Introduction to Gender

Key Concepts:
SEX – refers to the categories that most contemporary societies define as physically based,
despite the existence of many people (e.g intersexed persons) whose bodies do not fit
neatly into either female or male category. (Kramer, 2005)
– Sex refers to the two biological categories called male and female. It also pertains to
sexual intercourse.
UP Diksyunaryong Pilipino defines the two biological categories (Sexes) as follows:
 BA-BA-E
- Tumutukoy sa sex na may kakayahang magbuntis at manganak.
- Var babai,, babaye, babayi, bayi,
- Cf. Ale, BInibini. Dalaga: bebay, bii, dame, female, lahignit, parampoan
 LA-LA-KI
- Tumutukoy sa sex an nakakabutis o nakakapagdulot ng bunga sa pamamagitan
ng pertilasyon o inseminasyon.

In the Diksyonaryong Pilipino, Sex was translated as 1.) Kasarian & 2.) Karat.
Other Filipino terms used to refer to sexual intercourse (or the act of doing it):
- Luto ng Diyos - Biyak
- Yari na! - Gamit
- May nangyari - Araro
- Galaw - Bayo
- Kakarnihin - Dilig
- Sibak

GENDER
– Is the totality of meanings that are attached to the sexes within a particular social
system. (Kramer, 2005)
– is the cultural interpretation of femaleness and maleness.
– It is the cultural, sociological and psychological meanings associated with masculinity
and femininity.
In the Philippines, there is no equivalent term for gender. Both sex and gender are translated as
KASARIAN.
Examples of Tagalog gender categories:
– Lalaki
– Babe
– Bakla, syoki
– Tibo
– Silahis
– Paminta
– Tsiksilog

GENDER STEREOTYPINGS
– The term implies making too much and unwarranted generalization on the basis of sex
differences.
– A Stereotypes is an exaggerated and usually prejudiced view of a group of people that
is based on little or no evidence and is resistant to modification by evidence. (Bruce &
Yearley, 2006)

Gender Stereotypes Across Cultures

Characteristic Associated with Males Characteristic Associated with Females

– Active – Masculine – Affected – Shy
– Adventurous – Progressive – Affectionate – Soft-hearted
– Aggressive – Robust – Anxious – Submissive
– Ambitious – Rude – Attractive – Superstitious
– Autocratic – Self-confident – Charming – Talkative
– Coarse – Stern – Complaining – Timid
– Courageous – Strong – Curious – Weak
– Cruel – Tough – Dependent – whiny
– Daring – Unemotional – Dreamy
– Dominant – Emotional
– Energetic – Fearful
– Enterprising – Fussy
– Forceful – Meek
– Independent – Mild
– Inventive – Sensitive
– Logical – Sexy
Sex Differences: Actual or Perceived?
 No differences for most Cognitive Abilities
– Females consistently score higher on verbal, reading and writing skills.
– Spatial skills – males outscore females on mentally rotating objects, females
score better on remembering locations of objects.
– Math Skills – males score slightly better than females but the average difference
very small (Woods, 2007).
 Reported differences between males and females in sexual attitudes and behavior have
become less pronounced since the 1960`s.
Some examples of significant biological differences (Woods. 2007):
– Women are more likely than men to experience pain. Their pains are also less likely to
be taken seriously by doctors.
– Women are more likely than men to suffer from migraine headaches and lupus; Men are
more likely than women to suffer from cluster headaches.
– On average, women`s brain are smaller than men; women`s brain are also more densely
packed with neurons than men.
– Women and men typically have different symptoms of heart attack. Women`s
symptoms include shortness of breath, jaw pain, backache and extreme fatigue. Men`s
primary symptom is usually chest pain or arm pain.
Despite some differences, men and women are alike in many respects;
o Differences should not be use as basis for unequal social standing.
Gender is…
– Socially constructed
– Situated at a particular socio-cultural and historical context.
– An identity or a role that we perform every day.

How do we perform gender?

1. The clothes we wear.
– The wearing of a particular set of clothing can create an entire social world.
(Suthrell, 2004, p.16)
Example: Gender and color code

 Early years of 20th century boys wore pink (a stronger/ more decided color) and
girls wore blue (delicate and dainty). The reversal happened only after World
War II.
 In 1990`s, red neckties were made as accessories for male professionals (such as
lawyers, anchors); way back in 1909, wearing one of them was one way to
recognize a male homosexual.
 From red, the color related to homosexual turned green in the 1950`s.
 Now, lavender or purple and pink are the colors of gay identification; a reaction
to the Nazi`s pink triangle as a label to stigmatized homosexual men.
2. The thing we use.
– Cars for boys, dolls for girls.
3. Demeanor and Behavior.
– Feminine = woman; Masculine = man
– Girls as delicate; Boys as rough
4. Profession or Job
– Sexual Division of labor (traditional view)
 Public / private sphere
 Productive role/ reproductive role
5. Gender Roles
– These refers to the social expectation that society attaches to gender and their
expression- for example in speech, demeanor, gesture, posture and dress (Brice
and yearly, 2006).
– Gender Roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including
reinforcement, punishment and modeling.
– Gender roles are learned.
 – Economic, political and socio-cultural changes in society affect our gender roles.
E.g. due to economic changes women were allowed to partake in the formal
economy (public sphere).
– Gender roles are not innate / biologically, they are culturally determined.
– In terms of gender roles, the only limit dictated by biology is that woman can get
pregnant, lactate and menstruate. The rest of gender roles (such as child rearing)
are not limited to these biological capacities.

