SEMINAR REPORT

ON
Bitumen Stabilised Ballast
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

by
Anusree Damodaran
(Register Number: 11154220)
Under the Guidance of
Mrs Sivabala P
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PATHANAPURAM

DEPARTMENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

College of Engineering Pathanapuram
ELIKKATTOOR PO, KOLLAM - 689696
July 2017
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PATHANAPURAM
ELIKKATTOOR PO, PIRAVANTHOOR - 689696

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the bonafide report of seminar entitled Bi-
tumen Stabilised Ballast by Anusree Damodaran (Reg.
No.11154220 ) in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor
of Technology in Civil Engineering from Cochin University of Sci-
ence & Technology during the academic year 2017–2018.

Mrs. Sivabala P Mr. Vaisakh G Mr. Shahas S.

Seminar Guide Seminar Coordinator HoD
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Department of Civil Department of Civil
Engineering Engineering Engineering
PEC PEC PEC
 Acknowledgement
I thank Mrs.Sivabala P , my Seminar Guide for helping me con-
ceive the idea of the project. She also guided me implement the
particular project. I thank her from the bottom of my heart for
helping me in each step for completing the project.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Vaisakh G, Seminar Co-
ordinator, Department of Civil Engineering, for the valuable sug-
gestions and advices during the course of the work.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Shahas S, Head of the
Department, Department of Civil Engineering, for the valuable
suggestions and advices during the course of the work.
I am happy to thank other faculty members, technical and ad-
ministrative staff of the Department of Civil Engineering for their
valuable support and heartfelt cooperation. I thank my family
and friends for giving me mental support and enabling me to work
efficiently on the project.
Above all I thank God ,the almighty for his grace without which
it would not have been possible to complete this work in time.

Anusree Damodaran
 Abstract

The Railway industry all over the globe continues to

emphasize the importance of developing innovation in track
bed design technologies for both heavy tonnage freight lines
and hgh speed passenger lines.Railway ballast degradation
under dynamic loads progressively leads to loss of mechan-
ical performance and geology of the track, so that main-
tenance interventions are frequently needed .To overcome
the above factors many solutions have been proposed to re-
inforce track bed using polyurethane and/or resins as well
as asphalt layers.High initial cost and low productivity are
the main limitations.
In this study Bitumen Stabilized Ballast (BSB) is pro-
posed as a new solution for ballast stabilization and otimi-
sation of bitumen emulsion propeties for ballast stabilisa-
tion .This method aims at improving durability and reduc-
ing settlement by modifying both stiffness and the ability
of energy dissipation of the layers.The stabilization method
introduces the potential of BSB to be used in railway track
bed by presenting the reults of a laboratory based inves-
tigation using the Precision Unbound Material Analayzer
(PUMA).Different variables such as ballast grading , bi-
tumen emulsion dosage, compaction method are consid-
ered.The results obtained show significant decrease in per-
manent deformation and energy dissipation properties of
BSB ,which suggest the potential for improving long term
and sustainability of ballasted track

ii
Contents

List of Figures v

List of Tables vii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Ballast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Requirement of Ideal Ballast Material . . . . . . . . 2

2 Literature Review 3

3 Bitumen Stabilised Ballast 5

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Material Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Tests 9
4.1 Confined Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1.1 Precision Unbound Material Analyser Test . 10
4.1.2 Test Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.3 Test Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 Flowability Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

iii
5 Results and Discussion 26
5.1 Influence of gradation and BE properties on flowa-
bility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Influence of BE properties on ballast mechanical be-
haviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3 Desirability of the different BSB configurations . . . 30
5.4 conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 Case Study 35
6.1 Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.2 observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.1 wheel loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.2 Sleepers vertical acceleration . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3 conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7 Conclusion 42

iv
List of Figures

3.1 Physical and rheological properties of bitumen emul-

sions used;[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.1 PUMA frame and loading apparatus; [2] . . . . . . 10

4.2 Visual appearance of the stabilized ballast after emul-
sion setting.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Cumulative plastic strain over the cyclic vertical
compression testing.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Cumulative plastic strain over the cyclic vertical
compression testing.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.5 Resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical compres-
sion testing.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 Resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical compres-
sion testing for clean ballast.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.7 Stress-strain hysteretic loops for different specimens
at high stress level.[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.8 Average resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical
compression testing (left) and dissipated energy in
each loading-unloading cycle (right).[1] . . . . . . . 23
4.9 Flowability test apparatus and specimen set up;[2] . 25

5.1 Flowability test results;[2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

v
5.2 Final plastic strain after 200,000 repetitions in the
PUMA test for clean (a) and fouled (b) ballast ;[2] 28
5.3 Influence of BE stabilisation on long-term behaviour
(PSR) of clean and fouled ballast;[2] . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Influence of stabilisation on resilient modulus (RM)
and dissipated energy per cycle (DE) for clean (a)
and fouled ballast (b);[2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.5 Detailed desirability values of flowability index, plas-
tic strain, resilient modulus, dissipated energy and
resulting desirability index for all BSB configurations;[2] 31
5.6 Desirability index results of (a) clean and (b) fouled
stabilised specimens as a function of BE dosage and
type;[2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.1 Instrumentation of the EE HSL test zone with bi-

