Retracted: Identifying Asphalt Pavement Distress Using Uav Lidar Point Cloud Data and Random Forest Classification

International Journal of
Geo-Information
Article
Identifying Asphalt Pavement Distress Using
UAV LiDAR Point Cloud Data and Random
Forest Classification
Zhiqiang Li 1 , Chengqi Cheng 2, *, Mei-Po Kwan 3,4 , Xiaochong Tong 5 and Shaohong Tian 1
1 Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
lzq.gis@pku.edu.cn (Z.L.); shaohongtian@pku.edu.cn (S.T.)
2 College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
3 Department of Geography and Geographic Information Science, University of Illinois at
D
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA; mpk654@gmail.com
4 Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, Utrecht University, 3584 CB Utrecht,
The Netherlands
5 Zhengzhou Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Zhengzhou 450001, China; txchr@163.com
TE
* Correspondence: ccq@pku.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-133-2113-8499

Received: 22 December 2018; Accepted: 13 January 2019; Published: 16 January 2019
Abstract: Asphalt pavement ages and incurs various distresses due to natural and human factors.
Thus, it is crucial to rapidly and accurately extract different types of pavement distress to effectively
C
monitor road health status. In this study, we explored the feasibility of pavement distress identification
using low-altitude unmanned aerial vehicle light detection and ranging (UAV LiDAR) and random
forest classification (RFC) for a section of an asphalt road that is located in the suburb of Shihezi City in
A
Xinjiang Province of China. After a spectral and spatial feature analysis of pavement distress, a total of
48 multidimensional and multiscale features were extracted based on the strength of the point cloud
elevations and reflection intensities. Subsequently, we extracted the pavement distresses from the
multifeature dataset by utilizing the RFC method. The overall accuracy of the distress identification
TR
was 92.3%, and the kappa coefficient was 0.902. When compared with the maximum likelihood
classification (MLC) and support vector machine (SVM), the RFC had a higher accuracy, which
confirms its robustness and applicability to multisample and high-dimensional data classification.
Furthermore, the method achieved an overall accuracy of 95.86% with a validation dataset. This result
indicates the validity and stability of our method, which highway maintenance agencies can use to
RE
evaluate road health conditions and implement maintenance.
Keywords: UAV; LiDAR; asphalt pavement distresses; pavement health conditions; multiscale
features; random forest classification
1. Introduction
Highways are a strategic resource in a country and they provide the basis of social development [1].
With the development of China’s economy, highway construction has made great progress. By the
end of 2017, China’s total highway mileage was 4,773,500 km [2]. Many factors (such as temperature,
moisture, weathering, and loads) [3–5] can adversely affect pavement structure and result in a variety
of road distresses, which not only influence the normal use of highways, but also lead to large economic
losses. Therefore, identifying pavement distress is of great significance for road condition monitoring,
road maintenance, and road management [6,7].
Many evaluation indexes (such as the pavement condition index, pavement roughness index,
riding quality index, and pavement structure strength index) have been used to measure pavement
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 8, 39; doi:10.3390/ijgi8010039 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 8, 39 2 of 26
quality and usage status [8,9]. To obtain these indexes, it is imperative to adopt reliable approaches [10].
Traditional methods utilize measurements that are taken in situ along with visual examinations and
interpretations [11]. These methods can collect detailed pavement surface condition data for various
types of distress and provide accurate and valuable information. However, these methods have
some disadvantages, such as being time consuming [7], expensive [12], labor-intensive [13], and
subjective [14]. As an efficient means of earth observation, remote sensing can obtain the spectral
and spatial information of various road materials to quickly assess the road conditions of large
road networks and improve the efficiency of road condition investigations [15,16]. Therefore, recent
studies [17–20] have demonstrated a growing interest in remote sensing applications for pavement
monitoring and management.
There has been evidence that pavement of different aging stages exhibits distinct spectral
characteristics in reflectance and emissivity [4,21,22]. Asphalt surfaces lose bitumen over time and
through degradation, thus increasing their reflectance values. As a result, pavements of different aging
D
stages can be identified based on the variations in their reflectance values [19,23]. Moreover, as asphalt
pavement deteriorates, its ability to absorb solar radiation gradually weakens [24]. That is, the thermal
radiation information will change based on the pavement conditions. Therefore, previous research
TE
has focused on obtaining the spectral data of target sections using multispectral or hyperspectral
sensors and then evaluating pavement usage status by comparing and analyzing the spectral features
of asphalt pavement at different ages [25]. For example, Mei et al. analyzed field and laboratory
data with the goal of differentiating asphalted surfaces. Multispectral Infrared and Visible Imaging
Spectrometer (MIVIS) airborne data and multispectral images, such as Quickbird and Ikonos, were
used. The study adopted the Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) classifier and obtained an overall accuracy
C
of 95% for Ikonos, 98% for Quickbird and 93% for MIVIS [23]. Pan et al. presented an experimental
study of mapping road pavement conditions from the WorldView-2 based on endmember spectral
mixture analysis. The analysis of the in situ measured spectra of asphalt road pavement showed
A
that asphalt pavements in different aging conditions exhibit quite different spectral patterns over the
range of 0.35 to 2.5 µm. The assessment of the analysis results showed that the method is capable of
classifying road pavements with an overall accuracy of 81.71% and Kappa coefficient of 0.77, when
TR
the in situ data were used as a reference [25]. However, there are many disadvantages to identifying
asphalt pavement distress using remotely sensed imagery, such as the high cost of data acquisition, the
long data acquisition cycles, and the use of remote sensors that are not sufficiently flexible. In addition,
because of the spectral similarity among different types of pavement distress, it is difficult to obtain
accurate results by only relying on spectral features [25,26].
In fact, nearly all of the current pavement condition assessment indexes require elevation
RE
information. As an efficient spatial data acquisition method, light detection and ranging (LiDAR) can
provide the three-dimensional spatial information for a road section in a convenient, flexible, and
rapid manner to obtain key information (such as rutting, pothole depths, and road surface roughness)
that is needed to evaluate pavement conditions [27]. Many efforts have contributed to the extraction
and monitoring of pavement distress by using LiDAR point cloud data [28–30]. Among them, [28]
demonstrated the feasibility of using a three-dimensional (3D) laser-based pavement data acquisition
system to conduct automated pavement cracking surveys. The experimental tests were conducted on
actual pavements in Georgia. Based on the experimental results, the 3D laser pavement data are robust
under different lighting conditions and low-intensity contrast conditions and they have the capability
to address different contaminants on a pavement’s surface. [29] introduced a real-time 3D scanning
system for pavement distortion inspections. The system used the simple but robust structured light
method for 3D profile generation. Pavement distortion distress, such as rutting and shoving, can be
reliably detected from 3D transverse profiles, and the real-time measurements and 3D visualization
of these distortions can be output to a pavement management system. [30] explored how LiDAR can
be applied to identify and quantify the severity and coverage of pavement distress to calculate the
required amounts of filling materials. However, vehicle-mounted LiDAR often affects normal traffic
and incurs high monetary and resource costs. For long road sections, only a sample survey method
can be adopted. In addition, it is difficult to ensure that the sampling is comprehensive for multilane
pavement. Therefore, vehicle-mounted LiDAR cannot quickly, effectively, or regularly obtain the
pavement health conditions of an entire road section.
With the rapid development of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology, UAV-based remote
sensing has matured and has been widely used in agricultural, geological, and environmental
monitoring [31]. UAV is a flexible platform that can be configured with various remote sensing
sensors, in which digital images are the most commonly used data type. Several methods [25,26,32–35]
that are based on digital image processing and machine learning algorithms have been proposed for
pavement distress detection, using high-resolution images that were acquired from UAV platforms.
For example, Kim utilized a simple UAV system to capture the pavement images and detected cracks
based on the image binarization method [32]. Georgopoulos extracted the flexible pavement cracks
using the digital image processing tools [36]. However, some limited abilities and issues occurred in
D
these studies. For instance, some of the undamaged regions (such as tire tracks, oil stains, and traffic
lines) intersecting with pavement damage prevent the detection of damages in the images because the
collected images do not have any depth information. Moreover, macroscopic monitoring of pavement
TE
based on image processing methods always requires too many images. In comparison of two sequential
images, the pixel values at the same location have a bias because of the illumination differences that
are caused by the different solar incident angles. Consequently, this will lead to some degree of
difference between the segmentation results of the same target derived from different images [25].
When compared with digital images, LiDAR can directly acquire the 3D spatial information of the
deteriorated pavement to measure the geometric dimensions of the pavement distress and can more
C
easily monitor the entire pavement. Furthermore, LiDAR is not restricted by the sun angle and can
be implemented during the day and night [7]. Enlightened by these characteristics of LiDAR, the
pavement point cloud data were captured and first attempted to identify the pavement distress in our
A
study. The objective of this study is to develop a pavement distress identification approach for the
asphalt pavement using LiDAR point cloud data (Figure 1). Specifically, an optimized feature set will
be studied and a random forest classifier will be implemented and compared with other classification
TR
methods to demonstrate the robustness of the RFC in pavement distress classification.

RE
ISPRS
ISPRSInt.
Int.J.J.Geo-Inf.
Geo-Inf.2019,
2019,1,8,x39 4 4ofof2626
D
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 1. Research roadmap.

Figure 1. Research roadmap.
2. Data Acquisition and Preprocessing
2. Data Acquisition and Preprocessing
2.1. Study Area
2.1. Study Area section that is selected for this study is a section of an asphalt road in the northern suburb
RE
The road
of Shihezi
The road Citysection
in Xinjiang Province
that is selectedoffor
China
this (Figure
study is2).a The pavement
section has beenroad
of an asphalt severely
in thedamaged,
northern
and roadbed materials are exposed in some areas and filled with gravel, loess,
suburb of Shihezi City in Xinjiang Province of China (Figure 2). The pavement has been severely and grit. There are
several longitudinal
damaged, and roadbed cracks and potholes
materials along the
are exposed in moving
some areasdirections of vehicles.
and filled Becauseloess,
with gravel, of theand
unique
grit.
meteorological,
There are severalhydrological,
longitudinal and geological
cracks characteristics
and potholes along theofmoving
Shihezi,directions
the subgrade is not sufficiently
of vehicles. Because of
stable.
the A certain
unique degree of distortion
meteorological, appears
hydrological, and along the road,
geological and road attachments,
characteristics of Shihezi, thesuch as curbstone
subgrade is not
and road signs,
sufficiently stable.areAseriously damaged.
certain degree The areal appears
of distortion extent ofalong
the pavement
the road,distress
and roadis fairly large, which
attachments, such
makes
as it veryand
curbstone suitable for data
road signs, areacquisition and analysis
seriously damaged. Theusing
areallow-altitude
extent of the UAV and low-density
pavement distress ispoint
fairly
cloudwhich
large, data. The
makesareaitisvery
of great valuefor
suitable for data
the development
acquisition and of ananalysis
asphalt using
pavement distress extraction
low-altitude UAV and
method thatpoint
low-density is based
cloudon data.
low-altitude
The areaUAV
is ofLiDAR and the
great value forassessment of this method’s
the development of an asphaltfeasibility.
pavement
distress extraction method that is based on low-altitude UAV LiDAR and the assessment of this
method’s feasibility.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 1, x 5 of 26
ISPRS Int. J.ISPRS