Gender Identity Vs. Sexual Orientation

 “Gender is used in several ways. It may refer to gender roles or expression: the
behavioral characteristics considered “masculine” or “feminine” in a particular time.
 “Gender” may also refer to gender identity.
 Many people challenge the expectation that the genitals we are born with should
dictate almost all of our physical, emotional and psychological attributes.
GENDER IDENTITY

 “What we call ourselves”

 Refer to one`s view of oneself as male or female or trans. It does not always correspond
to the biological sex.
TRANSGENDER

 Refers to those who defy conventional gender definitions. They express their gender
identities in a range of ways.
 A broad umbrella term referring to people whose gender identity and /or presentation
do not fit traditional norms. Often abbreviated to “trans”.

“TRANSSEXUALISM IS NOT EQUAL TO TRANSVESTISM”

TRANSVESTISM

 This refers to those who derive sexual gratification from cross-dressing (Bailey in Evans
and D`Augelli, 1996).
 In the west, a large majority of transvestites are heterosexual men. Thus Transvestism
should not be confused as a gender identity.
 The confusion with the two concepts may possibly brought by the fact that transsexuals,
frequently cross-dress to pass as members of the opposite sex.
 Thus, Transvestism is not solely associated with transsexual but even `Straight` men/
women and other genders.
TRANSSEXUAL

 A person who lives as the opposite gender. The process of changing gender can involve
any or all of the following changing use of pronouns; changing names; changing
clothing; taking hormones and undergoing sex reassignment surgery.
METOIDIOPLASTY

 A FTM surgery wherein the clitoris, which has been enlarged bey testosterone therapy is
formed into a small penis, and the labia are formed to look like a small scrotum.
PHALLOPLASTY

 A MTF surgery wherein an artificial penis is created over several operations with skin
taken from other parts of the body. The scrotum is also constructed, using tissue from
the labia.

 In the Philippines, there is an organizes group of transsexuals namely Society of Transsexual

Women in the Philippines. (TransPinay- transsexual women in the Philippines.)

FEMALE TO MEN TRANSSEXUAL (FTM)

 Someone who was born biologically female and identifies as male. FTM`s are also
sometimes referred to as Transmen. Some of them undergone sex reassignment
surgery.
 Thomas Beatie, ‘the pregnant man’

MALE TO FEMALE TRANSSEXUAL

 Someone who was born biologically male and identifies as female. MFT`s are also
sometimes referred to as Transwomen. Some of them have undergone reassignment
surgery.

TRANSSEXUALS

 Many transsexuals feel that the sex assigned to them from birth does not accurately
reflect who they are.
 Individuals who want their physical anatomy to much their gender identity- that of the
opposite sex.
GENDERQUEER

 Someone who blurs, rejects or otherwise transgresses gender norms. Also used as a
term for someone who rejects the two gender systems (man/woman).

 Gender-related labels are not used to describe only the trans. Within queer communities,
“butch” “femme” and “androgynous” area few of the terms use to describe their place on a
spectrum of masculinity and femininity.

 Within straight communities, we may use terms like “girly-girl” and “tomboy” to lable
gender characteristics or expressions.

 In the Philippines, terns we commonly used include tibo, biyanang, lesbyana, tomboy, bakla,
silahis, paminta etc.

MYTH AND REALITY?

– Sex and gender are two words for the same concept.
MYTH: Sex is often defined as a person`s biological features; Our gender, separate but often
connected to our biology, refers to the behavioral characteristics considered masculine or
feminine in a particular culture and time. Gender involves our internal sense of ourselves as a
man, a woman or other identity.
– People can be fired based on their sexual orientation or gender identity.
REALITY: in most places in the United States it is legal to fire employees because they are trans,
lesbians, gay or bisexual, though some states and municipalities have enacted civil rights
protections based on sexual orientation.

SEXUAL ORIENTATIONS
– ‘Whom we find attractive’
*Gender identity pertains to a person`s view of him/herself while Sexual orientation refers to
sexual object choice or one`s preference for a sexual partner.
STRAIGHT/ HETEROSEXUAL
– This refers to women who are sexually attracted to men n admen who are sexually
attracted to women.
– In the Philippines, though we understand the term heterosexual, there is no exact
Filipino translation for it.
GAY/ HOMOSEXUAL
– This refers to women who are sexually attracted to women and men who are sexually
attracted to men. This often used to refer to men exclusively.
Construction of ‘BAKLA’

 Though loosely translated as homosexual or gay, the ‘bakla’ in Philippine culture

transcends concept of `sexual object of choice’ or issue of sexual preference.
 The ‘bakla’ is foremost an effeminate male.
 He is usually depicted as a cross-dresser.
 He is sexually attracted to ‘real men’ and not to other Bakla.
 Today, many middle-class Filipino men identify themselves as ‘gay’ but not as ‘Bakla’.
LESBIAN
– This refers to a woman who is sexually attracted to woman.
– On the average, more gay men seek contact from a variety of sexual partners than do
lesbians or heterosexual males.
– Men are quite likely to pursue sex with other men prior to defining themselves as gays.
QUEER
– A powerful derogatory term for gays in some communities, this word is now used
positively by mane lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people to refer to
themselves. It is sometimes used to describe an open, fluid sexual orientation.
ASEXUAL
– Describes someone who is not experiencing or is not acting on sexual attraction at a
given time.
PANSEXUAL
– Someone who is attracted to people across the range of genders.
– Often used by those who identify as transgender or gender queer or who are attracted
to people who are transgender or gender queer.
BISEXUAL
– This refers to a person who is sexually attracted to men and women.
 – Slangs for bisexuals: AC/DC; switch-hitter; fence-sitters; traitors.
– Many bisexuals align themselves with the gays and lesbian community for support.