tuminous sub-ballast layer: Transversal plan (left)
and top plan (right) (Not in scale);[3] . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Measured wheel load at the EE HSL test zone (160
Hz );[3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Sleeper’s vertical acceleration and FEM calculations-
GB zone Vs Reference zone(160 Hz);[3] . . . . . . . 39

vi
List of Tables

4.1 Effect of ballast stabilization on the plastic

strain rate (long-term behavior) of fouled ballast.[1] 17
4.2 Effect of ballast stabilization on the plastic
strain rate (long-term behavior) of clean ballast.[1] 17

vii
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Ballast
Ballast (usually crushed stone), is important part of railroad in-
frastructure. Ballast is a granular structural layer of the railway
substructure and it is composed of uniformly graded particles be-
tween 22 and 63 mm. The ballast layer’s main functions are to
provide a solid and uniform foundation for the sleepers, transmit
and reduce the stress from passing trains to acceptable level for the
sub grade, provide adequate drainage, provide a desirable degree
of elasticity and an adequate level of noise and vibration adsorp-
tion. Its ability to perform these functions is strongly related to
the physical state of assembly, particle characteristics and load
characteristics. Nonetheless, stresses generated at contact points
by traffic and maintenance progressively lead to particle degrada-
tion, a process known as fouling. The structural integrity of fouled
ballast can be compromised leading to track loss of mechanical per-
formance and accelerating geometry deterioration. Thus in order
to keep the stability and geometry of the track at standard comfort

1
Chapter 1. Introduction 2

and safety levels, frequent maintenance is needed, various authors

have proposed innovative solutions and technologies in order to
reinforce the track-bed and mitigate ballast degradation. In this
regard, the use of elastic elements such as under sleeper pads, un-
der ballast mats or crumb rubber mixed with ballast aggregates,
from elastomeric materials or from tire rubber wastes, can provide
a significant reduction in track deterioration and vibrations.

1.2 Requirement of Ideal Ballast Ma-

terial
The material of ballast should be of such nature that it may have
sufficient grip over the sleepers to prevent their horizontal move-
ment. It should possible to maintain the required depth of material
in order to distribute uniformly the weight of passing train. The
ballast material should not be too rigid but elastic in nature. Also
ballast should not bebrittle and should have the required compres-
sive strength. It should allow quick drainage of rain water.Material
of ballast should not have any chemical reaction on rail and metal
sleepers. It should be also durable.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 2

Literature Review

1. Giacomo DAngelo, Nicholas Thom, Davide Lo Presti stud-

ied durability and reducing settlement by modifying both
stiffness and the ability of energy dissipation of bitumen sta-
bilized ballast layer using PUMA test.

2. G.DAngelo, D. Lo Presti, N. Thom (2017) studied on op-

timisation of bitumen emulsion properties for ballast stabi-
lization.
Jerry G. Rose, Reginald R. Souleyrette studied on bitumi-
nous railway trackbeds: in-track tests, Evaluations, and Per-
formances in a global perspective.

3. Di Mino G, Di Liberto M, Maggiore C, Noto S studied on A

dynamic model of ballasted rail track with bituminous sub-
ballast layer.
Luv Seghal,Amit Garg,Vijay Seghal,Dr William Buttlarstud-
ied on inernational experainces of bitumn stabilised raiway

3
Chapter 2. Literature Review 4

track
D Ramirez Cardona , J Bankhala, S Costa DAguir, N Calon,
A Robinet, H DI Benedetto, C Sauzeat studied on the be-
haviour of high-speed ballasted tracks with a bituminous
sub-ballast layer. Bituminous sub-ballast layers have been
identified as a suitable structural solution for the further de-
velopment of high-speed lines (HSL).

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 3

Bitumen Stabilised Ballast

3.1 General
This technology consists in the use of bitumen emulsion,
poured from above in a similar fashion to that of stone filled emul-
sion asphalt. The concept behind this solution is a reinforcement
method applied during a routine maintenance operation that can
increase ballast durability and keep good drainage properties, for
a relatively low cost.
The technology development has to take into account several re-
quirements, such as application method, maintainability, perme-
ability of the stabilized layer, short-term and long-term properties
among others. A large amount of variables has to be investigated:
dosage of bitumen emulsion, bitumen emulsion properties, solid
content and bitumen properties, ballast layer compaction, ballast
fouling level, water damage and temperature among other.
Despite its worldwide spread, traditional ballasted track still presents
considerable problems of settlement and particle degradation, which
lead to high maintenance costs and low durability. In this regard,

5
Chapter 3. Bitumen Stabilised Ballast 6

in recent years, to mitigate these issues mainly related to the un-

bound nature of ballast, several solutions have been proposed to
reinforce or stabilize aggregate by means of polymers or resins. In
this context, the use of bitumen stabilized ballast (BSB) has been
recently proposed as relatively economic solution to extend ballast
service life with an easy to apply (maintenance)practice.

3.2 Material Used

The materials used for this study include: virgin aggregate,
bitumen emulsion and water. Granite is used as ballast. Ballast
was tested for different conditions using two gradations:

1. clean ballast;

2. fouled ballast.