Geo-Inf.
Int. 2019, 1, x2019, 8, 39
J. Geo-Inf. 5 of 26 5 of 26
D
Figure 2. Study Area.
TE
Figure 2. Study Area.
2.2. LiDAR Data Acquisition Figure 2. Study Area.
2.2. LiDAR Data Acquisition
We conducted our research using a B1-100 UAV manufactured by Scout and a RIEGL VUX-1LR
2.2. LiDAR We conducted
Data Acquisition our research using a B1-100 UAV manufactured by Scout and a RIEGL VUX-1LR
laser scanner (Figure 3). The UAV platform was equipped with an INS/GPS flight control system, with
laser scanner (Figure 3). The UAV platform was equipped with an INS/GPS flight control system,
up toWe31 conducted
kg ofuppayload
ourkgandof two
research hoursandof
using flight
atwo
B1-100 endurance.
UAV The RIEGL
manufactured by VUX-1LR
Scout
RIEGLand isaaRIEGL
lightweight and
is aVUX-1LR
C
with to 31 payload hours of flight endurance. The VUX-1LR
compact
laser scanner airborne
lightweight
(Figure and Thelaser
3). compact
UAV airbornescanner
laserwas
platform scanner with
with anwith
equipped an an INS/GPS
accuracy ofaccuracy
15 mmflight of
(http://www.riegl.
control 15
system, mm
with
up to 31 kgcom/nc/products/airborne-scanning/produktdetail/product/scanner/49/).
(http://www.riegl.com/nc/products/airborne-scanning/produktdetail/product/scanner/49/).
of payload and two hours of flight endurance. The RIEGL VUX-1LR The sensor enables
is a lightweight The
and
high-speed data acquisition through a near-infrared laser beam and fast line scanning, which results in
A
sensor
compact enablesairborne
high-speed data laseracquisition
scanner throughwitha near-infrared
an laser beam andof
accuracy fast line15scanning,
mm
high-quality measurements even under poor atmospheric conditions.
which results in high-quality measurements even under poor atmospheric conditions.
(http://www.riegl.com/nc/products/airborne-scanning/produktdetail/product/scanner/49/). The
sensor enables high-speed data acquisition through a near-infrared laser beam and fast line scanning,
TR
which results in high-quality measurements even under poor atmospheric conditions.

RE
FigureFigure
3. Light detection
3. Light and
detection andranging (LiDAR)
ranging (LiDAR) data
data acquisition
acquisition system.
system.
We gathered the point cloud data of the asphalt pavement near Dayushu Village in the northern
We gathered the point
Figure
suburb of Shihezi City
cloud
3. Light data of and
detection
on June 23, 2017.
the asphalt
ranging
It was
pavement
(LiDAR)
a sunny datanear
and windless
Dayushu
acquisition
day, which
Village in the northern
system.
was very suitable
suburb offorShihezi City on
UAV system June 23,
operation and2017.
flight.It During
was a thissunny and windless
experiment, the UAV’sday, which
flight waswas
altitude very
30 suitable
m, for
UAVWe system operation andlaser
flight. During ◦
55this theexperiment, the5 near
UAV's flight altitude was
the view
gathered angle
the of the
point cloudscanner
data was
of the , asphalt
flightpavement
speed was m/s, and the original
Dayushu pointin
Village the30
cloud m, the
northern
view angledata included
of the laserapproximately
scanner 70,000,000
was2017.
55°, Itthepoints.
flightThe point
speedanddensity
was of the
5 m/s, andLiDAR point cloud data was
suburb of Shihezi City on June 23, was a sunny windless day,the original
which was point cloud data
very suitable for
40/m2 . However, the data cannot be directly used for pavement modeling because the original point
included
UAV system approximately 70,000,000 points. The point density of the LiDAR
operation and flight. During this experiment, the UAV's flight altitude was 30 m, the point cloud data was 40
cloud data adopted a geocentric coordinate system and it included too much noise. Therefore, the
/m 2. However, the data cannot be directly used for pavement modeling because the original point
view angle of the
original laser
data scanner
needed was 55°, the
to be preprocessed flight
before speed distress
pavement was 5 m/s,
couldand the original point cloud data
be extracted.
cloud data adopted a geocentric coordinate system
included approximately 70,000,000 points. The point density of the LiDAR and it included too much
pointnoise.
cloudTherefore,
data wasthe40
original data needed to be preprocessed before pavement distress could
/m . However, the data cannot be directly used for pavement modeling because the original point
2 be extracted.
cloud data adopted a geocentric coordinate system and it included too much noise. Therefore, the
2.3. Pointdata
original Cloud Data Preprocessing
needed to be preprocessed before pavement distress could be extracted.
2.3.1. Generating
2.3. Point Standard
Cloud Data Point Cloud Data
Preprocessing
We used the postprocessing software RT Post-Process to convert the point cloud to an LAS
2.3. Point Cloud Data Preprocessing
2.3.1. Generating Standard Point Cloud Data

We used the postprocessing software RT Post-Process to convert the point cloud to an LAS format,
and the is
which an industry-standard
altitude binary format
data that were recorded by thefor storing (Inertial
IMU/GPS airborne measurement
LiDAR data. unit/GPS).
The original Thepoint
data
cloud data included the data that were acquired using the laser scanner, the flight
preprocessing was divided into two steps. First, the IMU/GPS flight trajectory data were calculated path position, and
the clipped.
and altitude data that were the
Subsequently, recorded
originalbypoint
the IMU/GPS
cloud was(Inertial
segmentedmeasurement
by using unit/GPS).
the clipped The data
trajectory
preprocessing
data. was divided into two steps. First, the IMU/GPS flight trajectory data were calculated
andThe
clipped.
pointSubsequently,
cloud data thatthe were
original point cloud
selected for thewas segmented
experiment by using
were the clipped
between 346 s andtrajectory data.a
376 s, with
The point cloud data that were selected for the experiment were between
total length of approximately 150 m. As shown in Figure 4, the UAV flight direction was relatively346 s and 376 s, with a
total length of approximately 150 m. As shown in Figure 4, the UAV flight direction
stable during this time period (indicated by the double arrow). As mentioned in Section 2.2, the UAV's was relatively
stablealtitude
flight during was
this time
set toperiod (indicated
30 m during theby the double
flight. arrow).
The format As mentioned
of the clipped pointin Section 2.2, the
cloud data was UAV’s
set as
D
flight altitude was set to 30 m during
LAS and the coordinate system was set as WGS84.the flight. The format of the clipped point cloud data was set as
LAS and the coordinate system was set as WGS84.
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 4. Direction angle variation in the POS system of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flight.
Figure 4. Direction angle variation in the POS system of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flight.
2.3.2. Point Cloud Filtering
During
2.3.2. Point the data
Cloud acquisition process, laser pulses could penetrate the leaves of vegetation or the
Filtering
glass of vehicles to form multiple reflection echoes. Therefore, it was necessary to conduct point cloud
During the data acquisition process, laser pulses could penetrate the leaves of vegetation or the
filtering to restore the reasonable distribution of the point cloud in space.
RE
glass of vehicles to form multiple reflection echoes. Therefore, it was necessary to conduct point cloud
The point cloud filtering process was divided into three steps to eliminate outliers, noise, and
filtering to restore the reasonable distribution of the point cloud in space.
redundant data. First, we utilized the classification tool of the RT Post-Process software to collect
The point cloud filtering process was divided into three steps to eliminate outliers, noise, and
outliers from the point cloud visualization, and we removed them from the standard point cloud
redundant data. First, we utilized the classification tool of the RT Post-Process software to collect
data. Most of these outliers resulted from the reflection and scattering of air dust on the laser and the
outliers from the point cloud visualization, and we removed them from the standard point cloud data.
reflection effect of water bodies on the laser. Therefore, their elevation values were lower or higher than
Most of these outliers resulted from the reflection and scattering of air dust on the laser and the
elevations of their neighborhoods. Subsequently, it was necessary to filter the noise near vegetation
reflection effect of water bodies on the laser. Therefore, their elevation values were lower or higher
and vehicles that formed because of multiple reflections. Here, we adopted a statistically based point
than elevations of their neighborhoods. Subsequently, it was necessary to filter the noise near
cloud filtering algorithm to eliminate the noise points [37]. The algorithm assumes that the data are
vegetation and vehicles that formed because of multiple reflections. Here, we adopted a statistically
generated by a stochastic process, and typically, a closed-form probability distribution is fit to the
based point cloud filtering algorithm to eliminate the noise points [37]. The algorithm assumes that the
data. Any data instance that is unlikely to be generated from the estimated stochastic process is then
data are generated by a stochastic process, and typically, a closed-form probability distribution is fit to
reported as noise [37]. Finally, there was a large amount of redundant data that needed to be eliminated
the data. Any data instance that is unlikely to be generated from the estimated stochastic process is
from both sides of the road, including that of cultivated land, crops, and vegetation. The redundant
then reported as noise [37]. Finally, there was a large amount of redundant data that needed to be
data could be removed by elevation and scanning angle filtration. According to the measured data,
eliminated from both sides of the road, including that of cultivated land, crops, and vegetation. The
the elevation of the selected road section was between 340 m and 343 m. Moreover, the scanning angle
redundant data could be removed by elevation and scanning angle filtration. According to the
measured data, the elevation of the selected road section was between 340 m and 343 m. Moreover, the
scanning angle range was calculated at approximately 25°. Therefore, the filtering parameters of
elevation (𝐴𝑙𝑖) and scanning angle (𝜃) were as follows:
339.5 < 𝐴𝑙𝑖 < 343.5 (1)
-25 < 𝜃 < 25. (2)
range was calculated at approximately 25◦ . Therefore, the filtering parameters of elevation (Ali) and
scanning angle (θ) were as follows:
339.5 < Ali < 343.5 (1)
− 25 < θ < 25. (2)
After the completion of point cloud filtering, the point cloud data could be used for feature extraction
After the completion of point cloud filtering, the point cloud data could be used for feature extraction
and
andclassification
classification(Figure
(Figure5).
5).
D
We
Figure
Weobtained
effectiveness
effectivenessand
Point
5. 5.
Figure cloud
Point
obtainedthe
andstability
cloudfiltering.
thepavement
stabilityof
ofour TE
(a)The
filtering.(a)
pavement point
Theoriginal
point cloud
ourmethod,
original point
cloud for
method, the
for aa length
the point
cloud; and,
point cloud;
length of
point cloud
cloud was
and,(b) thepavement
(b)the
of approximately
pavementpoint
approximately 150
was divided into two
divided into
150 m.
point
m. To
two parts:
cloud.
cloud.
Toverify
verifythe
the
parts: experimental
experimental
C
data
dataand
andvalidation
validationdata.
data.The
Theexperimental
experimental datadata were
were approximately
approximately 9090 m,
m, including
includingapproximately
approximately
900,000
900,000laser
laserpulse
pulsepoints,
points,and
andthis
thisroad
roadsection
section was
was more
more seriously
seriously damaged.
damaged. TheThe validation
validationdata
data
were
were approximately4545m,
approximately m,including
includingapproximately
approximately 400,000 laserlaser pulse
pulse points,
points,and
andthey
theywere
wereused
usedtoto
A
validate
validate thethe applicability
applicability andand stability
stability of theofmethod
the method for different
for different road with
road sections sections withconditions.
various various
conditions.
3. Multi-Dimensional and Multi-Scale Feature Extraction
3. Multi-Dimensional and Multi-Scale Feature Extraction
TR
3.1. Elevation Feature

