sustainability
Article
Semi-Automatic Extraction of Geometric Elements of Curved
Ramps from Google Earth Images
Mohammed AL-Qadri 1 , Jianchuan Cheng 1, * and Yunlong Zhang 2






Citation: AL-Qadri, M.; Cheng, J.;
Zhang, Y. Semi-Automatic Extraction
of Geometric Elements of Curved
Ramps from Google Earth Images.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su14021001
Academic Editors: María Castro and
Keila González-Gómez
Received: 4 December 2021
Accepted: 11 January 2022
Published: 17 January 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14021001
1 School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; 233169914@seu.edu.cn
2 Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
yzhang@civil.tamu.edu
* Correspondence: jccheng@seu.edu.cn
Abstract: Generating and updating roadway geometric elements from aerial images is necessary
for multiple geospatial information system purposes, which have been addressed through various
approaches. However, most existing methods cannot deal with challenges such as differently curved
ramp characteristics, whereas measurements of geometric elements are still of low effectiveness and
accuracy. This paper presents a new method for the semi-automatic extraction of horizontal parame-
ters of curved highway ramps using Google Earth images. The proposed method first determines a
road centerline manually using a graphics editor software; the file is then saved and processed with a
program that analyzes and splits the centerline into its basic components. After that, the curvature
analysis and linear fitting methods are integrated for automatic PC and PT determination. Finally, at
the post-processing stage, the radii of the curves are computed automatically using the least-squares
method. The proposed method was tested on four highway ramps and validated by comparison
with the obtained design plans. Results show that the proposed method successfully detected the
curves’ PC/PT and measured their radii with a high degree of accuracy.
Keywords: roadway ramp; horizontal curve; GE images; curvature; least-squares method
1. Introduction
The purpose of constructing highway ramps is to allow traffic on highways to pass
through the junction without interruption from other crossing traffic streams [1]. Generally,
horizontal curves on highway ramps are designed to provide a smooth and safe transition
between straight lines along the road trajectory, allowing the vehicle to safely pass a turn at
a gradual rate instead of a sharp cut [2]. Unfortunately, as noticed by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) Office of Safety, a large number of serious vehicle crashes occur at
interchange ramps of highways even though ramps only represent a small portion of the
road network [3].
As a result, public studies have been undertaken to determine how the attributes
of horizontal curves on the roads could be associated with the increase in crashes and
how practical measures can reduce crash rates. Knowing the geometric elements of the
horizontal curves and their location are critical in reducing crash rates.
Highway ramps are designed with curvature segments and tangents [4,5]. The lack of
budget and site defects mean that variations from design standards can occur. The original
design plan is often missing for ramps, making it difficult to assess safety performance.
Therefore, a dedicated survey of the geometric elements of highway ramps (i.e., curve
radius and curve length, point of curvature (PC), and point of tangent (PT)) after construc-
tion is essential for the analysis of safety-relevant issues to guarantee they meet design
specifications [6,7]. Efficiently collecting such data helps the competent authorities to take
corrective actions in case of design problems.
Traditional techniques used to collect information about horizontal curves, such as the
plan sheet method [8], land survey method [9], and chord offset method, have required
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 2 of 16

huge costs, labor, and time, which make them, in some cases, unpractical [10]. Thus,
transportation authorities have been looking for an inexpensive, accurate, and time-efficient
manner to obtain such information.
The emergence and potential use of high-resolution remote sensing images in a wide
variety of applications, such as updating and preparing maps, have made object extraction,
especially of buildings and roads, a new challenge in remote sensing [11]. Free online
resources, including Google Earth (GE), have transformed the way design practitioners
deal with spatial data [12,13], which can facilitate the description of the existing terrains. GE
enables users to visualize any location on the Earth’s surface. Since 2005, when it was made
accessible for public use, GE has been developed to be a widely used tool for academic
research and other purposes [14].
This study proposes an accurate and semi-automatic method for extracting the param-
eters of horizontal curves on highway ramps from GE imagery, including the PC, PT, and
curve radius. The proposed approach aims at facilitating the automatic extraction of the
curves’ geometries to continuously update geospatial systems. Knowing the locations of
horizontal curves and their parameters is essential to provide road users and autonomous
vehicles with precise information in advance, while using the extracted data in safety
prediction models to improve safety on curves.