With its high percentage of particles lower than 22.4 mm

the specimen can be considered highly degraded. In order to have
a maximum particle size smaller than 1/6th the diameter of the
specimen, both clean and fouled ballast had to be scaled using
the parallel gradation scheme. To obtain the scaled gradations 4
different nominal sizes were combined (only mineral fouling from
breakage of particle breakage was considered): 20 mm, 14 mm, 10
mm and 6 mm.The bitumen emulsion (BE) used for stabilizing the
ballast was acationic bitumen emulsion that has affinity to a wide
range of mineral aggregates and promotes adhesion of bitumen to
a wide range of aggregate materials. This BE provides a bonding

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Chapter 3. Bitumen Stabilised Ballast 7

effect between particles, and is effective for use in all weather con-
ditions.Prewetting water was used to lubricate the aggregate and
activate the surface charges on aggregate particles before the BE
was added.
Also for this study three different bitumen emulsions were selected
. Since this is a new application for bitumen emulsion a wide
range of possibilities, in terms of BE characteristics, was explored:
different viscosities (depending on solid content); use of neat or
modified bitumen; different setting speeds; and different types of
bitumen.N1 is a high performance BE typically used for pavement
surface courses . N2 and R1 were selected for their quick setting,
high viscosity and suitability for this new application . All of them
are cationic emulsions with affinity to a wide range of mineral ag-
gregates and promote adhesion of bitumen to ballast particles. The
ballast used for this study was granite aggregate sourced from Bar-
don Hill quarry in Leicestershire, United Kingdom . Due to the
dimensions of the test apparatus, two scaled (approximately one
third scale) gradations (clean and fouled ballast) were used as de-
scribed in previous studies .

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 3. Bitumen Stabilised Ballast 8

Figure 3.1: Physical and rheological properties of bitumen emul-

sions used;[1]

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4

Tests

4.1 Confined Compression Test

In order to assess the mechanical properties of BSB, a dy-
namic confined compression test (PUMA) was used. This test
consists of the application of a repeated compression load and
records the resulting vertical displacement as described in . 4.1
illustrates the frame and the apparatus used. Each specimen was
compacted using a standard vibrating hammer and then loaded on
its top surface by a circular platen. Cyclic load was applied as a 5
Hz haversine, bell-shaped loading pulse with peaks (200 kPa) and
rest loads (11.7 kPa) for 200,000 repetitions, as these conditions
can be considered representative of those experienced by ballast
in real track (). For each BSB specimen, before pouring the emul-
sion, 2% by weight of water was added in order to lubricate the
aggregate and activate the surface charges on the aggregate parti-
cles . All tests were carried out twice and good repeatability was
obtained.

9
Chapter 4. Tests 10

Figure 4.1: PUMA frame and loading apparatus; [2]

4.1.1 Precision Unbound Material Analyser Test

DAngelo et al evaluated the performance of BSB using Pre-
cision Unbound Material analyzer test, relatively practical test
suited to both unbound and stabilized material, jointly developed
between the University of Nottingham and Cooper Research Tech-
nology. The performance of BSB has been evaluated using Preci-
sion Unbound Material Analyzer (PUMA) test.The materials used
for this study include: virgin aggregate, bitumen emulsion and wa-
ter. The ballast used in this study was granite aggregate sourced
from Bardon Hill Quarry in Leicestershire, (United Kingdom). In

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Chapter 4. Tests 11

this study, ballast was tested for different conditions using two
gradations:

1. clean ballast;

2. fouled ballast.

The concept behind this solution is a reinforcement method

applied during a routine maintenance operation that can increase
ballast durability and keep good drainage properties, for a rela-
tively low cost.

4.1.2 Test Planning

The investigation was divided into two stages. In the first
stage the effect of the percentage of bitumen emulsion used for
stabilization was analyzed together with the influence of the com-
paction method used. The percentages studied were 2% and 3% by
weight. This range of percentage was chosen according to typical
bitumen stabilized materials used for cold mix purposes on roads.
Bitumen stabilized ballast (clean, C-BSB, and fouled, F-BSB) was
compared to clean and fouled ballast used as references.
Since ballast behavior depends upon its level of compaction, at
this stage two different methods were used in order to analyze
their influence on performance. In the first method

1. samples were compacted by manual shaking of the mould ,

carried out after each third of material was poured into the
mould; in the second method .

2. the whole sample was poured and then compacted by a vi-

brating hammer through a plate for approximately 60 s.

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Chapter 4. Tests 12

These two methods simulated the situations when a dy-

namic track stabilizer is used or not used after construction or
routine maintenance.Traffic was simulated by applying dynamic
loads equivalent to an average contact stress of 200 kPa, which is
considered to be appropriate to simulate a typical train loading ef-
fect.In the second stage of this study, performance of BSB under a
higher level of stress (300 kPa) was predicted simulating dynamic
loading of high-speed trains, freight train loads or dynamic effects
caused by rail or wheel surface imperfections. In this second stage,
tests were carried out for only one compaction condition, namely
compaction by vibrating hammer on F-BSB with 3% BE, as well
as reference materials.

4.1.3 Test Setup

After sieving operations ballast samples were poured into
the PUMA mould and compacted. In the case of wet ballast, the
sample was previously mixed with water in order to have moisture
content (MC) of 2%.
In the case of BSB, after compaction, the emulsion was poured
taking care to obtain an approximately homogenous distribution
on the ballast surface. During this operation the emulsion flowed
along the path of least resistance, through the pores within the
ballast. After this, specimens were cured for 72 h at 40 C, simu-
lating long-term curing.