THE CONFLICT MODEL

 Bisexuality is viewed as a transition from heterosexual to homosexuality; Arriving at a

bisexual identity in this way is often associated with confusion, conflict and ambivalence
about sexual orientation.
THE FLAXIBILITY MODEL

 This associates bisexual identity with personal growth; a wider range of possibilities for
fulfillment and flexibility in personal lifestyle.
BISEXUALITY

 Bisexuality has historically been misunderstood and maligned. Labeled as confused, sex
addicts or not queer enough, people who identify as bisexual have often been
stigmatized in both gay and straight communities.
Silahis as Bisexuality

 In the Philippines, the term, ‘bisexual’ is not as widely used as homosexual.

*SILAHIS is the tagalog term that loosely translates the word bisexual.
– Silahis is almost exclusively used for males.
– Silahis refers to a male who is attracted both to males and females; he is not Bakla and
not effeminate (in public).
 Tracing its origin, silahis is a tagalog term which means ‘rays of the sun’.
 “Silahis is a metaphor referring to the change of identity a person has from day to
night.” (Tan, 1996)
 The term Silahis is a bit derogatory because the label tends to question the identity of a
person.
 The term is used ‘when you can`t be sure’ if the person is a ‘Bakla’ or a ‘Tunay na Lalaki’
(real man).
 The peculiarities here in the Philippines is that ‘bakla and silahis’ are two terms that go
beyond sexual orientation but also a manifestation of gender as cultural construction.
 In the West, gay men are those who have sexual attraction and sexual relation with
men, but here in the Philippines, there are men who have sex with men but do not
consider themselves as homosexuals (e.g. callboys).
ISSUES: BIPHOBIA

 Fear or hatred to Bisexual people.

 There is a level of Biphobia even among gays and lesbians, the reason why some
bisexuals may be less willing to disclose their sexual identities.
ISSUES: HOMOPHOBIA

 The far and hatred of homosexuality or gay, lesbian or bisexual people – affects the lives
of queer people in many ways. It put us at risks of discrimination, harassment, rejection
or violence in our everyday interactions with family, friends and strangers and it can
affect our ability to accept who we are.
INTERNALISZED HOMOPHOBIA

 It occurs when a trans take on, often unconsciously, society`s prejudice and stereotypes
regarding gay, lesbians or bisexual people.
 Internalized homophobia may lead to self-hatred, denial of transgender identities or
attempts to live a heterosexual life.
ISSUES: TRANSPHOBIA

 It is the fear and hatred of transgender or transsexual people.

ISSUES: HETEROSEXISM

 The assumption that heterosexuality is the only normal orientation- thus, denying legal,
religious and social privileges among the transgendered persons.

GENDER ISSUES
REPRESENTATION:

 How men and women are presented in media affects the meaning we attached to
gender.
 The INVISIBILITY of women and transgenders in various discourses is an issue of
representation.
 The presence /absence in political arena of women and transgenders continuously
create challenges in the patriarchal system.
Example: in the Philippines, as of 2008, only 22.8% (53 out of 236) n the house of
representatives and 16.7% (4 out of 24) in the Senate are women.
DISCRIMINATION:

 The unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their personal characteristics (sex,
gender, age, race, class, etc.)
 Discriminatory practices on all aspects of life limits the opportunities of other gender.
SUBORDINATION:

 Describes the secondary position of women (and other genders) vis-à-vis men I society.
 Subordination is manifested in a variety of spheres (home, community). The authority
structure is generally based on male dominance thus leaving the women at the shadow
of the ‘private sphere.’
VIOLENCE:

 There are various forms of violence such as domestic violence, violence against women
(VAW), and violence brought by military conflicts and war.
 There are some culture practices which reflect the institutionalization of violence. (e.g.
female circumcision, foot-binding, wife burning, bride kidnapping, etc.)
 Some facts and figures regarding global gender-based violence:
– In South Africa, a woman is raped every 80 seconds.
 Domestic violence is the leading cause of injury and death for women worldwide.
– Everyday, 6000 girls are genitally mutilated.
– 59% of Japanese women are victims of Domestic Violence. In Kenya, 42% of
women and in Pakistan, 80% of women experience violence within the home.
– 4 million women and girls are trafficked annually. (United Nations)
– An estimated of 1 million children, mostly girls, enter the sex trade each year
(UNICEF)
– Here in the Philippines, in 1995, 53% of the hundred inmates on death row were
convicted of rape and rape-related crimes.
STEREOTYPING:

 The proliferation of gender stereotypes boxed the individuals, limiting their potentials
and opportunities.
MULTIPLE BURDEN:

 Women are simultaneously performing reproductive and productive roles because of

their inclusion in the formal economy.
COMMODIFICATION:

 Today, sex became a commodity which is readily available in the market.

