 Rates of Change= A rate is a measure of how much something changes within a specified amount of time.

 In chemistry, the rate of a chemical reaction, or the reaction rate, is usually expressed as the change in the amount of
reactant or product per unit time.
 The amount of time it takes for a chemical reaction to come to completion is called the reaction rate.
 Reaction rates are different for different reactions.
 They can range from a fraction of a second to days or even years.

Why do different reactions have different rates?

 The rates of reaction are related to the properties of particles through a model called collision theory
 Particles will only react if there is an effective or successful collision between them

Collision Theory:
 Molecules must collide before they can react
 In a gas, molecules are traveling with different velocities and have different kinetic energies. The average kinetic energy is
dependent on temperature (Kinetic Theory of Gases)
 Colliding molecules must together have enough kinetic energy to break existing bonds.
 The minimum kinetic energy required for a reaction to occur is the activation energy, symbol Ea

In order for particles to react,

1. They must collide

2. They must collide in the correct orientation to form the activated complex
3. They must collide with a specific minimum amount of energy (activation energy) to form the activated complex

Describing Reaction Rates

 An effective collision of oxygen and hydrogen molecules produces water molecules.

 An ineffective collision of oxygen and hydrogen molecules produces no reaction; the reactants bounce apart unchanged.

 The minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react is called the activation energy. You can think of the
activation energy for a reaction as a barrier that reactants must cross before products can form.

When two reactant particles collide, they may form an activated complex.
 An activated complex is an unstable arrangement of atoms that forms for a moment at the peak of the activation-energy
barrier.
 The activated complex forms only if the colliding particles have enough energy and if the atoms are oriented properly.

Types of Chemical Reactions Based on Movement of Heat:

1. Endothermic Reaction=The system must absorb energy from its surrounding for the reaction to proceed. Thus, the reactant
has a lower energy compared to the product.
2. Exothermic Reaction=For an exothermic reaction to happen, the system must release energy to the surroundings to attain
the stability of its product. Thus, the reactant has higher energy that its product.
Remember: An endothermic reaction absorbs heat, and an exothermic reaction releases heat
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates=Factors that can affect the rate of a chemical reaction are temperature, concentration, particle
size, and the use of a catalyst.
1. Temperature=Usually, raising the temperature speeds up a reaction. Lowering the temperature usually slows down a
reaction. At higher temperatures, particles move faster. The frequency of collisions increases along with the percentage of
particles that have enough kinetic energy to slip over the activation-energy barrier. Thus, an increase in temperature
causes products to form faster.
2. Concentration=The number of particles in a given volume affects the rate at which reactions occur. Cramming more
particles into a fixed volume increases the concentration of reactants, and, thus, the frequency of collision. Increased
collision frequency leads to a higher reaction rate.
3. Particle Size=The total surface area of a solid or liquid reactant affects the rate of a reaction. The smaller the particle size,
the greater the surface area is for a given mass of particles. The result of an increase in surface area is an increase in the
frequency of collisions and the reaction rate. Another way to increase the surface area of solids is to dissolve them. In a
solution, particles are separated and more accessible to other reactants. You can also increase the surface area of a solid by
grinding it into a fine powder. Small dustlike particles, however, can be dangerous when suspended in air.

4. Catalysts=Increasing the temperature is not always the best way to increase the rate of a reaction. A catalyst is often
better. Recall that a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being used up during the reaction.
Catalysts permit reactions to proceed along a lower energy path.