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Chapter 4. Tests 13

Figure 4.2: Visual appearance of the stabilized ballast after emul-

sion setting.[1]

4.2 shows the appearance of the stabilized ballast after

the emulsion had set. It can be noticed that it appears similar to
an open graded asphalt mix. Once the set-up of the specimens was
concluded they were tested using the NU loading frame, which is
a piece of equipment commonly available in UK materials testing
laboratories and widely used for the testing of asphalt samples.
The equipment was used to apply repeated compression load to
the samples and to record the resulting vertical displacement,
by means of a pair of Linear Variable Differential Transformers
(LVDTs). Data were recorded during each cycle for the first 100

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Chapter 4. Tests 14

repetitions, each 10 cycles from cycle 1001000 and then every 1000
cycles thereafter. Data readings taken during the cyclical load
testing included axial load, axial deformation, circumferential de-
formation, and confining pressure. All the tests were conducted
by applying a cyclic load as a 5 Hz haversine, bell-shaped loading
pulse with peaks (200 kPa or 300 kPa) and rest loads (11.7 kPa) for
200,000 repetitions. This frequency is considered corresponding to
the frequency measured in situ for a train speed of 100 km/h and
is commonly used in laboratory dynamic tests simulating railway
traffic loading. A constant initial confining pressure of 10 kPa was
applied to all the specimens as representative of the in-situ confin-
ing pressure of self-standing ballast. All the tests were carried out
at a controlled temperature of 20 C.
These conditions, even if they are not fully simulative of real track,
are considered adequate to reach a stable behaviour as demon-
strated for similar tests on granular materials.The majority of the
tests were carried out twice and for those a good repeatability was
observed: test pairs always within 6% of each other.

4.1.4 Results

Influence of the compaction method and the % BE on clean

and fouled ballast results shows that the Bitumen stabilized spec-
imen exhibited lower plastic strain than the reference ones. It is
shown in 4.3 and 4.4.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 15

ballast.png

Figure 4.3: Cumulative plastic strain over the cyclic vertical com-
pression testing.[1]

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 16

ballast.png

Figure 4.4: Cumulative plastic strain over the cyclic vertical com-
pression testing.[1]

With the aim of evaluating also the long-term behavior,

Table lists the plastic strain rate (PSR) measured over the last
20,000 cycles, when the behavior was stable, according to equation
.

∆εs
P SR = (4.1)
∆Ns
Where ∆Ns is the number of cycles and ∆εs is the plas-
tic variation during the stable range considered.In this regard, re-
sults show that the stabilization technique overall significantly de-
creased the deformation rate and consequently could improve the
durability of ballast layer.

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Chapter 4. Tests 17

Wet(M) Dry(K)Wet(K)BSB2%(M)
BSB3%(M) BSB2%(K) B
5
PSR*10 mm/cycle
5.13 3.79 4.10 2.96 1.34 1.53 1

Table 4.1: Effect of ballast stabilization on the plastic strain

rate (long-term behavior) of fouled ballast.[1]

Dry(M) Dry(K) Wet(K) BSB2%(K) BSB3%(K)

5
PSR*10 mm/cycle
3.83 2.12 3.73 0.75 0.70

Table 4.2: Effect of ballast stabilization on the plastic strain

rate (long-term behavior) of clean ballast.[1]

Overall an increase of % BE corresponded to an im-

portant decrease in both permanent deformation and deformation
rate, especially for F-BSB. This effect was less evident in the case
of CBSB and suggests that the amount of bitumen corresponding
to 2% BE was already close to the maximum that could be retained
due to the small number of particle contacts in clean ballast. The
effect of a small increase in MC both for clean and fouled ballast
was a small increase in plastic strain, as expected.
From the data recorded during the dynamic tests it was possible
to calculate the resilient modulus by the equation;

∆σv
Mr = (4.2)
εr

Where ∆σv and εr represent the deviatoric stress and re-

silient (recoverable) strain, respectively Its plot against the number
of loading repetitions is reported in 4.5 and 4.6. After 100,000 cy-
cles when the behaviour is stable, from the hysteresis loop (strain-

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 18

stress diagram) the dissipated energy values were calculated. The

effect of % BE on the average resilient modulus and dissipated
energy, under the same compaction method (K), is highlighted in
??.
It can be noticed that there is an increase in the values of resilient
modulus and dissipated energy in the BSB specimens with respect
to reference materials. In this case, the % BE had a higher in-
fluence than the compaction method for the resilient modulus of
BSB specimens. From fig 4 ,in fact, it can be noticed that F-BSB
specimens with 3% BE had slightly higher stiffness values than
those with 2%, regardless of the compaction method. In contrast
C-BSB exhibited a higher stiffness with 2% BE. This last result is
probably associated again with the maximum quantity of bitumen
emulsion that can be retained within a nearly single sized material.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 19

fouled.png

Figure 4.5: Resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical compression

testing.[1]

Overall it can be noticed that there is an increase in

the values of resilient modulus and dissipated energy in the BSB
specimens with respect to reference materials. In this case, the
% BE had a higher influence than the compaction method for the
resilient modulus of BSB specimens. In fact, it can be noticed
that F-BSB specimens with 3% BE had slightly higher stiffness
values than those with 2%, regardless of the compaction method.
In contrast C-BSB exhibited a higher stiffness with 2% BE.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 20

clean.png

Figure 4.6: Resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical compression

testing for clean ballast.[1]