 The implication is that the individual was reduced into a mere product or commodity.
INTRODUCTION TO SEX

Self-Assessment: How much do you know about sexuality?

 Sexual expression is purely natural not a function of learning.

 Foreplay is for the woman; intercourse is for the men.
 Once a couple establishes a good sexual relationship, they don`t need to set aside time
for intimacy together.
 If you love each other and communicate, everything will go fine sexually.
 Sex and love are two sides of the same coin.
 Technique is more important than intimacy in achieving a satisfying sexual relationship.
 Casual sex is more exciting than intimate sex.
 If you have a good sexual relationship, you will have a fulfilling experience each time you
have sex.
 After the age of 25 your sex drive dramatically decreases and most people stop being
sexual by 65.
 It is primarily the man`s role to initiate sex.
 If one or both partners became aroused, intercourse must follow or there will be
frustration.
 Men are more sexual than women.
 Having a “G” spot and multiple orgasm is a sign you are a sexually liberated woman.
 Since men don`t have spontaneous erections after the age of 50, they are less able to
have intercourse.
 When you lose sexual desire, the remedy is to seek another partner.
 The most common female sexual problem is pain during intercourse.
 The most common male sexual problem is not having enough sex.
 Penis size is crucial for female sexual satisfaction.
 Oral /genital sex is an exciting but perverse sexual behavior.
 Simultaneous orgasm provides the most erotic pleasure.
 Married people do not masturbate.
 Using sexual fantasies during intercourse indicates dissatisfaction with your partner.
 Clitoral orgasms are superior to vaginal orgasm.
 Male-on-top is the most natural position for intercourse.
 People of today are doing much better sexually than the previous generation.
*These are false/ myths.
 SEX
Biological symbol for females and males:
 Left: Female (Venus? Hand mirror? Vulva?)
 Right: Male (Mars? Bow and arrow? Penis
and testicles?)

 It came from the Latin word Secare: to cut, to divide.

 Refers to the categories that most contemporary societies define as Physically based,
despite the existence of many people whose bodies do not fit neatly into either a female
or a male category. (Kramer, 2005)
Factors in Determining a Person`s Sex
1. Chromosomal Sex
2. Gonadal Sex
3. Hormonal Sex
4. Internal accessory reproductive structures
5. External Sex
6. Sex of Assignment or rearing
7. Sexual Self-Identification

The Sex Organs

Meaning of ‘Sex Organ’:

 A determinant of sex; it is also known as the primary sexual characteristics.

 The organ which are responsible in human sexual response.
*Note: However, that other parts of the body such as the skin, mouth, etc., are also involved in
what is called ‘sexual response’.
The Female Sex Organ
1. Mons Veneris
2. Major Lip (one of a pair)
3. Minor lip (one of a pair)
4. Glans of the Clitoris
5. Opening of Urethra
6. Urinary bladder
7. Vaginal opening
8. Vagina
9. Cervix
10. Uterus
11. Fallopian tube (one of a tube)
12. Ovary (one of a pair)

The (Female) External Sex Organs

THE VUVLA:
– Mons Veneris
– Major and Minor Lips
– Glans of the Clitoris
– Vaginal Opening

THE CLITORIS:

– Both a pleasure organ and an internal organ.

Female Genital Cutting (FGC)

 Practice in 28 African nations as well as in the Middle East and among Muslim
populations in Indonesia and Malaysia.
 It is estimated to affect between 80-110 million women worldwide.
  Though the procedure is sometimes done during infancy, typically to FGC between the
ages 4 & 10.
Female Circumcision
Types of Female Circumcision (FGC/FGM):

 Sunna – mildest form

 Clitoridectomy or incision
 Infibulation or pharaonic circumcision

INTROITUS:

 The vaginal opening, which may be (but not necessarily)

partially closed by a thin membrane called the HYMEN.
 Nulliparous – vulva of a woman ho has had intercourse but
has not had a baby.
 Parous – vulva of a woman who has had a baby.

What is the Function of Hymen?

– The hymen has no known biological function. However, in some ancient and even
modern cultures it was and is given some psychological significance.
– The Hymen has taken as evidence of virginity. (e.g. droit du seigneur in French and jus
primae noctis in Latin)
Types of Hymens (cherry, maidenhead):
1. Annular
2. Imperforate
3. Septate
4. Cribiform
 THE (FEMALE) INTERNAK SEX ORGANS
1. Vagina (Birth canal)
– a tube-shaped organ into which the penis is inserted during coitus and through
which a baby passes during birth.
– During unaroused state, the vagina is about 8-10 cm long.
– The nerve supply of the vagina is mostly to the lower 1/3, near the introitus.
2. Vestibular Bulbs (bulbs of the clitoris)
– Two organs lying on either side of the vaginal wall, under inner lips; they are
erectile tissue.
3. Uterus (womb)
– is about the size of the fist; shaped somewhat like and upside-down pear.
Parts of the Uterus
- fundus – upper part (top)
- body – main part
- Cervix – the narrow lower third connected to the vagina.
4. Fallopian Tubes (oviduct / egg ducts)
– The passageway by which the egg laves the ovaries.
– *INFUNDIBULUM – the part of the tube closest to the ovary; it is where
fertilization of the egg occurs.
5. Ovaries
– Two organs in the female that produce eggs and sex hormones.