3.1. Elevation Feature
Many factors (including the volatilization of light components, light aging, temperature changes,
humidityMany factorsand
changes, (including
vehiclethe volatilization
load) ofasphalt
can result in light components, light aging,
pavement aging temperature
and they can causechanges,
a variety
of pavement distress, such as cracks, potholes, subsidence, and rutting [38]. Different types ofvariety
humidity changes, and vehicle load) can result in asphalt pavement aging and they can cause a asphalt
of pavement
pavement distress,
distress have such as cracks,difference
an obvious potholes, subsidence,
in elevation. and rutting
Here, we [38]. Different
provide types of asphalt
a qualitative analysis
pavement
on thedistress have irregular
an obvious difference inmodel
elevation. Here, we provide a qualitative analysis
RE
based triangulated network (TIN) of the selected road to elaborate the elevation
based on the triangulated irregular network (TIN) model of the selected road to elaborate
difference of various types of pavement distress. As Figure 6 shows, there are several cracks and the elevation
difference
potholes of various
in the types of
road section. Thepavement
elevationdistress.
of cracks Asand
Figure 6 shows,
potholes therethan
is lower are that
several cracks and
of undamaged
potholes in the road section. The elevation of cracks and potholes is lower than that of undamaged
pavement, while the elevation variation in subsidence areas is less than that in potholes. This difference
pavement, while the elevation variation in subsidence areas is less than that in potholes. This
is because asphalt mixtures on the subgrade are worn away in potholes, and the roadbed is exposed.
difference is because asphalt mixtures on the subgrade are worn away in potholes, and the roadbed is
Although subsidence is also obvious, the asphalt mixture layer is not completely lost. Potholes are often
exposed. Although subsidence is also obvious, the asphalt mixture layer is not completely lost.
filled with other materials and, thus, do not show the typical spectral features that are different from
Potholes are often filled with other materials and, thus, do not show the typical spectral features that
undamaged pavement. However, the spatial features (circular or oval-shaped) of potholes are unique
are different from undamaged pavement. However, the spatial features (circular or oval-shaped) of
and obvious.
potholes are Therefore,
unique andthe elevation
obvious. feature is
Therefore, theofelevation
great importance
feature isforof the subsequent
great importancepavement
for the
distress classification.
subsequent pavement distress classification.
D
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 6. Triangulated irregular network (TIN) model of the road section in the study area.
Figure 6. Triangulated irregular network (TIN) model of the road section in the study area.
3.2. Multi-Scale Statistical Features of Elevation
3.2. Multi-Scale Statistical Features of Elevation
Pavement distresses are often isolated point groups or singular points at a certain measurement
RE
Pavement distresses are often isolated point groups or singular points at a certain measurement
scale. Itscale.
is necessary to establish
It is necessary a microscale
to establish a microscale model nearthese
model near these points
points to effectively
to effectively extractextract features.
features.
For different typestypes
For different of pavement
of pavement distress,
distress,the
theoptimal measurement
optimal measurement scale
scale thatthat is required
is required for feature
for feature
extraction
extraction is different.
is different. As aAs a result,
result, to to obtaincomprehensive
obtain comprehensive and andaccurate features
accurate of pavement
features distress,
of pavement distress,
we need we toneed to extract
extract and and analyze
analyze thethe featuresof
features of pavement
pavement distress
distressat at
multiple
multiplescales. To construct
scales. To construct
multiscale pavement point cloud features, we need to construct a hierarchy structure on the pavement
multiscale pavement point cloud features, we need to construct a hierarchy structure on the pavement
point cloud data to achieve the transfer of feature information between different scales. The most
point cloud data to achieve the transfer of feature information between different scales. The most
commonly used method is to convert point cloud data into high-resolution images and to construct
commonly usedimage
multiscale method is to convert
features point cloud
using a pixel-based data
scale into high-resolution
transformation method. The images and toscale
pixel-based construct
multiscale image features
transformation approach using a pixel-based
is simple and easy to scale transformation
use. However, it cannot method.
effectively The pixel-based
utilize the spatial scale
transformation approach is simple and easy to use. However, it cannot effectively utilize the spatial
neighborhood information that is contained in the original point cloud. Therefore, we extracted the
multiscale statistical features directly from the different neighborhood scales using the original point
cloud rather than an intermedium, which avoids the loss of information.
To define reasonable measurement scales, we collected the geometric parameters of several types
of typical pavement distress in the selected road (Table 1). By measuring the geometric parameters,
we found that the geometric parameters of the potholes and subsidence were excessively large and
that the average geometric scale was 50 cm. Although the width of some longitudinal cracks and
multiscale
cloud rather statistical
than features directly fromavoids
the different loss neighborhood scales using the original point
of
we To
typical
found
multiscale define
pavement
that theangeometric
statistical
intermedium,
reasonable
featuresmeasurement
distress in thewhich
parameters
directly fromscales,
selected ofthe road
the we thecollected
(Table
potholes
different
of
1).
andinformation.
the geometric
Bysubsidence
neighborhoodmeasuring parameters
theusing
were
scales geometric oforiginal
excessively
the several
largetypes
parameters,and
point
cloudToratherdefine than an intermedium,
reasonable measurement whichscales,
avoids we the loss of information.
collected the geometric parameters of several types
of
we
thattypical
found
cloudTothe pavement
that
average
rather the
than distress
geometric
geometric
an intermedium, in
scale the
parameters
was selected
50 of
cm.
whichscales,
avoids road
the (Table
potholes
Although 1).
and
the By measuring
subsidence
width of some the
were geometric
excessively
longitudinal parameters,
large
cracks and
of typical define
pavementreasonable measurement
distress in the selected roadwethe loss of information.
collected
(Table 1). the
By geometric
measuring parameters
the geometric of several types
parameters,
we found
that the
transverse
To define that
average
cracks thegeometric
isgeometric
approximately
reasonable parameters
scale
measurement was1~3 50cm, of
cm. theAlthough
these
scales, we potholes
cracks and
the
cannot
collected the subsidence
widthbe of some
expressed
geometric were in excessively
longitudinal
the
parameters largepoint
cracks
low-density
of several and
types
of typical
we found pavement
that distress
thegeometric
geometric in the selected
parameters of road
the (Table
potholes 1).
andBy measuringwere
subsidence the geometric
excessively parameters,
largepoint
and
that
cloud the
transverse
of typicaldataaverage
cracks
because
pavement is approximately
the minimum
distress inscale was1~3
interval
the selected50
cm, cm.these
of Although
the
road cracks
data is the
cannot width
be
approximately
(Table 1). Bysubsidence of some
expressed
5
measuringwere cm. longitudinal
in the
When
the geometric cracks
low-density
considering
parameters,and
the
we
that found
the that the geometric parameters of the potholes and excessively large and
transverse
cloud
limitation
ISPRS Int.average
data cracks
J.inbecause
data
Geo-Inf. geometric
is approximately
the
quality,
2019, minimum
8, 39 scaledistress
slight was1~3
interval50
cm, cm.
is these
ofnot Although
thea cracks
data is
priority the
cannot width
be
approximately
in this of some
expressed
study. 5
In cm. longitudinal
in
the the
When
vertical cracks
low-density
considering
direction, ofand
9point
the
26
we found
that the averagethat thegeometric
geometricscale parameters
was 50 of
cm. theAlthough
potholes the andwidthsubsidence of some were excessivelycracks
longitudinal large andand
transverse
cloud
limitationdata cracks
because
inprecisionis approximately
the
wasminimum
data geometric
quality, slight 1~3 cm,
5interval these
is of the cracks
data cannot
is the be
approximately expressed in
5 variation
cm. the
When low-density
inconsidering point
elevational
that the
transverse average
cracks is the
approximatelyscaledistress
between was mm and
1~3 50cm,cm.
not10
these
amm;priority
Although thus,
cracks
in
thethis
width study.
elevational In
of some the vertical
longitudinal direction,
severe typesand
cracks the
of
cloud
limitationdata
elevational
distress, suchinbecause
data
precision
as quality,
was
potholes, minimum
slight
between
can be interval
distress
5 mm
extracted. is
and ofnot theamm;
10
Therefore, data iscannot
priority
thus,
to in
the
extractthis
be expressed
approximately study.
elevational
multiscale
in
5Invariation
cm.
the
the low-density
When
vertical
statistical in considering
direction,
severe
features
point
types
that the
the
of
are
transverse
cloud datain
transverse cracks
because
cracks isisapproximately
the minimum
approximately 1~3
1~3cm,
intervalcm, these
of thea cracks
these data
cracks iscannot be expressed
approximately
cannot be expressed
5 cm. inWhen
in thelow-density
the low-density
considering point
pointthe
limitation
elevational
distress,
more such
consistent data
precision
as quality,
was
potholes,
withthe slight
between
can
theminimum be distress
5 mm
extracted.
target pavement, is
and not10
Therefore,
the multiscale priority
mm; thus,
to in
the
extractthis study.
elevational
multiscale In the
variationvertical
statistical in direction,
severe
features types
that the
of
are
cloud
clouddata
limitation data because
inprecision
data quality,
because the minimum interval
slight distressinterval isof not
of the
the data
amm; isparameters
priority
data is approximately
in this
approximately
were set
study. 55Incm.
cm. asWhen
theWhen
reported
vertical
in Table 2.the
considering
direction,
considering the
the
elevational
distress,
more such
consistent aswith was
potholes, between
can
the target be 5 mm
extracted.
pavement, and
the 10
Therefore,
multiscale thus, the
to parameters
extract elevational
multiscale variation
wereInset statistical
as verticalin
reported severe
features types
that2.are
in Table of
limitation
elevational
limitation inprecision
data
in1.data quality,
quality, slight
was between
slight distress
5 mm and
distress is not10 aamm;
isTherefore,
not priority
thus,
priority in this
thethis
in study.
elevational
study. the
Invariation
the vertical direction,
infeatures
severe types
direction, the
of
distress,
more such
Table
consistent as potholes,
Geometric
with the can
target be
parameters extracted.
pavement,of several the types
multiscale to parameters
of typicalextract
pavement multiscale
distress
were statistical
setinasthereported
selected road.
in thatthe
Table are
2.
elevational
distress,
elevational such precision
as
precision was
potholes,
was between
can be
between 55 mm
extracted.
mm and
and 10
Therefore,
10 mm;
mm; thus,
to
thus, the
extract
the elevational
multiscale
elevational variation
statistical
variation in
in severe
features
severe types
that
types of
are
of
more consistent with the target
Table 1. Geometric parameters pavement,of severalthetypesmultiscale
of typicalparameters
pavement distresswere setinas thereported in Table 2.
selected road.
distress,
more Types such
consistent
distress, suchof as potholes,
Distress
with can
the target be
Length/ extracted.
pavement, Width/ Therefore,
the Depth
multiscale to extract Grade
to parameters multiscale
were set statistical
asThumbnail
reportedfeatures
inPhotothat 2.
Table are
Table 1.as potholes,
Geometric can be
parameters extracted.
of severalTherefore,
types of typical extract
pavement multiscale
distressstatistical features
in the selected road.that are
more consistent
Types
more consistent of with
Distress the target
with theparameters
Table 1. Geometric
pavement,
Length/
target pavement, Width/ the
of severalthe
multiscale
Depth
multiscale
types
parameters
Grade
of typicalparameters
pavement distress
were set
were set as reported
Thumbnail
as reported
in the
in Table
Photo
in Table 2.
selected road.
2.
Types
Tableof1.Distress
Geometric parameters Length/ofWidth/ several typesDepth Grade distress in the
of typical pavement Thumbnail
selected road.Photo
Types of1. Depth > 15 mm;
Table 1.Distress
Pothole
Table Geometric
Geometric parametersLength/
parameters 6 m/30 ofWidth/
of several
cm/5 cm
several Depth
types
types of
of typical Grade
pavement
typical pavement distress in
distress Thumbnail
in the
the Photo
selected road.
selected road.
Types of Distress Length/ Width/ Depth Depth Grade
> 15 mm;
Severe Thumbnail Photo
Types Pothole 6 m/30 cm/5 cm
Types of of Distress
Distress Length/ Width/
Length/Width/Depth Depth Depth Grade
> 15 mm;
Severe
Grade Thumbnail
Thumbnail Photo Photo
Pothole 6 m/30 cm/5 cm Depth > 15 mm;
Pothole 6 m/30 cm/5 cm Severe
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole
Pothole 66m/30
m/30cm/5 cm/5cm cm Depth Severe
> 15
Depth >mm;
Severe
Severe
15 mm;
Pothole 3 m/117 cm/10 cm
D
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole 3 m/117 cm/10 cm
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole 3 m/117 cm/10 cm Severe
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole
Pothole 33m/117
m/117cm/10 cm/10cm cm Depth > 15 > mm; Severe
TE
Depth Severe 15 mm;
Pothole 2.4 m/111 cm/7 cm Severe
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole 2.4 m/111 cm/7 cm
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Pothole 2.4 m/111 cm/7 cm Depth > 15 mm;
Pothole
Pothole 2.4m/111
2.4 m/111cm/7 cm/7cm cm Depth Severe
> 15
Depth >mm;
Severe
Severe
15 mm;
Severe
C
Subsidence (rutting) 5.5 m/19 cm/3 cm Severe
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Subsidence (rutting) 5.5 m/19 cm/3 cm
Depth > 15 mm;
Severe
Subsidence
Subsidence (rutting)
(rutting) 5.5m/19
5.5 m/19cm/3 cm/3cm cm DepthDepth> 15 >mm; Severe
15 mm;
A
Depth >
Severe 15 mm;
Subsidence (rutting) 5.5 m/19 cm/3 cm Depth > 15 mm;
Width Severe≤ 5 cm;
Longitudinal Crack 6~8 m/1~2 cm/--
Width Slight≤ 5 cm;
TR
Longitudinal
Longitudinal Crack Crack 6~8m/1~2
6~8 m/1~2cm/-- cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm; Slight
Width Slight ≤ 5 cm;
Longitudinal Crack 6~8 m/1~2 cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm;
Longitudinal Crack 6~8 m/1~2 cm/-- Slight
Longitudinal Crack 6~8 m/1~2 cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm;
ISPRSLongitudinal
Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019,Crack
1, x 6~8 m/1~2 cm/-- Slight 10 of 27
ISPRSLongitudinal
Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 1, x
Width Slight≤ 5 cm; 10 of 27
Longitudinal Crack
Crack --/0.4~2cm/--
--/0.4~2 cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm; Slight
Longitudinal Crack --/0.4~2 cm/--
RE