The effect on dissipated energy seemed to be approx-

imately independent of the % BE and the compaction method.
However, BSB specimens exhibited an average increase of approx-
imately 35% and 40% with respect to the fouled and clean ballast
reference materials, respectively. In this sense, visco-elastic be-
havior of bitumen added to the material very desirable hysteretic
damping properties. This is to be expected since the presence
of bitumen induces energy loss due to viscous effects, adding to
the frictional energy losses taking place due to inter-particle slip
within ballast. Variation of both of these two parameters can im-
prove track-bed performance: low levels of stiffness could increase
flexural deformation and consequently the bending moment of the

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Chapter 4. Tests 21

rail (and thus its stresses) as well as track-bed settlement, on the

other hand, increasing the stiffness can lead to higher dynamic
forces transmitted by trains that, if not adequately damped, nec-
essarily lead to the deterioration of all components of the track.
In this regard, increasing the energy dissipation is appropriate for
damping dynamic overloads, reducing track-bed and ground vi-
brations and therefore maintenance costs. Nonetheless it has to
be also noted that on excessively flexible tracks, energy dissipation
can also lead to important increase in rolling resistance and thus
service costs. In this case of BSB, the increase in dissipated energy
per cycle is due to the visco-elastic behavior provided by the bitu-
men component rather than a more flexible behavior. This result
correlates well with results obtained by Sol-Sanchez et al., who
compared mechanical behavior of track-bed sections with granular
or bituminous sub-ballast. Thus by modifying both the stiffness
and damping characteristics of the ballast layer, BSB can effec-
tively reduce deterioration and maintenance associated costs.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 22

Figure 4.7: Stress-strain hysteretic loops for different specimens at

high stress level.[1]

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Chapter 4. Tests 23

Figure 4.8: Average resilient modulus over the cyclic vertical

compression testing (left) and dissipated energy in each loading-
unloading cycle (right).[1]

4.2 Flowability Test

One of the most important factors influencing BSB appli-
cation is the viscosity of the bitumen emulsion (BE), since the
BE should be able to penetrate the aggregates, gluing the con-
tact points, but should not drain through the layer. The viscosity
should therefore be an optimum to allow penetration to the bot-
tom of the layer but should minimise the percentage of material
that reaches the interface with underlying materials. Variables in-
volved are the bitumen content in the emulsion (the higher the
bitumen content the more viscous the BE), the dosage and the
breaking behaviour .

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Chapter 4. Tests 24

Thus, a specific test, similar to the determination of penetration

power of bituminous emulsion (30), was set-up to evaluate the
ability of BE to penetrate a specific aggregate mix. The appara-
tus used for the test consisted of a transparent tube with an inner
diameter of 120 mm and height of 240 mm having in the base a
porous metal plate with a pore size of 1 mm, as shown in Figure
1. The test was carried out under normal laboratory conditions,
at room temperature of approximately 20C. It consisted of pour-
ing a quantity of BE corresponding to 2% or 3% by weight into
a cylindrical aggregate volume with a height of 150 mm within
approximately 20-30s. The test duration was 1200 s, during which
the process was recorded photographically and the emulsion drain-
ing through the layer was collected at the bottom of the apparatus
so that the percentage of material lost could be evaluated. Two
key parameters were measured to evaluate flowability:

1. the penetration time, i.e. the time for the emulsion to com-
pletely penetrate into the aggregates, expressed in seconds;

2. the % BE lost, i.e. the percentage of emulsion that had

drained through the ballast by the end of the test.

In order to calculate a specific desirability function for this

property, these two parameters were combined, obtaining a flow-
ablity index (FI) as in equation :

F I = (1 − %BE lost)∗(test duration − penetration time) (4.3)

This index increases as %BE lost and penetration time

decrease, giving information about the ability of the BE to quickly

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 4. Tests 25

penetrate the aggregate layer and start setting.

Figure 4.9: Flowability test apparatus and specimen set up;[2]

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

5.1 Influence of gradation and BE prop-

erties on flowability
5.1 shows results of the flowability tests, indicating pene-
tration time, quantity and percentage of BE lost, and flowability
index as determined by equation . It can be observed that viscos-
ity and breaking behaviour played the most important roles. In
fact, passing from low binder content (60%) and slow setting (N1)
to high binder content (70%) and fast setting (R1) (with an inter-
mediate situation for N2) the percentage of material lost dropped
drastically. The gradation had an important influence on the re-
sults to the extent that passing from a more open graded (clean
ballast) to a well graded (fouled ballast) there was a 2075% reduc-
tion in material lost, depending on the BE used. In the case of BE
N2 the effect of dosage was also relevant: an increase from 2% to
3% BE led to an approximately tenfold increase in material lost.
This analysis shows that, depending on field conditions,properties

26
Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 27

of BE such as viscosity, breaking behavior and dosage can be op-

timized to reach a desired penetration depth. Results also show
that, for the specific materials analysed, BE R1 had the best scores
in terms of flowability index.

result.png

Figure 5.1: Flowability test results;[2]