THE MALE SEX ORGANS

1. Penis
2. Corpus Cavernosum (one of a pair)
3. Corpus spongiosum
4. Foreskin
5. Glans
6. Opening of the urethra
7. Scrotum
8. Testicle (one of a pair)
9. Epididymis (one of a pair)
10. Vas Deferens (one of a pair)
11. Seminal Vesicle (one of a pair)
12. Urinary bladder
13. Prostate gland
 14. Urethra
15. Bulbourethral (Cowper`s) gland (one of a pair)
The Male Sex Organs
External Sex Organs
1. Penis
2. Scrotum

THE PENIS:

 The penis (lat. tail) is a cylindrical organ which contains erectile tissue. This latter body
contains the urethra (the duct through which urine and semen are released)

Corpora Cavernosa

Corpus Spongiosum

Prepuce

FORESKIN OR PREPUCE:

 It covers the tip or head of the penis called the glans.

GLANS:

 Glans is Latin for acorn.

 It is the extension of the corpus spongiosum, and it contains the external opening of the
urethra or the meatus.
 The underside of the glans is attached to the foreskin by a thin tissue called frenum.
Behind the rim of the glans and under the foreskin there are glands that secrete a
cheese-like substance known as Smegma.
Circumcision

 Tightness of foreskin (also called Phimosis) is one of the reasons for a popular operation
called circumcision. It consists of the surgical removal of the foreskin.
Types of Circumcision
1. Supercision (Superincision)
– a form of male genital cutting in which a slit is made the length of the foreskin.
– A common form across most of Polynesia.
2. Subincision
– a form of male genital cutting in which a slit is made on the lower side of the
penis along its entire length.
– A common form in some tribes of central Australia.
 According to WHO (2009), male circumcision could possibly help in HIV prevention.
PENIS SIZE

 The average length of a grown man`s penis is between 3 and 4 inches when flaccid and
between 5 and 7 inches when erect.
 Contrary to some widely accepted myths, the size of the penis is not related to a man`s
body build, skin color or sexual prowess.
 Some penises which greatly differ in size when they are flaccid may be of identical size
when they are erect.
 The size of penis des not matter in sexual intercourse.

THE (MALE) INTERNAL SEX ORGAN

1. Testicles
2. A system of ducts
3. Some accessory organs (prostate cowper`s gland)
THE TESTICLES: (male sex glands or gonads)

 These are two oval-shaped bodies of about 1 ½ inches (4 cm) in length which are
suspended in two separate sacs inside the scrotum outside the abdominal cavity. The
testicles serve a double function:
– They produce sperm which may be ejaculated through a system of genital ducts.
– They produce hormones which are secreted directly into the bloodstream.
 Internal structure of a testicles:
1. Seminiferous tubules – tubes in the testes that manufacture sperm and sex
hormones.
2. Interstitial cells – cells in the testes that manufacture testosterone.
3. Rete testes – a converging network of tubes on the surface of the testis towards the
top.
 It is responsible in the production of hormones.
 The male and female gonads (testicles and ovaries) also produce certain hormones.
These gonadal hormones have been divided into male hormones (androgens) and
female hormones (estrogens).

PRODUCTION OF HORMONES AT DIFFERENT LIFE STAGES

 Before puberty, the androgen and estrogen levels in boys and girls are nearly equal
PUBERTY – during adolescence, the hormones balance begins to shift. In the male the increase
of androgens during puberty helps to produce the male secondary sexual characteristics.
ADULTHOOD – once the full sexual potential has been attained in adult men and women, they
have been up to a point – function sexually without these hormones. This has long been
recognized in the case of women whose gonads (the ovaries) cease functioning after
menopause without diminishing their sexual responsiveness.
– in adult humans, sexual activity can be quite varied and need not be directly dependent
on hormone levels, but is also influences by social factors.

THE SYSTEM OF GENITAL DUCTS

 responsive in transporting the semen and urine.

1. Epididymis – coiled tube where the sperm mature.
2. Vas deferens – the tube through which sperm pass on their way the testes
and epididymis, out of the scrotum and to the urethra.
3. Seminal Vesicles – sac-like structure that lie above the prostate which
produce about 70% of the seminal fluid.
 4. Urethra – in the male, the urethra serves two important functions: to release
either urine or semen.
 MEATUS – the urethral opening.

ACCESSORY GLANDS:

 Prostate Gland – located below bladder that secretes some of the fluid in semen.
 Cowper`s Gland – (bulbourethral glands) these glands secrete small amount of a clear
alkaline fluid before ejaculation.
SEMEN: sperm + alkaline fluid (from the prostate)
SPERM – about 60 micrometers or 60/10,000 millimeter long (0.0024 inch); carries 23
chromosomes in the head.

 An average ejaculation contains about 300 million sperms.

WHERE DO WE DRAW A LINE?

 There`s a thin line between cultural relativism and human rights.

