of traiangles of Ethiopia the base line starts at a
point called Adindan. This geodetic control network is based on the Clarke 1880 ellipsoid. Here the term
datum means a set of numerical values (values of latitude and longitude) that serve as a reference or base
for mapping.

 Heights of lake levels: As the surface of a lake provides a large area of land completely horizontal in
nature, topographic maps give information about the average altitude of the lake surface by printing
the number below the name of the lake.
 Altitudes of runways, towns, and others: Important altitudes of runways, towns and cities are written
on maps after their names. In such a case, their altitudes are given usually for the center.
 Altitudes of points not indicated by any one of the above methods can be calculated as follows.
Example;

Find the height of Q in Figure 6.8 . The procedure is as follows:

i. Draw the shortest possible line joining the two contour lines through point Q for which the altitude is
required.
ii. Measure the length of this line. It is 0.6cm.
iii. The position of point Q divides the line in proportion of 0.3cm and 0.3 cm.
iv. The vertical interval for the map is 50 m.
v. Point Q is then:

Height of Point Q = 0.3 x 50 m /0.6cm +50m

= 75m

Layer Tinting

The main shortcoming of contour maps is that they, at least to the inexperienced map-reader, do not
provide the same visual impression of the ups and downs as the other visual methods do. To improve this
visual effect of the relief, layer tinting need to be used. Perhaps the most widely used method of
presenting land-surface information on wall maps, in atlases, and on other printed physical maps is layer
tinting. This method is also called hypsometric coloring or altitude tinting.
In this method, specific altitudes limited by selected contour lines are colored with specific colors.
Conventionally, specific colors are used for specific altitudes. Starting from sea level with deep green,
different shades of green, yellow, and brown, end with red, purple or even white for top of high altitudes.
The improved visual impression given by color tinting has some disadvantages, which you should
carefully note. They are:-

 It may give false impression of break of slopes or physical boundaries, which may not exist.
 The deeper layer tints can obscure other details
 Colors carry certain associations in people’s minds. For example, green may suggest vegetation.
However, all lowlands tinted green have no vegetation cover.
 It is expensive to produce
 Colors could not be used to show other features on layer tinted maps.

Today’s computer software algorithms enable cartographers to perform layer tinting easily. They are able
to highlight areas of interest in visualization by flooding these areas with color as they observe the map
on the screen. They can easily perform this color filling operation to the area lying above or below a
given elevation or lying between two given elevation values. This is a quick and visually stimulating way
to draw attention to a given elevation zone.

Hill shading

Contours accurately portray elevations, but a contour map doesn’t look very realistic. A person well
trained in interpreting contour maps can visualize the landform symbolized by contour lines. But most
people recognize shapes primarily by the interplay of light and dark. This interplay creates patterns,
which we recognize because they correspond with those in our experience.

It was in the second half of the 19 th century that cartographers easily have started to reproduce smooth
tonal variations from light to dark. This method of portraying the land-surface form is called hill shading,
shading or relief shading. There have been many attempts to make hill shading more mechanical and thus
minimize the need for the talents and expense of artists. These attempts have increased as computer-
generated graphics have become available. Today, realistic, photographic quality hill shading is possible
by computer.

Automated hill shading requires elevation data in the form of a digital elevation (terrain) model. Digital
elevation models may be generated by interpolation from contour maps. When high quality photographic
source materials are available, digital elevation data can be extracted automatically.

Whatever the method of preparation, hill shading is essentially a map of brightness differences resulting
from incoming (incident) light being reflected to an observer. Producing effective light-and-shade
relationships depends upon certain assumptions. First, we assume that the light is coming from a constant
direction and elevation. We also assume that the light is being reflected by various orientations and slopes
of an ideally reflective land surface. We assume that the observer is viewing the map orthogonally (from
directly overhead) at all points. Thus, different hill-shaded maps result from changing the direction and
elevation of the light source.
10.3 SLOPES, GRADIENT & CROSS-SECTIONS

On the contour maps, the steepness of slope of land is indicated by:

 The distance between the contour lines drawn on the map

 The vertical interval between two successive contour lines
 The scale of the map

In order to decide which slope is steeper or gentler only based on the distance between contour lines, the
scale and the vertical interval must be the same. Thus, when the scale and vertical interval are the same,
the closer the lines, the steeper the slope and vice versa. However, when the distance between the contour
lines is the same but the scale or the vertical interval is different, then the smaller the vertical interval or
the smaller the scale is, the gentler the slope is, and vice versa.

Gradient and Contours

Gradient refers to the rate of change of altitude of a slope. It can be described as:

Gradient = Difference in altitude between two points

Map distance between the same two points

This shows that the gradient depends on the combined effect of the distance traveled in the horizontal
plane and the vertical plane simultaneously.