5.2 Influence of BE properties on bal-

last mechanical behaviour
5.2 shows the plastic strain after 200,000 repetitions in the
confined compression test (PUMA) for the 12 BSB configurations
and 2 reference materials. Results indicate an overall improve-
ment in resistance to permanent deformation (up to 3 times) for
stabilised specimens compared to the unbound reference materials,
in agreement with other studies on ballast stabilisation . It can be
noted that gradation had an important influence on results since
in almost every case clean ballast specimens (both stabilised and
unbound) exhibited a lower plastic strain than their fouled coun-

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 28

terparts. This result is in agreement with Keene et al.The dosage

of BE also influenced results to the extent that increasing %BE led
to a lower final plastic strain, confirming the findings of DAngelo
et al. Also the type of bitumen had a significant influence: almost
all BSB specimens with harder bitumen exhibited lower plastic
strain than those with softer bitumen (N2).

strain.png

Figure 5.2: Final plastic strain after 200,000 repetitions in the

PUMA test for clean (a) and fouled (b) ballast ;[2]

Figure 5.3: Influence of BE stabilisation on long-term behaviour

(PSR) of clean and fouled ballast;[2]

With the aim of analysing the influence of BE on long-

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 29

term ballast behaviour, 5.3 shows plastic strain rate (PSR) values
calculated over the last 20,000 cycles . It can be observed that
in general stabilised specimens had lower values of PSR than the
reference materials. Also for this parameter gradation had an im-
portant influence, PSR values for clean ballast being lower than
those for fouled ballast. These results confirm the potential of this
technology to improve track bed resistance to geometry degrada-
tion and consequently to reduce the need for maintenance due to
ballast settlement.

Figure 5.4: Influence of stabilisation on resilient modulus (RM)

and dissipated energy per cycle (DE) for clean (a) and fouled bal-
last (b);[2]

5.4 illustrates the influence of bitumen stabilisation on

ballast resilient modulus (stress amplitude over the resilient strain)
and its ability to dissipate energy (hysteresis loop area per cycle),
averaged over the last 20,000 cycles. It can be observed that sta-
bilisation typically provided an increase in resilient modulus of ap-
proximately 25% with respect to the reference cases without BE.
At the same time the stabilisation process improved the ability of

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 30

ballast to dissipate energy. BSB specimens dissipated on average

40% and 30% more energy than clean and fouled reference ma-
terials, respectively. In addition, with the exception of 2% BSB
(N1), it can be noted that fouled specimens dissipated a higher
quantity of energy, even if by a relatively small margin, than their
clean counterparts. It is also interesting to highlight that a small
increase in bitumen content (BE from 2% to 3%) corresponded for
almost all BSB specimens to a small increase in dissipated energy,
confirming the important role played by this variable. The influ-
ence of gradation and BE content was however less marked in the
case of the resilient modulus values.

These results jointly suggest the potential of BSB for

reducing track deterioration and maintenance costs: a relatively
small increase in stiffness could be beneficial for reducing fatigue
and deterioration of track components when dynamic loads are
adequately damped . Nevertheless it is worth noting that these
results may be partly a function of the confined conditions of the
test used.

5.3 Desirability of the different BSB

configurations
In the sections above the potential benefits of stabilising bal-
last with bitumen emulsion have been highlighted. This section
will provide a comparison of the BSB configurations analysed in
this study using the optimisation method illustrated in Section
2.6. This method was carried out based on the data obtained from

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 31

flowability and confined compression tests. The evaluated parame-

ters, namely flowability index, plastic strain, resilient modulus and
dissipated energy reflect some of the most important objectives to
be achieved by this new technology for its application in a railway.

Figure 5.5: Detailed desirability values of flowability index, plastic

strain, resilient modulus, dissipated energy and resulting desirabil-
ity index for all BSB configurations;[2]

5.5 and presents results in terms of desirability values

obtained using Derringers desirability functions with parameters
analysed during flowability and PUMA tests. By using the ge-
ometrical mean the corresponding desirability index is obtained
for each configuration. 5.6 summarises these values for clean and
fouled BSB.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 32

Figure 5.6: Desirability index results of (a) clean and (b) fouled
stabilised specimens as a function of BE dosage and type;[2]

In can be observed that the best scores, ranging from 0.72

to 0.75, were obtained by N2 and R1, regardless of the gradation
considered. BE N1, in contrast, reached noticeably lower values,
especially in the case of clean ballast; despite general improvements
in terms of mechanical properties of BSB, BE characteristics nega-
tively influenced its flowability through the ballast, allowing a high
quantity of material to be lost during stabilisation. This param-
eter had, in fact, the highest impact on the optimisation process.
This suggests that a more viscous BE is preferred for stabilisation
of ballast having a relatively low level of degradation.

5.4 conclusion
The tests and results provide an insight into the optimi-
sation of BSB. Different solutions in terms of type of bitumen
emulsion, dosage, bitumen properties and ballast gradation have
been compared, using an optimisation method, in terms of me-

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 33

chanical performance and effectiveness of BE application. From

the analysis carried out in this study, the following conclusions
can be drawn:

• Overall, bitumen stabilisation improved ballast properties

in terms of plastic strain and plastic strain rate (long-term
behaviour), confirming the potential of the technology for
enhancing ballast layer mechanical performance, in a similar
way to other stabilisation technologies (18, 33, 41, 42). In
this regard, the modified stiffness and damping properties
could be beneficial for track component lifecycles and noise
and vibration reduction, with associated reduced economic
and environmental costs.