THE SEXUAL RESPONSE

 The sexual response pattern can be described as a build-up and release of tension
(during sexual intercourse).
 William H. Masters and Virginia Johnson, in their book “Human Sexual Response”
(1966) identified the 4 phases as:
1. excitement,
2. plateau,
3. orgasm, and
4. resolution.
 In addition, they have introduced the concept of a fifth phase, the refractory period.
THE HUMAN SEXUAL REPONSE

 The Excitement phase is the beginning of sexual arousal and can last from one minute
to several hours. Pulse rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing quickens and the
skin shows a rosy flush particularly on the chest and breast areas during this phase. The
nipples harden and erect in both men and women. In men, the penis becomes erect, the
skin of the scrotum thickens and the testes increase in size. In women, the clitoris
 swells. The lips of the vagina open and the inside of the vagina moistens in preparation
for sexual intercourse.
 In the Plateau phase, the changes in the body are continued. In men, the penis become
more erect, the circumference of its head increases and release few drops of fluid. In
women, the outer part of the vagina swells with increased amounts of blood to that
area, while the clitoris retracts under the clitoral hood but remains highly sensitive. The
outer lips of the vagina become redder in color. Breathing becomes more rapid, heart
rate increases, body temperature rises and blood pressure increases during this stage.
 During the Orgasmic Phase, the orgasmic contractions of the muscles in and around the
penis stimulate the release of the semen which contains the sperm cells. Men usually
achieve one intense orgasm. In women, orgasm involves the contraction of the pelvic
muscles that surround the vaginal walls and can happen multiple times.
 In the Resolution phase, the body returns to its normal state after orgasm. In men, the
erection is lost, the testes decrease in size, and the skin of the scrotum thins again. In
women, the clitoris, the color of the outer lips of the vagina return to its normal state.
 GENDER SOCIALIZATION

BECOMING GENDERED:

Socialization

 The process by which society`s values and norms including those pertaining to gender, are
taught and learned. (Renzetti & Curan, 1992: 57)

Gender Socialization

 Is the process by which individuals learn the cultural behavior of femininity or masculinity that is
associated with the biological sex of female and male, (Linsey, 2016, p65).
Cultures are organized through social institutions that the basic needs of the society are met and
established. Although it is the social institution of the family that sets the standards for the
emergence of gender roles in children, the family itself is shaped by overall cultural values regarding
gender.

Intersectionality

 It is important to understand that gender intersect with race and social class.
 There are different agents of socialization that shape our gender identity.

Agents of Socialization

 These are the people, groups and social institutions that provide the critical information needed
for children to become fully functioning members of society.
1. FAMILY
- the most significant among institutions particularly in the child`s Primary Socialization.
- Our gender is learned first in the family and reinforced by other institutions.
2. PEERS
- With family gender role model as a foundation, peer influence on children`s gender
socialization is even more powerful.
3. SCHOOL
- School`s provide experience that offers technical competence as well as the learning of values
and norms appropriate to the culture.
4. MEDIA
- People today are the most media-saturated and media-engaged in history (Kung-
Shankleman, Towse & Picard, 2007). American teens typically spend up to 50% of their
walking hours engaging some form of media (Mastronardi, 2003).
5. RELIGION
 - Our personal values on gender are also greatly shaped by the religious belief and the
religious community we belong.

 In his book, THE MALE EXPERIENCE (1997) James Doyle identified FIVE THEMES OF MACULINITY
in the U.S which include:
- DON’T BE FEMALE – most boys learn they must not think, act, or feel girls/women
> Peer groups pressure males to be tough and aggressive.
> When a young boy wants to hurt another boy, he is likely to call by a name
associated with femininity directly (girlie) or indirectly (sissy)
- BE SUCCESSFUL – boys are required to be successful in sports and other activities.
> Many men today, like Aaron, say that being a good provider – an internalized
requirement that appears to cut across lines of race and economics. (Eagly,
1996; Ranson, 2001 as cited in Wood, 2007)
- BE AGGRESSIVE – the masculine code tells men to fight, defeat others, endure pain
stoically themselves, and win, win, win. Dr. Micheal Miller (2003 as cited in Wood,2007)
says that many men don’t seek help when they are depressed because their gender
identity is tied up with strength, independence, efficiency and self-control. (p.71)
- BE SEXUAL – “men shoul be interested in sex – all the time, any time. They are expected
to have a number of sexual partners; the more partners a man has, the more of a stud
he is (Jahally & Katz, 2001 as cited in Wood, 2007)
- BE SELF-RELIANT – autonomy is central to social views of the manliness.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF “PAGKALALAKI”

 Traits that we commonly attribute to males:

1. Macho (manly)

2. Lalaking-lalaki

3. May katawang pangromansa (hunk)

4. Binyagan (had a sexual experience)

5. Hindi pundido (potent)

6. Dominante (Domineering)

 De Castro (n.d.) differentiates notions of `pagiging Lalaki` and ‘pagkalalaki’ saying that the
former refers to the biological/ physical sex and the process of becoming a man while the latter
is a sociological and a personal concept.
 In the Philippines, some study (Santiago, 1975; Aguiling-Dalisay, et.al. 1995b) would
differentiate ‘tunay na lalaki’ from ‘ganap na lalaki’.
 - TUNAY NA LALAKI – (real man) are ‘ma-prinsipyo’ (principled) while GANAP NA LALAKI
(actualized man) refers to a concept of being a ‘family man’
- Lalakinh-lalaki (very manly) describes the kind of comportment that men should have.