Longitudinal Crack --/0.4~2 cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm;
Longitudinal Crack --/0.4~2 cm/-- Slight
Transverse Crack
Longitudinal Crack --/0.3~1.2
--/0.4~2 cm/--cm/-- Width
Width ≤≤ 55 cm;
cm;
Transverse
Transverse Crack
Longitudinal Crack
Crack --/0.3~1.2
--/0.4~2 cm/--
--/0.3~1.2 cm/--
cm/-- Slight
Width ≤ 5 cm; Slight
Slight
Slight
Width ≤ 5 cm;
Transverse
Transverse Crack
Crack --/1~3cm/--
--/1~3 cm/-- Width ≤ 5 cm;
Width Slight
≤ 5 cm;
Transverse Crack --/1~3 cm/-- Slight
Slight
Table 2. Different measurement scales.

Type
Type Minimum Scale
Minimum MaximumScale
Scale Maximum Scale StepStepLength
Length Numberof
Number ofFeatures
Features
Type Scale
Microscopic
Microscopic Scale Minimum 20 cmScale Maximum
20 cm 100cm
100 cmScale Step5 Length
5cm
cm Number of1616Features
Microscopic
Macroscopic Scale
Scale
Macroscopic Scale 20 cm
cm
100 cm 100
200 cm
200cm
cm 5 cm
5050cmcm 16
33
Macroscopic Scale 100 cm 200 cm 50 cm 3
We can extract various microscopic features near a pavement distress at a microscopic scale and
express can
We the extract various
variation trendmicroscopic features
in the entire near a pavement
pavement distress atscale.
at a macroscopic a microscopic
According scale
to and
the
express the variation
aforementioned ideas, atrend in the
multiscale entire pavement
roughness at a macroscopic
index and Gaussian curvature scale. According to the
were calculated.
aforementioned
(1) Roughnessideas, a multiscale roughness index and Gaussian curvature were calculated.
index
(1)
TheRoughness
roughnessindex
index is widely used in feature extraction using a LiDAR point cloud [39,40]. The
The roughness
traditional roughness index
indexis is
widely used
defined as in
thefeature extraction
ratio of using
the digital a LiDAR
surface modelpoint cloud
(DSM) [39,40].
surface areaThe
to
Type Minimum Scale Maximum Scale Step Length Number of Features

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf.
Microscopic Scale 2019, 8, 39
20 cm 100 cm 5 cm 16 10 of 26
Macroscopic Scale 100 cm 200 cm 50 cm 3

WeWe cancan
extract various microscopic features near a pavement distress
extract various microscopic features near a pavement distress at a microscopic at a microscopic scale and
scale
express the variation
and express trend trend
the variation in theinentire pavement
the entire pavement at aatmacroscopic
a macroscopic scale.
scale.According
Accordingtotothe the
aforementioned ideas, a multiscale roughness index and Gaussian
aforementioned ideas, a multiscale roughness index and Gaussian curvature were calculated. curvature were calculated.
(1) Roughness index
The(1) Roughness
roughness index
index is widely used in feature extraction using a LiDAR point cloud [39,40]. The
The roughness
traditional roughness index index is is widelyasused
defined in feature
the ratio of theextraction
digital surface usingmodela LiDAR(DSM)point cloudarea
surface [39,40].
to
The traditional roughness index is defined as the ratio of the digital
the digital elevation model (DEM) surface area. However, this definition is subject to quadratic surface model (DSM) surface area to
the digital
accuracy losselevation
during model (DEM) of
the process surface area. However,
generating DSM/DEM this definition
and calculating is subjectthe
to quadratic accuracy
surface area of
loss during the process of generating DSM/DEM and calculating
DSM/DEM. To reduce the accuracy loss, we adopted the following definition: the roughness index of a the surface area of DSM/DEM.
To is
point reduce
equal the accuracy
to the distanceloss, we adopted
between the following
the point and a plane, definition:
which isthe theroughness indexplane
optimal fitting of a point
of theis
equal
point andtoitsthe distance between
neighboring points in thea point and aneighborhood
particular plane, which (Figure is the optimal7). Thefitting
error plane of the
constraint ofpoint
the
and its neighboring points in a particular neighborhood (Figure 7).
optimal fitting plane is based on the least squares estimation method. The expression of the roughnessThe error constraint of the optimal
fitting
index is asplane is based on the least squares estimation method. The expression of the roughness index is
follows:
D
as follows:
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Roughness =i distance
= distance𝑥 (, x𝑦i ,, 𝑧yi, z, 𝑍i ), Zscale=j a= a∙ 𝑥0 · +
x+b b∙0𝑦·y++cc0 (3) (3)
th laser pulse point and Z
where
where 𝑥 ,(𝑦xi,,𝑧yi, zisi )the
is the spatial
spatial coordinate
coordinate of of ith ilaser
thethe pulse point and 𝑍 scaleis isthe
theoptimal
optimalfitting
fitting
TE
j
plane of the th
i laser pulse point th
j scale.
plane of the ith laser pulse point andand its surrounding
its surrounding points
points at the
at the jth scale.
C
A
TR
RE
Figure 7. Definition
Figure of roughness.
7. Definition of roughness.
As shown in Figure 8, the microstructure of pavement distress is well expressed at the microscopic
scales. As the elevation varies, the roughness index at the edge of a pavement distress is much greater
than that in other regions. At a small measurement scale, the asphalt mixture in the middle of potholes
is completely lost, and the roughness index is relatively low due to the absence of filler. At a large
measurement scale, although the middle of potholes is relatively flat, the roughness index is still high,
and the features of pavement distress are expressed. At several large measurement scales (Figure 9),
some undamaged pavement areas also have higher roughness indexes because of their closeness to
seriously damaged regions, which indicates the sensitivity of the roughness index to the neighborhood
statistics and it is also an early warning for the risk of pavement distress. While considering that
the optimal measurement scale that is required for feature extraction is different for various types of
distress, the construction of multiscale roughness indexes is a promising approach to comprehensively
and accurately represent the features of pavement distress.
ISPRS Int.
ISPRS Int. J.J. Geo-Inf.
Geo-Inf.2019,
2019,1,8,x39 11 27
12 of of 26
D
TE
C
A
TR
RE
Figure 8. Distribution
Figure 8. of the
Distribution of the roughness
roughness index
index on
on microscopic
microscopicscales.
scales.
ISPRS Int.
Int. J.J. Geo-Inf.
Geo-Inf.2019,
2019,1,8,x39 12 of
13 of 27 26
D
TE
Figure 9. Distribution of
of the roughness index
the roughness index on
on macroscopic
macroscopic scales.
scales.
(2) Gaussian curvature