It can be expressed as:

 in a simple ratio = Difference in altitude

Map distance

 in percent = Difference in altitude x 100

Map distance

 in degrees = Difference in altitude x 60

Map distance

What is the average gradient of the slope between the two points of C and D in Figure- 6.11?
Figure-10.11 Contour lines for calculating gradient (Source: Roselius: 1980).

The procedures are:

 Join the two points of C and D with line drawn in pencil.

 Find the distance between the two points by measurement and scale, which in this case is 3cm.
Thus,
MD = 1500m

Find the difference in altitude between the two points

 Calculate the gradient using the formula given above

In this example, the gradient

 in ratio = 1:15
 in percent =6.67%
 in degrees =40

Types of slopes

We can distinguish between different categories of slopes based on the pattern of change of their
gradients:

 Even slopes: It is a slope that gradient remains constant from the foot to the top of the slope. It can
be identified on contour maps by the fact that the contour lines remains evenly spaced throughout
the slope (Figure-6.12 ).
 Figure- 6.12 Even Slope (Source: Roselius: 1980).

 Convex Slope: It is a slope whose gradient at the base of the slope is steep and then, gradually
decreases to the top. This can be identified on the map by the fact that the contours are closer
together at the foot of the slope and farther apart to the top (Figure-10.13 ).

Figure-10.13Convex slope (Source: Roselius: 1980).

 Concave slope: It is a slope that gradient is gentle at the base but, steeper at the top of the slope.

Figure- 10.14. Concave slope (Source: Roselius: 1980).

  Terraced slope: It is a slope that gradient change several times between the foot and the top of the
hill.

Figure- 10.15 Terraced slope (Source: Roselius: 1980).

Cross-Sections (Profile) and contours

When you want to study slopes in detail, drawing of sections will be of great help. A section or profile is
drawn along a straight line between two points. In cross-sections, the proportions between horizontal and
vertical distances are shown. If you want to draw a cross-section between two points from a map to show
the relief of a certain area, you should remember that the variations in altitude are very small compared
with the horizontal distance involved. Thus, if you use the same scale for both the horizontal and vertical
distances, your cross-section will not be easy to read or interpret. To improve this, you should often
exaggerate the vertical scale over the horizontal scale. This relationship of the vertical scale to the
horizontal scale is called vertical exaggeration (V.E.) of the section or profile. The degree to which you
exaggerate the vertical scale depends on the scale of the map from which the section is drawn and the
nature of the country that you are dealing with.

Draw the cross-section (profile) from N to S using Figure- 10.16.

 Horizontal scale=1: 50 000

Figure-10.16 Contour map and cross-section of Bahir Dar town

Procedure:

 First find the proper vertical exaggeration to use for your section. This is decided based on the scale
and range in altitude between the two points. The scale is
1:50 000 and the range of altitude is between 15m and 188m. Thus, the recommended vertical
exaggeration (VE) is 8 in this.
 Vertical Scale
VE = Horizontal Scale

Vertical Scale
8 = 1 / 50,000

1
6250 = Vertical Scale

Thus, the vertical scale is 1: 6250. The vertical interval of the map is 15 meters. On this map, the
vertical axis will be marked at 15 meters interval with map distance of 0.25 cm. This is calculated using
the scale of the map. In the scale 1:6250,

15  100cm
15m will be= 6250

= 0.25cm

 Now mark with a light pencil on the map the line between the two points along which the section is
to be drawn.
 Place the straight edge of a strip of paper along this line.
 Mark along the edge of the paper the position and height of contours, spot heights, water features,
important places, etc.
 Remove the paper slip from the map
 On the paper mark the base level for your section equal in length to that of the section and insert the
vertical scale calculated above, i.e. 15m=0.25cm.
 Transfer the marks you made on the edge of the paper to the section
 Finally, draw the section by joining all point marks with smooth curve line. Show all important
points and features on the section or profile.

Inter visibility

Two points, A and B, in the field are said to be intervisible if they can be mutually seen. That means point
A can be seen from point B. All land that is not visible from a certain point is called dead ground from
that point of view.

How can you determine the intervisibility between two places? In many cases the spacing of the contour
lines can directly give you the answer. However, the best way to prove whether two points are intervisible
or not and to reveal the extent of dead ground between two points is to draw a profile or cross-section.

Generally speaking, two points are intervisible when the slope between them is a concave slope. In
addition, when any point between the two points is lower, the two points are interervisible. Points on even
slopes are also intervisible. On the other hand, two points are not intervisible when the slope between
them is convex, and when any point between them is higher than the two points.
Activity

1. Go out to the field and identify concave, convex, terraced, and even slopes of land.