FIVE THEMES IN CURRENT VIEWS OF FEMININITY:

1. APPERANCE STILL COUNTS – to be desirable women are urged to be pretty, slim and well dressed.

2. BE SENSITIVE AND CARING – they feel pressure to be nice, deferential and helpful in general,
whereas men are not held to the same requirements (Simmons, 2002 as cited in Wood, 2007)

3. NEGATIVE TREATMENT BY OTHERS – in the United States, sons are preferred, although the
preference is less string than in former eras (Starling-Lyons, 2003)

- In some cultures, the preferences for males is s strong that female fetuses are often
aborted and female infants are sometimes killed after birth (Hedge, 1999a, 199b; Parrot &
Cummings, 2006; Pollit, 2000)

4. BE SUPERMAN – it`s not enough to be just a homemaker and mother or to just have a career –
young women seem to feel they are expected to do it all. (Wood, 2007)

5. THERE IS NO SINGLE MEANING OF FEMININE ANYMORE – definitions of femininity are diverse,

sometimes confusing and conflicting.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF `PAGKABABAE’

 In a lot of literatures, pagkaabae (femininity) is usually defined in relation to masculinity.

 The descriptions are most often than not stereotypical.
 Even as early as the Spanish period, tied with `package’ are concepts such as being delicate,
fragile, emotional, reserved, chaste, etc.
 The burden of the woman is that she serves as the gatekeeper of sexuality (e.g. tukso sa
lalaki)
 Society, through the different agents of socialization organized the individual`s life and
continuously construct gender.
 How we see ourselves is part and parcel a product of our socialization.
Theoretical Perspectives:
Biological Explanation

Essentialism Vs. Constructionism

What explains gender differences? NATURE or NURTURE?

Essentialism

- The mode of thinking that assumes that all manifestations of gender difference are
innate and transcultural and historical.
Social Constructionism

- Sexuality, sexual meanings, sexual identities and gender relations are socially defined
and controlled.
- Sexual behavior and sexual meanings are subject to the forces of culture.

BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

4 Subgroups of Biological Theorists:

1. Sociobiologists, sometimes called as Darwinian Psychologists (unit of

analysis- genes)

2. Endocrinologists, physiologists, physiological psychologists, etc. (focus on

pre-natal hormones)

3. Medical and Social Scientists (sex hormones after the period of puberty)

4. Researchers who study brain organization

Sociobiology: Darwin with a twist

  influenced by Darwin’s Law of Natural Selection (On the Origin of Species, 1859)
 Sociobiology is the brainchild of entomologist Edward Wilson (1975); It emerged as a
discipline in the 1970s.
 Wilson (1975 as cited in Nielsen 1990) defines Sociobiology as ‘a systematic study
of the biological basis of social behavior and social organization in all kinds of
organisms, including humans.’
 Wilson’s view is that evolution also favors certain genetically based psychological
traits and tendencies (e.g. male aggression) if they ENHANCE the odds of an
individual passing along his or her genes.

Basic principles:

INCLUSIVE FITNESS

 ‘behaviors that contribute to the survival and reproduction of organisms with genes
similar to one’s own.
 Reproductive success or ‘fitness’-the differences in the reproductive efficiency of
sexes explains the double standard in sexual infidelity.
 Male can copulate with number of different females at the same time while the
female gets pregnant in 9 months.
 The female needs to maintain sexual fidelity so as the male will stay and will be
reassured that he is the father of the offspring.
 This explains why women are ‘choosy’ in choosing a partner and in why male
adultery seems more ‘natural’ than females.
 Male and female have different strategies in maximizing their reproductive fitness.
(The female ‘invest’ more.)

PARENTAL INVESTMENT

 the behavior toward one’s offspring that increases the chances of survival at
the cost of a parent’s ability to invest in other offspring.’
 The female have greater investment in producing eggs and gestating embryos than
by males in producing sperms. (Biologist Ruth Huggard mentioned that this is difficult
to verify.)
SEXUAL OR MATE SELECTION

 virtually all members of the sex has greater parental investment.

 The Male reproductive success depends on:

> Their possession of traits that female finds attractive. (Parental

Investment Potential)

> Their success in male-male competition. Because men have

competed with men for sexual access to women, men have evolved to
favor VIOLENCE & COMPETITION.

Wilson’s Explanation of POLYGYNY:

 The male’s relatively lesser investment in sperm production means that they will be
polygynous and invest less in parenthood (assuming all factors are constant).
 IF the physical environment is extremely harsh it will lead to a monogamous
arrangement instead of a polygynous pattern. Female sexuality is restricted in this
scenario because the male needs to ensure that he is caring for his own offspring.
 Weaknesses/Critic of this perspective:
 Stephen Jay Gould (1980) pointed out that ‘whatever influence genes do have on
human behavior is bound to be exceedingly complicated.’ ( thus, inconclusive to say
that biological basis could explain social behavior)

REDUCTIONISM

 Sociobiology explains complex social phenomena using basic biological processes

(e.g. Embryo reproduction).
 Sociobiologists are guilty of:
 > ANTHROPOMORPHIZING (ascribing human attributes to animals) birds and
other species. (Remember that Wilson is an entomologist. His study focused
on insects.)