(2) Gaussian curvature
The occurrence of pavement distress is a process of the gradual erosion of undamaged
The occurrence of pavement distress is a process of the gradual erosion of undamaged pavement.
pavement.
The elevationalThe elevational
variation invariation
pavement in pavement
reflects thereflects the characteristics
characteristics of the gradient
of the gradient at a
at a certain
certain measurement
measurement scale. Therefore,
scale. Therefore, we adopted
we adopted Gaussian
Gaussian curvature
curvature to toextract
extractpavement
pavement distress.
distress.
C
According to Gauss’s Theorema Egregium [41], the Gaussian curvature is
According to Gauss's Theorema Egregium [41], the Gaussian curvature is independent of its independent of its embedding
position
embedding in space.
positionTherefore, the use ofthe
in space. Therefore, Gaussian curvaturecurvature
use of Gaussian can avoid cantheavoid
influence of the spatial
the influence of the
position variation in fitting the quadratic surface in the curvature calculation
spatial position variation in fitting the quadratic surface in the curvature calculation when the when the measurement
A
scale changes.scale changes.
measurement
As shown
As shownin inFigure
Figure10,10,the
theasphalt
asphalt mixture
mixture in in
thethe subsidence
subsidence distress
distress is completely
is not not completely lost. lost.
The
The surface of these regions is very near a spherical or cylindrical surface,
surface of these regions is very near a spherical or cylindrical surface, which has an effective which has an effective
expression on on the
the distribution
distribution diagram of the
the Gaussian
Gaussian curvature
curvature atat microscopic
microscopic scales.
scales. The
The middle
TR
expression diagram of middle

area of
area of the
the potholes
potholes is is relatively
relatively even
even and
and itit shows
shows the the characteristics of aa plane;
characteristics of plane; thus,
thus, the
the Gaussian
Gaussian
curvature is very small and it is similar to the roughness index. However, However, unlike
unlike the
the roughness
roughness index,
index,
which is easily influenced by neighborhood elevation at the macroscopic scale, the Gaussian curvature
can be used to extract the distribution
distribution of pothole distress at a large measurement
pothole distress measurement scale scale (Figure
(Figure 11),
11),
even when the distress is serious or the area area isis large.
large. At aa large
large measurement
measurement scale, scale, potholes
potholes with
RE
heavier damage
heavier damage can be be effectively
effectively extracted.
extracted. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, adjacent
adjacent undamaged
undamaged pavementpavement does not
exhibit a large curvature. Therefore, by constructing and analyzing the multiscale Gaussian curvature
pavement in
of pavement in three-dimensional
three-dimensionalspace, space,different
differenttypes
typesofofdistress
distresscan
canbe beeffectively
effectivelyextracted.
extracted.
D
TE
C
A
TR
RE
Figure 10. Distribution of Gaussian curvature on microscopic scales.

Figure 10. Distribution of Gaussian curvature on microscopic scales.
ISPRS
ISPRS Int.
Int.J.J.J.Geo-Inf.
ISPRSInt. Geo-Inf. 2019,
Geo-Inf.2019, 8,xx39
2019,1,
1, 14 27
15 of
15 of of
27 26
D
TE
Figure 11.Distribution
Figure11.
Figure 11. Distribution of
Distribution of Gaussian
of Gaussian curvature on macroscopic
curvature on macroscopicscales.
scales.
scales.
3.3. Reflection Intensity Feature
3.3.Reflection
3.3. Reflection Intensity
Intensity Feature
Feature
Reflection intensity has a linear relationship with spectral reflectivity. We can construct a reflection
Reflection intensity
Reflection intensity has
has aa linear
linear relationship with spectral reflectivity. We We can
can construct
construct aa
intensity image with the reflection intensity attribute of the point cloud. Thus, different types of
reflection intensity
reflection intensity image
image with
with thethe reflection
intensity attribute
attribute of
of thethe point
point cloud.
cloud. Thus,
Thus, different
different
pavement distress can be extracted based on their reflection intensity feature. In this study, the
C
typesof
types ofpavement
pavement distress
distress can
can be
be extracted
extracted based
based onon their
their reflection
intensity feature.
feature. In
In this
this study,
study, the
the
elevational variation in the selected road section is quite small and it shows a continuous surface at
elevational variation in the selected road section is quite small and it shows a continuous
elevational variation in the selected road section is quite small and it shows a continuous surface at the surface at the
the macroscopic
macroscopic scale
scale andand a cliff feature atatthe
themicroscopic
microscopicscale.
scale.Therefore,
Therefore, weadopted
adopted the inverse
inverse
macroscopic scale and aa cliff
cliff feature
feature at the microscopic scale. Therefore, we we adopted the the inverse
distance weighted
distance weighted method,
weighted method, which is
method, which
which is frequently
frequently used used and
and itit is
is known to to be stable
stable in point
point cloud
it is known
known to be be stable inin point cloud
A
distance is frequently used and cloud
interpolation
interpolation [42].
[42]. The
The interpolated
interpolated image
image has
has aa pixel
pixel size
size of
of 5 5 cm,
cm, asas shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 12.
12.
interpolation [42]. The interpolated image has a pixel size of 5 cm, as shown in Figure 12.
TR
RE
Figure 12. Reflection

Figure12. Reflection intensity interpolated image.
intensity interpolated image.
Figure 12. Reflection intensity interpolated image.
Figure
Figure 12
12 shows
shows that
that pavement
pavement distresses in the
distresses in the selected road are
selected road are very serious. There
very serious. There are
are many
many
Figure 12 shows that pavement distresses in the selected road are very serious. There are many
circular
circular potholes
potholes and
and several
several longitudinal cracks along
longitudinal cracks along the
the road.
road. There
There are
are some
some regions
regions with
with low
low
circular potholes and several longitudinal cracks along the road. There are some regions with low
reflection intensity on both sides of the road, which result from the decrease in the reflection
reflection intensity on both sides of the road, which result from the decrease in the reflection intensityintensity
reflection intensity on both sides of the road, which result from the decrease in the reflection intensity
in
inthe
thenear-infrared
near-infraredband
band due
due toto the
the absorption of rainwater. Because of rainwater
rainwater filling,
filling, the
the reflection
reflection
in the near-infrared band due to the absorption of rainwater. Because of rainwater filling, the reflection
intensity
intensityand
andelevation
elevation are
are affected
affected byby the absorption of laser energy and the
the refraction
refraction ofof water,
water, which
which
intensity and elevation are affected by the absorption of laser energy and the refraction of water, which
cause
cause some
some errors
errors in distress extraction.
extraction.
cause some errors in distress extraction.
3.4. Object-Oriented Geometric Features

3.4. Object-Oriented Geometric Features
The reflection intensity image reflects spectral features in the midinfrared band. In addition to
The reflection
the obvious intensity
difference withimage reflectspavement
undamaged spectral features
in the in the midinfrared
spectrum, band.
pavement In addition
distresses alsotohave
the
obvious difference with undamaged pavement in the spectrum, pavement distresses also have unique
unique geometric features that can be calculated to compensate for the deficiency in the spectral
geometric features that can be calculated to compensate for the deficiency in the spectral information.
information. Here, object-oriented segmentation of the reflection intensity image was performed to
Here, object-oriented segmentation of the reflection intensity image was performed to extract the
extract the geometric features of the pavement distress. We adopted the intensity segmentation
geometric features of the pavement distress. We adopted the intensity segmentation algorithm that
algorithm that was provided by ENVI/IDL, which is based on pixel brightness and is best for
was provided by ENVI/IDL, which is based on pixel brightness and is best for segmenting images with
segmenting images with subtle gradients. By adjusting the scale threshold of the segmentation
subtle gradients. By adjusting the scale threshold of the segmentation and merging, a good
and merging, a good segmentation result was obtained when the parameters of the segmentation
segmentation result was obtained when the parameters of the segmentation scale and merging scale
scale and merging scale were set to 10 and 15, respectively. The segmentation results are presented in
were set to 10 and 15, respectively. The segmentation results are presented in Figure 13. The
Figure 13. The segmentation result indicates that areas with severe distress are basically divided into a
segmentation result indicates that areas with severe distress are basically divided into a complete
complete region,
region, while while
areas withareas
betterwith better pavement
pavement conditions conditions
are dividedare divided
into into many
many small small
patches patches
because of
D
because of the aging of undamaged
the aging of undamaged pavement. pavement.
TE
C
Figure 13. Object-oriented
Figure 13. segmentationresults.
Object-oriented segmentation results.
A
We
We extracted
extracted the the geometric
geometric features
features of of the
the segmentation results using
segmentation results using the
the Feature
Feature Extraction
Extraction
module
module provided
provided by by ENVI/IDL, including the
ENVI/IDL, including the regional
regional features
features andand shape
shape features.
features. The
The regional
regional
features included the area, perimeter, extensibility, and main direction, which were
features included the area, perimeter, extensibility, and main direction, which were used to describe used to describe the
regional attributes. TheseThese
attributes were influenced by the by
segmentation parameters, but the but
features
TR
the regional attributes. attributes were influenced the segmentation parameters, the
of different types of objects could be expressed in a satisfactory segmentation result.
features of different types of objects could be expressed in a satisfactory segmentation result. The The shape features
included the shape
shape features factor,the
included compactness,
shape factor,circularity,
compactness, and circularity,
rectangularity.
and These features were
rectangularity. Theseprimarily
features
used
were to evaluateused
primarily the specific geometrical
to evaluate morphology
the specific geometrical of an object’s boundary.
morphology Someboundary.
of an object’s types of distress
Some
often
typeshave significant
of distress often changes in the regional
have significant changesfeatures but they
in the regional have abut
features relatively
they havestable distribution
a relatively in
stable
the contours, which increases the accuracy of the distress extraction.
distribution in the contours, which increases the accuracy of the distress extraction.
RE
Figure
Figure 14 shows
shows the distribution of four regional features. features. According
Accordingto to the
thesegmentation
segmentationresult,
result,
the
the polygonal
polygonal patches
patches in the the damaged
damaged areasareas areare relatively
relatively large. Correspondingly, the
large. Correspondingly, the area
area and
and
perimeter features
perimeter features are also large.
also large. Most of the pavement
pavement distress is distributed along the north-south
distributed along the north-south
direction; thus,
direction; thus, their
their extensibility
extensibility is generally
generally higher
higher than undamaged pavement.
than that of undamaged pavement. TheThe main
main
direction reflects
direction reflects the
the principal
principal direction of the deformed
deformed objects. In undamaged
undamaged pavement,
pavement, the
the main
main
direction is randomly distributed
direction is randomly distributed because because of the fragmentized segmentation result, while
fragmentized segmentation result, while the main the main
direction in
direction in the
the damaged
damaged regions
regions is is consistent.
consistent.
D
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 14. Regional features of objects after segmentation.

RE
Shapefactors
Shape factors are
are dimensionless
dimensionless quantities
quantities that
that are
are used
used in
in image
image analysis
analysis and andnumerically
numerically
describethe
describe theshape
shapeofofaapolygon,
polygon,independent
independentofofits itssize.
size.The
Thedimensionless
dimensionlessquantities
quantitiesareareutilized
utilizedto
to represent the degree of deviation from a circle. Compactness is adopted
represent the degree of deviation from a circle. Compactness is adopted to measure the degree to measure the degreeof
of tightness
tightness for for a polygonal
a polygonal boundary
boundary andandthethe circle
circle is the
is the best
best compact
compact shape.
shape. Circularity
Circularity is isused
usedto
to measure the circular feature of a polygon, where the value of a standard
measure the circular feature of a polygon, where the value of a standard circle is 1. Similarly, circle is 1. Similarly,
rectangularityisisaameasure
rectangularity measureof of the
the rectangular
rectangular feature,
feature, where
where the
the value
value ofof aa rectangle
rectangleisis1.1.These
Thesefourfour
featuresare
features arecalculated
calculatedto to measure
measure the the shape
shape ofof the
the polygons
polygons (Figure
(Figure 15).
15). Some
Sometypical
typicaldistresses,
distresses,suchsuch
asaspotholes,
potholes,subsidence,
subsidence,and andupheaval,
upheaval,have havevery
veryrecognizable
recognizablegeometrical
geometricalshapes.
shapes.TheThecalculations
calculationsof
of these
these shape
shape features
features play
play anan important
important roleininpavement
role pavementdistress
distress extraction
extraction and and different
different types
typesofof
distressdistinctions.
distress distinctions.
D
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 15. Shape features of objects after segmentation.