• The type of emulsion and its dosage seem to play an impor-

tant role in BSB properties: increasing the %BE provided
a better resistance to permanent deformation and changed
the mechanical properties of BSB; increasing the viscosity of
bitumen emulsion decreased the percentage of material lost,
thereby providing improved stabilising behaviour. Neverthe-
less, depending on the field application and ballast depth to
be stabilised, a specific BE could be designed to fulfill specific
requirements.

• Ballast gradation is another important factor to take into ac-

count: results showed that overall clean specimens exhibited
better performance than fouled ones. Nevertheless, it has
to be noted that this study was carried out using a scaled
grainsize distribution.

• Comparison of all BSB configurations, with the optimisation

method used, indicates that configurations with N2 and R1

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 5. Results and Discussion 34

emulsions, which obtained the highest desirability values, are

likely to mark the path to follow for further development of
this new technology.

The results obtained give important guidance on the in-

fluence of the factors studied here, but further investigation of
full-scale BSB is still needed to support the results obtained in
this study and provide a better understanding of the potential of
this new technology.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6

Case Study

The effect of bituminous sub-ballast layers was evaluated in

terms of three parameters: the vertical stresses on the ballast, the
tensile strains in the sub-ballast layer and the vertical stresses on
the subgrade. They calculated these parameters using the track
numerical model KENTRACK which is based on the elastic mul-
tilayer theory and incorporates a finite element procedure. They
identified an optimal sub-ballast thickness of 12 to 14cm using con-
ventional bituminous mixtures. They also concluded that, when
higher tracks performances are required, its better to slightly in-
crease the layers thickness than to use a stiffer mixture. This same
track structure has been found adequate for meeting the Spanish
high-speed railways standards (2010).

Furthermore, (Fang et al., 2013) concluded that the op-

timal position of the bituminous layer is under the ballast, above
the upper subgrade. For this, they used a finite element method to
calculate the transversal and longitudinal tensile strains, as well
as the vertical stresses, in each layer of the track. Placing the

35
Chapter 6. Case Study 36

bituminous layer under the ballast provides the most total stress
reduction in the trackbed as well as the best vibration attenua-
tion. The main objectives of this work are to determine the strain
level at the bituminous subballast layer and to identify the influ-
ence of this layer in the general track behaviour. For this, three
different track structures have been modelled using the finite ele-
ments software GEFdyn (Aubry et al. 1982). This software allows
analysing the dynamic non-linear behaviour of geo-materials for 2
or 3-dimensional cases. The calculations were made by SNCFs In-
novation Research department. The tracks geometry and loading
cases used in the model match those found in real French high-
speed lines. One of the modelled cases presented on this paper
corresponds to the bituminous test section of the EE HSL. This
test zone, the first of its type in the French railway network, was
instrumented with different sensors and gauges. The in-situ mea-
surements will serve to validate the Finite Elements Model (FEM)
calculations. In the first part of this paper, a brief description
of the test section of the EE HSL and the analysis of the col-
lected data are presented. In the second part, the used FEM is
addressed; each of the studied track structure and the loading case
are described. The results and analysis of the model calculations
are presented in the third part of this paper. A comparison be-
tween the in-situ treated measurements and the FEM calculations
are also presented. Finally, conclusions are drawn.

6.1 Study
This test zone is located near the French city of Reims. The
section is 3 km long and has a 14 cm thick bituminous sub-ballast

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6. Case Study 37

layer. The bituminous mixture used in this test zone was made by
the French company COLAS and has a reference complex Youngs
modulus superior to 9 GPa (at 15C and 10Hz), which is a normal
value for the French standard base-course materials. Nevertheless,
it has an elevated fatigue resistance with a ε6 = 110µm/m and a
reduced air voids content under 4%.

Figure 6.1: Instrumentation of the EE HSL test zone with bitumi-

nous sub-ballast layer: Transversal plan (left) and top plan (right)
(Not in scale);[3]

Each of the profile zones was equipped with accelerom-

eters on the sleepers, stress gauges on the rails, strain gauges and
temperature sensors at the base of the asphalt layer, and pressure
gauges at the bottom of the capping layer, right under the strain
gauges 6.1. A fourth instrumented zone was made in a nearby por-
tion of the classic granular structure. It serves as reference zone.
Its instrumentation only included accelerometers on the sleepers,
stress gauges on the rails and pressure gauges in the platform.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6. Case Study 38

6.2 observations
The FEM calculations where made with a loading case that
reproduces the geometry of the TGV loadings at the expected cir-
culation speed. All the figures respect the geotechnical conventions
for stress and strain (positive values in compression).

6.2.1 wheel loads

6.2 shows the measured wheel load applied by the circulat-
ing TGV on the reference and GB zones of the EE HSL. The load
signals were filtered with an elliptic lowpass filter at 160Hz. The
measured load applied to the rail ,Qz was 82.4kN and the trains
speed was 317km/h. As a reminder, the wheel load at the rail
used for the FEM calculations is 85kN at a speed of 320km/h.
The loading conditions are then similar and allow further com-
parisons between the experimental measurements and the FEM
calculations.