Theoretical Perspectives: Social Structural Theories

Social Structural Theories
 Gender theories that look into the structure in the analysis of gender difference or
inequality.
1. Functionalism
2. Materialist Explanation

“Ecological Determinism”
Proponent: Marvin Harris
- He studied horticultural societies and found:
1) there is high female infanticide and a shortage of women.
(Among the Yanomamo, war is intended to capture women for wives.)
-the shortage of women is further exacerbated by Polygyny.
2.) The relative worth of women and men is measured in terms of pure
biological efficiency. Females are more valuable than men.
Question: Why female infanticide and not male? Why male dominance if
women are valuable?
 The practice & culture of war to maintain ecological balance (carrying capacity)
contributes to population decrease on various ways:
1. increase male combat deaths
2. uninhabited territories in effect be potentially productive after one claim/
possessed it.
3. devaluation of women is necessary because sex is a reward for male
bravery.

 Women should be socialized as rewards because it they see themselves important,

they will not allow female infanticide thus affecting the population.
 War and sexism will only stop when their functions are fulfilled by other alternatives

“Isolated Nuclear Family”- Talcott Parsons

  In 1955, Parsons described the family (isolated nuclear family) as composed of
husband, wife and dependent children. It is isolated because:
1. they live apart from relatives
2. They are economically independent
3. Prior to industrialization, they provide education, care for the sick,
production of food and clothing.

“Isolated Nuclear Family”- Talcott Parsons

GENDER ROLES:
1. Instrumental roles- leadership, decision-making; productive role;
traditionally for the father/husband
2. Expressive roles- housework, childcare, sees emotional needs of the
family; reproductive role; traditionally for the mother/wife
-MEN are STATUS-GIVERS & WAGES EARNERS
CRITICISM:
> The question is, FUNCTIONAL FOR WHOM? Are the males synonymous
with society?
 For Harris’ Theory, the Yanomamo do not represent all the horticultural
societies, in fact they are even described as extremely aggressive compared
to other groups.

Materialist Explanations:
1. “The Origin of the Family”- Friedrich Engels
2. Conflict Theory of Sex Stratification - Patricia Collins
3. “General Theory of Gender Stratification”-Rae Lesser Blumberg

“The Origin of the Family”- Friedrich Engels

 Engels located the origin of male dominance in the historical transition from
subsistence to surplus production.
 Characterized by the shift from communal to private property in combination with the
discovery of paternity and inheritance.

From private property comes:

1. monogamy,
 2. virginity of women before marriage,
3. heirs, &
4. Fidelity of women during marriage and other restrictions on women’s
sexual activity.

Conflict Theory of Sex Stratification- Patricia Collins

RESOURCES determines sex status. Resources include:
1.) physical strength and sexual attractiveness &
2.) economic control.
 Ideas are used to justify power interests, that they are the results of stratification
rather than the cause of it.
4 major assumptions:
1. Human beings have strong sexual and aggressive drives.
2. People struggle for as much dominance as their resources permits.
3. Males are physically dominant over females because they are
generally larger and females are more vulnerable because of child bearing.
4. Changes in resources lead to changes in the ability to dominate.

Collin’s societal type:

 Collins showed power struggle between sexes in these types of societies.
1. Foraging & horticultural societies
- low tech; low degree of economic productivity> little stratification
- marriage is not political/economic but based on PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS.
2. Agrarian Society
- fortified household in the stratified society
- household is the basic social, political and economic unit that provides needs for its
members.
-male dominance is at its peak.
-Marriage is an exchange system (women are property to be exchange.)
- Female chastity is enforced by males who wanted to protect their property.
3. Industrial society
- private household in a market economy
-separation of work from household
-the use of force by men diminishes but they are still the head of the household
-women trade their resources (sexuality) in exchange for financial support and status
 Virginity is valuable and promiscuity lowered the economic value of women.

4. Advanced market economy

- the existence of employment opportunities created venues for women’s relative
power.
- in this era, physical attractiveness is needed since both sexes gain financial
security. The only way to negotiate in the sexual market is to increase one’s sex
appeal.
- Both sexes will actively seek the best political situation possible, given their
respective resources.
- The sexual market was based on personal qualities rather than on institutionalized
arrangements.
“General Theory of Gender Stratification”-Rae Lesser Blumberg
4 types of power:
1. Power of force or coercion,
2. power of property
3. Political power, &
4. Ideational forms of power
4 types of power:
 These are major determinants of social status, which is conceptualized in terms of
privileges. Status is translated then to LIFE OPTIONS.
 Determinant of women’s relative status is their relative economic power.
 He elaborated the precondition for and determinants of women’s economic power.
 It is not child rearing that impedes women’s participation in production rather the
DEMAND FOR FEMALE LABOR (which is determined by the following variables):
1. Strategic indispensability of work- the value of women’s productive
contribution to the total system
 2. Kinship- specifically inheritance, residence rules and patterns of descent
rules.
3. Society’s dominant mode of production- foraging, industrial, agrarian,
etc.

 Women are better off on relations of production that are communal rather than
private.
 Women’s relative power determines women’s relative status
 Economic macro level power is male dominated, women’s exercise of power is more
at the micro level.
 Less value is given to women’s work
 It is an issue of supply and demand and not on its compatibility to childcare.

CRITICISM: In effect, reproductive work is seen secondary to productive work.