RE
4. Asphalt Pavement Distress Classification Using Random Forest

4. Asphalt Pavement Distress Classification Using Random Forest
4.1. Principles of Random Forest Classification
4.1. Principles of Random Forest Classification
In this study, we extracted a total of 48 features for pavement distress classification, including
In this study, we extracted a total of 48 features for pavement distress classification, including an
an elevation feature, multiscale statistical features, a reflection intensity feature, and object-oriented
elevation feature, multiscale statistical features, a reflection intensity feature, and object-oriented
geometric features. Since these features have a certain degree of correlation, traditional classification
geometric features. Since these features have a certain degree of correlation, traditional classification
methods that are based on probability and statistics have difficulties in such a situation. Therefore, RFC,
methods that are based on probability and statistics have difficulties in such a situation. Therefore,
which has a strong ability to reduce the correlation between the trees and the generalization error [43],
RFC, which has a strong ability to reduce the correlation between the trees and the generalization error
was used. RFC has high classification accuracy and robustness and it has excellent applicability to
[43], was used. RFC has high classification accuracy and robustness and it has excellent applicability to
multisample and high-dimensional data classification [44].
multisample and high-dimensional data classification [44].
RFC is an ensemble classification that refers to a new approach that uses not just one, but rather
RFC is an ensemble classification that refers to a new approach that uses not just one, but rather
many decision trees. Each decision tree is generated according to the training set and a random
many decision trees. Each decision tree is generated according to the training set and a random vector,
vector, θk , in which the random vectors that are used to generate each decision tree are independently
𝜃 , in which the random vectors that are used to generate each decision tree are independently
identically distributed. The final decision tree set is the RFC model {h( X, θk ), k = 1,2, . . . ,K}, where X is
identically distributed. The final decision tree set is the RFC model { ℎ(𝑋, 𝜃 ), k = 1,2,…K}, where X is
an input vector [45]. Each single decision tree h( X, θk ) has a vote to select the classification result of
an input vector [45]. Each single decision tree ℎ(𝑋, 𝜃 ) has a vote to select the classification result of
input vector X. After K-round training, a classification model sequence {h1 ( X ), h2 ( X ), . . . ,hK ( X )} can
input vector X. After K-round training, a classification model sequence {ℎ (𝑋), ℎ (𝑋),…,ℎ (𝑋)} can be
be obtained according to the training set, and the RFC model is developed. The classification result of
the sample set is determined by a simple vote, as follows:
k
H( x )= max ∑ I (hi ( x ) = Y ) (4)
Y
i =1
where H( x ) is the RFC model, hi ( x ) is a single decision tree, X is the input vector, Y is the target vector
(or classification target), and I (·) is the indicator function.
4.2. Asphalt Pavement Distress Classification
4.2.1. Classification System

According to the classification criterion described in the Technical Specifications for Maintenance
D
of Highway Asphalt Pavement [38] and the classification feasibility with the acquired point cloud with
an interval of 5 cm, the classification system established in this study focuses on extracting severe
pavement distresses (Table 3). On the one hand, the data quality in this research does not allow for
TE
the extraction of slight pavement distresses. On the other hand, severe distress is indicative of the
fact that the pavement has entered into the latter phase of aging. Once this type of distress appears,
the pavement has lost its normal function as a platform for vehicles to drive on and it needs urgent
maintenance. Therefore, we established a classification system mainly for severe pavement distresses.
Because of the similarity between subsidence, rutting, and cracks, they are regarded as the same type
of distress in the classification.
C
Table 3. Classification of typical asphalt pavement distress.
Types of Distress Grade Description Indicator

A
Slight Shallow hole, small area (<0.1 m2 ) depth ≤ 15 mm
Potholes
Severe Deep hole, large area (>0.1 m2 ) depth > 15 mm
Slight Small deformation depth ≤ 15 mm
Subsidence
Severe Large deformation depth > 15 mm
TR
Slight Shallow, no obvious discomfort in driving depth ≤ 15 mm

Rutting
Severe Deep, clearly bumpy in driving depth > 15 mm
Slight Fewer branches width ≤ 5 cm
Cracks
Severe More branches width > 5 cm
4.2.2. Implementation and Results of RFC

RE
In Section 3, a total of 48 features were extracted, including point cloud elevation, reflection
intensity, a multiscale roughness index, a multiscale Gaussian curvature, and several object-oriented
geometric features. The multiple features of the dataset are listed in Table 4.
Table 4. The multiple features of the dataset.
Feature Category Feature Description Measurement Scale Number of Features

Attributes of the Original Elevation Reflection
2
Point Cloud intensity
Microscopic scale 16
Roughness index
Statistical Features of Macroscopic scale 3
Elevation Microscopic scale 16
Gaussian curvature
Macroscopic scale 3
Regional features 4
Geometric Features
Shape features 4
According to the classification system proposed in 4.2.1, RFC was adopted to classify the acquired
multiscale and multidimensional dataset. The training samples are reported in Table 5.

Table 5. Training samples.
Category Color Number

Table 5. Training of Pixels
samples. Number of Polygons
Potholes Red 951 39
Category Color Number of Pixels Number of Polygons
Subsidence Green 2001 22
Potholes
Undamaged pavement Blue Red 951
4736 39 25
Subsidence Green 2,001 22
Undamaged pavement Blue 4,736 25
During the classification process, we used the cross-validation method to classify the training
During the classification process, we used the cross-validation method to classify the training
samples (Figure 16). The training samples were randomly sampled according to a ratio of 4:1, in which
samples (Figure 16). The training samples were randomly sampled according to a ratio of 4:1, in which
80% of the training data were used for the classification model training and the remaining 20% were
80% of the training data were used for the classification model training and the remaining 20% were
used as the validation set for accuracy validation. The cross-validation method can not only validate
used as the validation set for accuracy validation. The cross-validation method can not only validate
the classification accuracy, but also demonstrate the stability of the classification method. A total of five
the classification accuracy, but also demonstrate the stability of the classification method. A total of
experiments were conducted in the classification process. The RFC model that was used during the
five experiments were conducted in the classification process. The RFC model that was used during
D
experiments contained 200 decision trees, and each of these trees had nine features and a maximum
the experiments contained 200 decision trees, and each of these trees had nine features and a
tree height of 10. The RFC only used a subset of features to build each individual decision tree. This is
maximum tree height of 10. The RFC only used a subset of features to build each individual decision
advantageous
tree. because each
This is advantageous decision
because treedecision
each can make treea can
more accurate
make a moreclassification decision based
accurate classification only
decision
TE
on effective
based only onfeatures, reducing
effective thereducing
features, error thattheis associated
error that is with the structural
associated riskstructural
with the of including
riskthe
of
entire feature vector in the analysis. Simply put, each decision tree is a classification
including the entire feature vector in the analysis. Simply put, each decision tree is a classification “specialist” of
the feature domain that is used in it. For a feature used to differentiate a class type,
“specialist” of the feature domain that is used in it. For a feature used to differentiate a class type, a a nonspecialist
decision tree adopts
nonspecialist decisiona nearly random
tree adopts way ofrandom
a nearly voting, in which
way the number
of voting, of thethe
in which specialist
numberdecision
of the
trees is sufficient to make an accurate classification when all the decision trees meet
specialist decision trees is sufficient to make an accurate classification when all the decision trees a certain number.
meet
aThe training
certain accuracy
number. and testing
The training accuracy
accuracy andare shown
testing in Table
accuracy are6.shown in Table 6.
C
A
TR

Figure 16. of the
Distribution of the training
training samples.
samples.
Table 6. Statistics of classification accuracy.

Table 6. Statistics of classification accuracy.
RE
Training Accuracy (%) Testing Accuracy (%)

Number of Training Accuracy (%) Testing Accuracy (%)
Number of Undamaged Undamaged
Experiments Pothole
Potholes Subsidence Undamaged Potholes Subsidence Undamaged
Experiments Subsidence Pavement Potholes Subsidence Pavement
s Pavement Pavement
11 98.21
98.21 98.75
98.75 100
100 95.35
95.35 97.53
97.53 98.62
98.62
22 99.12
99.12 100
100 100
100 96.56
96.56 98.71
98.71 98.89
98.89
33 97.47
97.47 98.43
98.43 100
100 95.86
95.86 95.34
95.34 98.30
98.30
44 99.95
99.95 98.56
98.56 100
100 94.10
94.10 95.79
95.79 98.55
98.55
55 98.88
98.88
99.20
99.20
100
100
93.32
93.32
94.27
94.27
98.71
98.71
The experimental results show that the method has high classification accuracy and that the
accuracy is stable. The aforementioned results not only reflect the validity of the pavement distress
The experimental
extraction model but also results show
indicate that the method
the applicability has high classification
and robustness accuracy
of the RFC method. and that the
In addition, the
method has a high training accuracy, while the testing accuracy does not show a significant distress
accuracy is stable. The aforementioned results not only reflect the validity of the pavement decline,
extraction
which modela but
indicates alsorobustness
strong indicate the
toapplicability
overfitting. and robustness of the RFC method. In addition, the
method has a high training accuracy, while the testing accuracy does not show a significant decline,
which indicatesAssessment
4.2.3. Accuracy a strong robustness to overfitting.
To further verify the classification accuracy, we analyzed the classification results with the visual
interpretation results as a reference (Table 7).
4.2.3. Accuracy Assessment

To further verify the classification accuracy, we analyzed the classification results with the visual
interpretation results as a reference (Table 7).
Table 7. Accuracy assessment with the visual interpretation results as a reference.
Commission Error Omission Error Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy

Category
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Potholes 15.72 20.12 79.88 84.28
Subsidence 31.07 12.47 87.53 68.93
Undamaged
1.52 6.07 93.93 98.48
pavement
D
Overall Accuracy: 92.30%; Kappa Coefficient: 0.9023
According to Table 7, the overall accuracy is 92.3%. The classification accuracy decreased relative
to the cross-validation but it remained greater than 90%. The main classification error of pothole
TE
distress originated from omission error, that is, some of the potholes were misclassified as subsidence.
When comparing the classification results with the visual interpretation results, it is apparent that
some potholes were misclassified as subsidence. The misclassified regions were mainly at the edge of
potholes, which is a transitional area of damaged pavement and undamaged pavement (Figure 17c).
In these regions, the roughness index and Gaussian curvature were influenced by the surrounding
C
undamaged pavement, and the eigenvalues were not obvious, which resulted in a certain degree
of misclassification. In addition to the classification errors in the transitional area, the classification
accuracy in the other regions was very high, and the distress distribution could be accurately extracted,
A
which provides a reference for highway maintenance agencies to evaluate road conditions and perform
further maintenance.
4.3. Comparison of Different Classification Methods