Figure 6.2: Measured wheel load at the EE HSL test zone (160 Hz
);[3]

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6. Case Study 39

6.2.2 Sleepers vertical acceleration

In this section the FEM simulation results are compared
to the measured sleepers vertical acceleration at the EE HSL test
zone. Only the experimental measures from the external sleep-
ers are presented. 6.3 shows the acceleration signals from the ac-
celerometers T3ext and T4ext placed on the sleepers (6.1). A low-
pass elliptic filter at 160Hz was used to treat the raw data. For the
two configurations, the model represents well the measured accel-
eration signals; in both amplitude and the tendency of the signal.
The validation of the used model allows the comparisons presented
in the next section of this paper in terms of the vertical stiffness of
the track. Lower acceleration values are observed at the GB zone
in comparison to the reference zone. This is a clear evidence of the
stabilizing role of the bituminous layer in the structure as lower
vertical accelerations lead to lower displacements of the sleepers

Figure 6.3: Sleeper’s vertical acceleration and FEM calculations-

GB zone Vs Reference zone(160 Hz);[3]

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6. Case Study 40

6.3 conclusion
The mechanical behaviour of high-speed ballasted tracks
with a bituminous sub-ballast layer was studied. Bituminous sub-
ballast layers were found to reduce the vertical acceleration of the
sleepers which stands as an evidence of their role in ameliorating
the global structures stability. This explains the low maintenance
needs observed at the EE HSL experimental test zone compared
to the surrounding zones with conventional granular structures.
Their use also increases the vertical stiffness of the railway track
while allowing a reduction of the structures height. This can be
particularly advantageous for projects such as tunnels and low level
crossings with low quality platforms as the rail gauge is limited.
Moreover, bituminous sub-ballast layers were found highly efficient
in reducing the vertical stress transmitted to the granular capping
layer and, therefore, to the supporting platform. Despite the ob-
served advantages of using bituminous materials in HSLs, given
the observed wheel load magnitudes, other mechanical properties
of bituminous mixtures, such as the resistance to permanent defor-
mations and creeping, need to be characterised for railway circula-
tion. The strain level at the bottom of the bituminous sub-ballast
layer was identified. The strain magnitude is close to 2µm/m for
the passing of French TGVs at commercial circulation speeds near
320Km/h. This order of magnitude is to be taken into account
for the estimation of the fatigue life of bituminous materials in
sub-ballast layers under high speed railway solicitations. Given
the low strain magnitudes, the fatigue life is not expected to be
determinant for the dimensioning of bituminous sub-ballast layers.
Nevertheless, the evolution of fatigue resistance with the exposi-
tion of the material to the environment, especially humidity, should

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 6. Case Study 41

be characterized. Regarding the used finite elements model, it was

found to correctly describe the tracks behaviour observed from the
in-situ measurements at the EE HSL test zone. This enables its
utilisation for analysing many other structure configurations. The
experimental measurements and the numerical calculations suggest
that regular asphalt mixtures, such as the French GB3 mixture,
may be suitable for HSL sub-ballast layers since no extraordinary
solicitation on the material was observed. However, this obser-
vations need to be validated with laboratory tests to determinate
their rheological properties and their resistance to degradation un-
der railway service conditions.

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC

Chapter 7

Conclusion

At ordinary stress level, the use of bitumen emulsion as sta-

bilization method led to a significant decrease of ballast permanent
deformation and deformation rate, higher when the dosage was in-
creased. Based on this research BSB could represent a feasible
solution to mitigate the problem of track-bed deterioration and
settlement. The stiffening effect of BSB is beneficial for reducing
rail deflection and stresses and track-bed settlement.Bituminous
sub-ballast layers were found to reduce the vertical acceleration of
the sleepers which stands as an evidence of their role in amelio-
rating the global structures stability.Despite the observed advan-
tages of using bituminous materials in HSLs, given the observed
wheel load magnitudes, other mechanical properties of bituminous
mixtures, such as the resistance to permanent deformations and
creeping, need to be characterised for railway circulation.

42
Bibliography

[1] Bitumen stabilised ballast: A potential solution for rail-

way track-bed Giacomo DAngelo, Nicholas Thom, Da-
vide Lo Presti Article in Construction and Building Ma-
terials July 2016.DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.067.;
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305639374

[2] Optimisation of bitumen emulsion properties for bal-

last stabilisation G.DAngelo*, D. Lo Presti, N.
Thom Nottingham Transportation Engineering Cen-
tre, the University of Nottingham, (Nottingham,
UK) *Giacomo.DAngelo@nottingham.ac.uk MA-
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327, JulySeptember 2017, e124 ISSN-L: 0465-2746
http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/mc.2017.04416track

[3] HIGH-SPEED BALLASTED TRACK BEHAVIOR

WITH SUB-BALLAST BITUMINOUS LAYER Diego
RAMIREZ CARDONA, Jamel BENKAHLA, Sofia
COSTA DAGUIAR, Nicolas CALON, Alain ROBI-
NET, Herv DI BENEDETTO1, Cdric SAUZEAT1 :
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280730520

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[4] Railway Track Stiffness Dynamic Measurements and Evalua-

tion for Efficient Maintenance Eric Berggren (2009) Doctoral
Thesis

[5] Advanced characterisation of bituminous sub-ballast

for its application in railway tracks: The influ-
ence of temperature M. Sol-Snchez, L. Pirozzolo, F.
Moreno-Navarro, M.C. Rubio-Gmez journal homepage:
www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Department of Civil Engineering, PEC