TR
In this section, we compare the classification results of RFC with maximum likelihood classification
(MLC) and support vector machine (SVM) to illustrate that our choice of RFC as the classification
method is reasonable. We used the same multifeature dataset and training samples in MLC, and model
training was conducted using the cross-validation method for a total of five times. The average training
accuracy and testing accuracy were 95.31% and 86.13%, respectively. We selected the classification
RE
model with the highest accuracy to extract pavement distresses. The classification result is shown
in Figure 17a. The result shows that the commission error of potholes was very serious and a large
number of subsidence distresses were misclassified as potholes. This is because the MLC method did
not effectively utilize multiscale elevational features and neighborhood statistical features. The same
dataset and training samples were used in SVM. We chose a radial basis function as the kernel
function, and the penalty factor was 100. The model was trained five times, and the average training
accuracy and testing accuracy was 98.95% and 94.83%, respectively. The classification model with
the highest accuracy was selected to extract pavement distress, and the result is shown in Figure 17b.
As Figure 17b shows, the visual effect of the classification result obtained by SVM was greatly
improved when compared with that of MLC. SVM was superior to the MLC method in addressing
high-dimensional data, and the testing accuracy was improved from 86.13% to 94.83%. However, it
was found that the two types of pavement distress were relatively large in the SVM classification and
that undamaged pavement within a certain range of the distress was also misclassified as potholes
or subsidence. Because of the correlations between the multiscale roughness index and Gaussian
curvature, the multidimensional features restricted one another when a superplane was established in
the multidimensional space, which limited the expression of the object-oriented features and resulted
in commission errors at the edge of the pavement distress.
D
TE
C
A
TR
Figure 17. Results

Figure 17. Results of several classification
classificationmethods.
methods.
The
The classification
classification results
results that
that were
were obtained with MLC
obtained with MLC and
and SVM
SVM were
were compared
compared with
with the
the results
results
of
of RFC
RFC (Figure
(Figure 17).
17). Simultaneously,
Simultaneously, the
the artificial
artificial visual interpretation results
visual interpretation results were
were used
used to
to verify
verify the
the
classification results. A comparison of the different methods is shown in
classification results. A comparison of the different methods is shown in Table 8.Table 8.
RE
Table 8. Comparison
Table8. Comparison of different methods.
of different methods.
Classification Method Method

Classification MLC (%)
MLC (%) SVM
SVM(%)
(%) RFC (%)RFC (%)
Overall Accuracy 79.35%79.35%
Overall Accuracy 87.88%
87.88% 92.30 92.30
Kappa Coefficient
Kappa Coefficient 0.7762 0.7762 0.8651
0.8651 0.90230.9023
The comparative results show that the RFC classification stood out with the highest classification
accuracy (Table 8), indicating
The comparative its effectiveness
results show that the RFCinclassification
handling high-dimensional
stood out with thedata classification.
highest The
classification
difference between the simulation accuracy and the actual validation accuracy of the
accuracy (Table 8), indicating its effectiveness in handling high-dimensional data classification. RF classification
is approximately
The 5% smaller
difference between thethan that of MLC
simulation and SVM.
accuracy and This means that
the actual the RF classification
validation accuracy of has the the
RF
stronger generalization capacity in the training process, while the other two
classification is approximately 5% smaller than that of MLC and SVM. This means that the RF tend to over fit their
model to the has
classification training data. This
the stronger has further proved
generalization capacitythat thetraining
in the RFC’s strategy
process,ofwhile
decision making
the other two based
tend
on the combined voting outperformed the MLC and SVM classifiers. A part of the decision
to over fit their model to the training data. This has further proved that the RFC’s strategy of decision trees in the
classification
making basedmodel
on thecan effectivelyvoting
combined employ object-oriented
outperformed thefeatures
MLC and to determine the exactAboundary
SVM classifiers. of
part of the
pavement distress, while the other part of the decision trees can vote for the specific type
decision trees in the classification model can effectively employ object-oriented features to determine of distress
with spectral features and multiscale elevational features. Therefore, the RFC method obtained the
the exact boundary of pavement distress, while the other part of the decision trees can vote for the
specific type of distress with spectral features and multiscale elevational features. Therefore, the RFC
ISPRSInt.
ISPRS Int.J. J.Geo-Inf.
Geo-Inf.2019,
2019,1,8,x 39 2322
ofof2726
method
most obtainedclassification
reasonable the most reasonable
result classification result in asphalt
in asphalt pavement distresspavement distress
classification andclassification
the overall
and the overall
accuracy accuracywas
of this method of this
alsomethod was also the highest.
the highest.
4.4.Application
4.4. Application and
andValidation
Validation
InInthis
thissection,
section,we
weapplied
appliedthethe method
method proposed
proposed inin this
this paper
paper to
to the
the validation
validation data
datato
toverify
verifyits
its
stability. The acquisition and preprocessing of the validation data were the same as the
stability. The acquisition and preprocessing of the validation data were the same as the experimentalexperimental
data.AAmultifeature
data. multifeaturedataset
datasetthat
that included
included 48
48 features
features was
was extracted
extracted according
according to
to the
theelevation
elevationand
and
reflection intensity of the original point cloud. The RFC method was adopted to conduct
reflection intensity of the original point cloud. The RFC method was adopted to conduct pavement pavement
distressclassification.
distress classification.The
Theclassification
classificationresults
resultsare
areshown
shownin inFigure
Figure18.
18.
D
TE
C
A
TR
RE
Figure 18. Pavement distress classification results of the validation data.

Figure 18. Pavement distress classification results of the validation data.
We utilized independent testing samples to verify the accuracy of the classification results, which
We utilized
is shown independent
in Table 9. testing samples to verify the accuracy of the classification results, which
is shown in Table 9.
Table 9. Classification accuracy of the validation data.
Table 9. Classification accuracy of the validation data.
Commission Error Omission Error Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy
Category
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Commission Omission Producer’s User’s
Potholes Category 1.59 Error (%) 0.32 Error (%) 99.68 (%)
Accuracy Accuracy98.41
(%)
Subsidence Potholes 8.10 1.59 5.76 0.32 99.68
94.24 98.41
91.90
Undamaged Subsidence 8.10 5.76 94.24 91.90
2.13 7.41 92.59 97.87
pavement
Undamaged pavement 2.13 7.41 92.59 97.87
Overall Accuracy:
Overall Accuracy:95.86%;
95.86%; Kappa Coefficient:
Kappa Coefficient: 0.9389
0.9389
According to the classification results and the accuracy validation table, the pavement distress
classification
Accordingmethod achieved
to the a highresults
classification accuracy
andwhen it was applied
the accuracy to thetable,
validation validation data. Thedistress
the pavement overall
accuracy was 95.86% and the Kappa coefficient was 0.9389. The classification accuracy of potholes
classification method achieved a high accuracy when it was applied to the validation data. The overall was
nearly 99%, while there was a certain degree of commission error in extracting subsidence distress.
accuracy was 95.86% and the Kappa coefficient was 0.9389. The classification accuracy of potholes was
nearly 99%, while there was a certain degree of commission error in extracting subsidence distress.
Combined with the reflection intensity image of the validation data, the damaged regions at the edge
of subsidence areas were misclassified as subsidence distress. In these regions, the roughness index
and Gaussian curvature were influenced by the surrounding pavement, and the eigenvalues were not
obvious, which resulted in a certain degree of misclassification. However, the overall accuracy of the
classification results was still high. Therefore, by using distress classification and the results analysis of
the validation data, it is evident that our method was reliable and stable.
5. Conclusions
This research has demonstrated the application of random forest classification in identifying
pavement distress, based on the use of UAV LiDAR point cloud data. To address the difficulties
D
in distress classification using the conventional method, an effective set of features were found,
including the spectral and spatial ones that could be derived from the LiDAR point cloud. A case
study was conducted to classify the pavement distress in North Xinjiang, China based on the analysis
of the elevations and intensities of the point cloud data. The random forest classification model was
TE
successfully developed with 48 features (e.g., elevation, intensity, roughness, curvature, geometric),
and a satisfactory classification with an accuracy of 92.3% was achieved. It was found that the overall
accuracy of the RFC was 5–10% greater than that of the MLC and SVM classifiers. The incorporation
of spectral, elevation, and geometrical features extracted from the UAV LiDAR point cloud into the
random forest classification can produce better a delineation of the potholes and subsidence from
C
the undamaged pavement. In conclusion, the flexible UAV platform, configured with a laser scanner,
provides a valuable tool for monitoring of the asphalt pavement condition.
In future work, more UAV LiDAR point cloud data of different road areas and segments could
be used to further evaluate the performance of the method for the identification of potholes and
A
subsidence. Because of the spatial resolution limitation, the UAV LiDAR point cloud that was used
in this paper still cannot detect slight distress. Therefore, higher resolution point cloud should
be obtained to further increase the accuracy of pavement condition evaluation. In addition, other
TR
remote sensing data, including multispectral images by UAV, also have a great potential for pavement
condition monitoring. A more accurate classification of pavement distress may be achieved through
comprehensive analysis of a high-density point cloud and multispectral remote sensing images.
Author Contributions: All five authors contributed to the work presented in this paper. Z.L. and C.C. formed the
original idea. Z.L. and S.T. worked on the experiment and data analysis. Z.L., M.-P.K., and X.T. wrote the paper.
All authors worked collaboratively on revising the manuscript.
RE
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant
number 2017YFB0503700, and the High-Resolution Earth Observation System National Key Foundation of China,
grant numbers 11-Y20A02-9001-16/17 and 30-Y20A01-9003-16/17.
Acknowledgments: The support provided by the China Scholarship Council (CSC) is acknowledged. The authors
are sincerely grateful for the comments of the anonymous reviewers and members of the editorial team.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1. Rodrigue, J.; Comtois, C.; Slack, B. The Geography of Transport Systems, 3rd ed.; Routledge: London, UK, 2013;
pp. 1–10, ISBN 9781136777325.
2. Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China. Available online: http://zizhan.mot.gov.cn/zfxxgk/
bnssj/zhghs/201803/t20180329_3005087.html (accessed on 9 May 2018).
3. Lopes, M.; Zhao, D.; Chailleux, E.; Kane, M.; Gabet, T.; Petiteau, C.; Soares, J. Characterization of ageing
processes on the asphalt mixture surface. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 2014, 15, 477–487. [CrossRef]
4. Herold, M.; Roberts, D. Spectral characteristics of asphalt road aging and deterioration: Implications for
remote-sensing applications. Appl. Opt. 2005, 44, 4327–4334. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Hartgen, D.T.; Fields, M.G.; Feigenbaum, B. 21st Annual Report on the Performance of State Highway Systems
(1984–2012); Reason Foundation: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2014.
6. Bandara, N.; Gunaratne, M. Current and future pavement maintenance prioritization based on rapid visual
condition evaluation. J. Transp. Eng. 2001, 127, 116–123. [CrossRef]
7. Schnebele, E.; Tanyu, B.F.; Cervone, G.; Waters, N. Review of remote sensing methodologies for pavement
management and assessment. Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. 2015, 7, 7. [CrossRef]
8. Shah, Y.U.; Jain, S.S.; Tiwari, D.; Jain, M.K. Development of overall pavement condition index for urban road
network. In Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of Transportation-Research-
Group-of-India (CTRG), Agra, India, 12–15 December 2013; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013;
pp. 332–341. [CrossRef]
9. Pulugurtha, S.S.; Ogunro, V.; Pando, M.A.; Patel, K.J.; Bonsu, A. Preliminary results towards developing
thresholds for pavement condition maintenance: Safety perspective. In Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of Transportation-Research-Group-of-India (CTRG), Agra, India, 12–15 December
D
2013; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013; pp. 302–311. [CrossRef]
10. Proto, M.; Bavusi, M.; Bernini, R.; Bigagli, L.; Bost, M.; Bourquin, F.; Cottineau, L.M.; Cuomo, V.; Vecchia, P.D.;
Dolce, M.; et al. Transport infrastructure surveillance and monitoring by electromagnetic sensing: The
ISTIMES project. Sensors 2010, 10, 10620–10639. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
TE
11. Kim, H.; Soleymani, H.; Han, H.; Nam, H. Evaluation of asphalt pavement crack sealing performance using
image processing technique. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in
Construction (ISARC), Tokyo, Japan, 3–5 October 2006; pp. 341–345.
12. McGhee, K.H. Automated Pavement Distress Collection Techniques—A Synthesis of Highway Practice; National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
C
13. Cheng, H.; Chen, J.; Glazier, C.; Hu, Y. Novel approach to pavement cracking detection based on fuzzy set
theory. J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 1999, 13, 270–280. [CrossRef]
14. Attoh-Okine, N.; Adarkwa, O. Pavement Condition Surveys—Overview of Current Practices; Delaware Center
for Transportation, University of Delaware: Newark, DE, USA, 2013.
A
15. Themistocleous, K.; Neocleous, K.; Pilakoutas, K.; Hadjimitsis, D.G. Damage assessment using advanced
non-intrusive inspection methods: Integration of space, UAV, GPR, and field spectroscopy. In Proceedings
of the 2nd International Conference on Remote Sensing and Geoinformation of the Environment (RSCy),
TR
Paphos, Cyprus, 7–10 April 2014; Volume 9229. [CrossRef]

16. Shahi, K.; Shafri, H.Z.; Taherzadeh, E.; Mansor, S.; Muniandy, R. A novel spectral index to automatically
extract road networks from WorldView-2 satellite imagery. Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci. 2015, 18, 27–33.
[CrossRef]
17. Wang, C.; Hu, Q.; Lu, Q. Research on a novel low modulus OFBG strain sensor for pavement monitoring.
Sensors 2012, 12, 10001–10013. [CrossRef]
18. Skoglar, P.; Orguner, U.; Tornqvist, D.; Gustafsson, F. Road target search and tracking with gimballed vision
RE
sensor on an unmanned aerial vehicle. Remote Sens. 2012, 4, 2076–2111. [CrossRef]

19. Mohammadi, M. Road classification and condition determination using hyperspectral imagery.
In International Archives of the Photogrammetry Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Proceedings of
the 22nd Congress of the International-Society-for-Photogrammetry-and-Remote-Sensing, Melbourne, Australia, 25
August–1 September 2012; Copernicus Publications: Göttingen, Germany, 2012; pp. 141–146.
20. Italos, C.; Hadjimitsis, D.G.; Alexakis, D.D.; Themistocleous, K.; Agapiou, A.; Nisantzi, A.; Papoutsa, C.;
Papadavid, G. Integrated Use of Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS for the Development of a Sophisticated
Sustainability Index for Urban Areas: A Case Study of Paphos City (Cyprus). In Proceedings of the 32nd
EARSeL Symposium Advances in Geosciences, Mykonos Island, Greece, 21–24 May 2012; Volume 2124,
pp. 587–593.
21. Alessandro, M.; Nicola, F.; Rosamaria, S.; Antonio, D.; Maurizio, F. Spectroradiometric Laboratory Measures
on Asphalt Concrete: Preliminary Results. In Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, Proceedings of the
5th International Congress on Sustainability of Road Infrastructures (SIIV), Rome, Italy, 29–31 October 2012;
D’Andrea, A., Moretti, L., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 514–523. [CrossRef]
22. Marcondes, J.; Burgess, G.J.; Harichandran, R.; Snyder, M.B. Spectral-Analysis of Highway Pavement
Roughness. J. Transp. Eng. 1991, 117, 540–549. [CrossRef]
23. Mei, A.; Salvatori, R.; Fiore, N.; Allegrini, A.; D’Andrea, A. Integration of field and laboratory spectral
data with multi-resolution remote sensed imagery for asphalt surface differentiation. Remote Sens. 2014, 6,
2765–2781. [CrossRef]
24. Moropoulou, A.; Avdelidis, N.P.; Koui, M.; Kakaras, K. An application of thermography for detection of
delaminations in airport pavements. NDT E Int. 2001, 34, 329–335. [CrossRef]
25. Pan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Tian, J.; Jin, X.; Luo, L.; Yang, K. Mapping asphalt pavement aging and condition using
multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis in Beijing, China. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2017, 11, 016003.
[CrossRef]
26. Zhang, C.; Elaksher, A. An unmanned aerial vehicle-based imaging system for 3D measurement of unpaved
road surface distresses. Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng. 2012, 27, 118–129. [CrossRef]
27. Paska, E.P. State-of-the-Art Remote Sensing Geospatial Technologies in Support of Transportation Monitoring
and Management. Ph.D. Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA, 2009.
28. Tsai, Y.; Jiang, C.; Wang, Z. Pavement crack detection using high-resolution 3D line laser imaging technology.
D
In 7th RILEM International Conference on Cracking in Pavements; Scarpas, A., Kringos, N., Al-Qadi, I.A.L., Eds.;
RILEM Bookseries; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2012; Volume 4.
29. Li, Q.; Yao, M.; Yao, X.; Xu, B. A real-time 3D scanning system for pavement distortion inspection.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 015702. [CrossRef]
TE
30. Chang, K.; Chang, J.; Liu, J. Detection of pavement distresses using 3D laser scanning technology.
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computing in Civil Engineering, Cancun, Mexico, 12–15
July 2005.
31. Puri, A. A Survey of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for Traffic Surveillance; Technical Paper; Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, University of South Florida: Tampa, FL, USA, 2005; pp. 1–29.
C
32. Kim, H.; Sim, S.H.; Cho, S.; Nam, H. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-powered concrete crack detection
based on digital image processing. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Advances in
Experimental Structural Engineering, 11th International Workshop on Advanced Smart Materials and Smart
Structures Technology, Champaign, IL, USA, 1–2 August 2015.
A
33. Ersoz, A.B.; Pekcan, O.; Teke, T. Crack identification for rigid pavements using unmanned aerial vehicles.
IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 236, 012101. [CrossRef]
34. Hoang, N.D.; Nguyen, Q.L.; Bui, D.T. Image Processing–Based Classification of Asphalt Pavement Cracks
TR
Using Support Vector Machine Optimized by Artificial Bee Colon. J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 2018, 32, 04018037.
[CrossRef]
35. Pan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Cervone, G.; Yang, L. Detection of Asphalt Pavement Potholes and Cracks Based on the
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Multispectral Imagery. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens. 2018, 11,
3701–3712. [CrossRef]
36. Georgopoulos, A.; Loizos, A.; Flouda, A. Digital image processing as a tool for pavement distress evaluation.
ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 1995, 50, 23–33. [CrossRef]
RE
37. Eskin, E. Anomaly detection over noisy data using learned probability distributions. In Proceedings of the
International Conference on Machine Learning, San Francisco, CA, USA, 29 June–2 July 2000.
38. Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China. Industrial standards of the People’s Republic of China:
Technical Specifications for Maintenance of Highway Asphalt Pavement; China Communications Press: Beijing,
China, 2001; pp. 10–12, ISBN 978151140551.
39. Cavalli, M.; Tarolli, P.; Marchi, L.; Fontana, G.D. The effectiveness of airborne LiDAR data in the recognition
of channel-bed morphology. Catena 2008, 73, 249–260. [CrossRef]
40. Vianello, A.; Cavalli, M.; Tarolli, P. LiDAR-derived slopes for headwater channel network analysis. Catena
2009, 76, 97–106. [CrossRef]
41. Gauss, K.F. General Investigations of Curved Surfaces: Edited with an Introduction and Notes by Peter Pesic; Courier
Corporation: North Chelmsford, MA, USA, 2013; pp. 79–110, ISBN 9780486154817.
42. Huang, X.; Li, N.; Zhang, F.; Wan, W. Automatic power lines extraction method from airborne lidar point
cloud. Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ. 2015, 40, 1563–1569. [CrossRef]
43. Rodriguez-Galiano, V.F.; Ghimire, B.; Rogan, J.; Chica-Olmo, M.; Rigol-Sanchez, J.P. An assessment of the
effectiveness of a random forest classifier for land-cover classification. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.
2012, 67, 93–104. [CrossRef]
44. Fang, K.; Wu, J.; Zhu, J.; Shi, B. A review of technologies on random forests. Stat. Inf. Forum 2011, 26, 32–38.
45. Breiman, L. Random forests. Mach. Learn. 2001, 45, 5–32. [CrossRef]
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
D
TE
C
A
TR
RE

Retracted: Identifying Asphalt Pavement Distress Using Uav Lidar Point Cloud Data and Random Forest Classification

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Retracted: Identifying Asphalt Pavement Distress Using Uav Lidar Point Cloud Data and Random Forest Classification

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of

evaluate road health conditions and implement maintenance.

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 8, 39; doi:10.3390/ijgi8010039 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

methods to demonstrate the robustness of the RFC in pavement distress classification.

Figure 1. Research roadmap.

ISPRS Int. J.ISPRS

which results in high-quality measurements even under poor atmospheric conditions.

2.3. Point Cloud Data Preprocessing

2.3.1. Generating Standard Point Cloud Data

3.1. Elevation Feature

Width Slight ≤ 5 cm;

Table 2. Different measurement scales.

Type Minimum Scale Maximum Scale Step Length Number of Features

Macroscopic Scale 100 cm 200 cm 50 cm 3

(2) Gaussian curvature

expression diagram of middle

Figure 10. Distribution of Gaussian curvature on microscopic scales.

Figure 12. Reflection

3.4. Object-Oriented Geometric Features

Figure 14. Regional features of objects after segmentation.

Figure 15. Shape features of objects after segmentation.

4. Asphalt Pavement Distress Classification Using Random Forest

4.2. Asphalt Pavement Distress Classification

4.2.1. Classification System

Types of Distress Grade Description Indicator

Slight Shallow, no obvious discomfort in driving depth ≤ 15 mm

4.2.2. Implementation and Results of RFC

Table 4. The multiple features of the dataset.

Feature Category Feature Description Measurement Scale Number of Features

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019, 1, x 20 of 27

Category Color Number

Figure 16. Distribution

Table 6. Statistics of classification accuracy.

Training Accuracy (%) Testing Accuracy (%)

4.2.3. Accuracy Assessment

Table 7. Accuracy assessment with the visual interpretation results as a reference.

Commission Error Omission Error Producer’s Accuracy User’s Accuracy

4.3. Comparison of Different Classification Methods

Figure 17. Results

Classification Method Method

Figure 18. Pavement distress classification results of the validation data.

Paphos, Cyprus, 7–10 April 2014; Volume 9229. [CrossRef]

sensor on an unmanned aerial vehicle. Remote Sens. 2012, 4, 2076–2111. [CrossRef]

You might also like