2. Literature Review
Different technologies and approaches were used to extract roadway horizontal and
vertical elements using various data sources. The data sources include field surveys [15],
satellite imagery [16], AutoCAD (Automatic Computer-Aided Design,) digital map, GIS
(geographic information system,) map, GPS (global positioning system) [17], LiDAR (light
detection and ranging system) [18,19], and IMU (inertial measurement unit) [20]. However,
field surveying methods using geomatic instruments, such as total stations, to obtain
this data are time-consuming and costly [21]. GIS map, satellite imagery, and AutoCAD
map provide a digital map for the extraction of the parameters of highway horizontal
alignment, which has a complete road network data source and is low-cost in data collection.
Depending on the mentioned data sources, the first stage is to extract road alignment
geometric data (i.e., lane marking and road centerline) from the AutoCAD map, then
identify curves and obtain geometric parameters using relevant approaches. Dong, H.;
Easa, S.M. Li, J. [22] developed an algorithm based on Hough transform for curve extraction
with satellite images and demonstrated the possibility of obtaining geometric features of
a simple, spiral, and compound curves. However, due to the complexity of extracting
unidentified elements of the spiral curve from aerial images, only symmetrical spirals have
been considered in their research.
Rasdorf et al. [23] compared estimating elements of curves using curve finder (CF) and
curvature extension (CE). CF uses GIS polylines as a tool to detect curve radius and length
using GPS data. CF can identify curves while also determining their lengths and radius.
CE is a plugin added into ArcGIS, which determines the length and radius of a horizontal
curve. The two curve estimating tools were tested on two roads with different designs
in North Carolina. CF detected 67% of road curves along the three paths. For 65% of the
curves, CF detected a radius within 20% of that found using CE. The authors attribute the
failure to obtain some curves due to their large radius.
Imran et al. [24] generated a technique of adding GPS data into the GIS platform to
calculate the tangent, spiral length, and radius of the roadway curve. First, data points
are subdivided into linear and non-linear depending on the variation in angle between
consecutive data points. A PC and PT detection are obtained, and 75% of the tangent points
are used to fit in a line for tangent segments. The Jacobian matrix method is then used to fit
circles into curved segments. Additionally, using these types of surveying tools to collect
curve data also limits the technique from being utilized on a large number of roads because
of extended data collection time and the high cost.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 3 of 16

The University of Wisconsin–Madison, based on GIS roadway maps, has established

the CurveFinder tool that automatically identifies the geometric characteristics of hor-
izontal curves. The CurveFinder tool extracts all horizontal curve attributes from GIS
roadway maps, except for the super-elevation element, which can only be acquired by
actual measurement; however, the algorithm could not distinguish between circular and
spiral curves [25]. Researchers from Ireland and the United Kingdom proposed an ap-
proach to extract roadway geometric elements from digital maps using AutoCAD Civil
3D [26,27]. The authors used CAD commands to generate the centerline of the roadways
based on the digitized road map in the CAD environment. Where the simple curves start
and end can be located based on the reconstructed centerline. The geometric equations are
used to estimate the curve length, radius, and angle. Their methods succeeded in extracting
the sample curve, but more work is required when dealing with complex curves.
Xu and Wei [28] proposed a method based on the variation in bearing angles between
consecutive vectors aligned along a roadway to detect the curve’s geometric features. They
used a threshold for the variation in bearing that shows the beginning of a curve. When the
start and end points of the curve are known (PC and PT), the curve length can be calculated
and then applied to estimate the curve’s other features, including the deflection angle and
radius. The authors noted successes in detection of up to 95% of the curves. However, their
technique was not complete in recognizing spiral curves or extracting their geometric data.
An automatic approach was introduced to assess and detect the geometric information
of horizontal curves based on LiDAR technology [4]. The proposed algorithm includes
evaluating the differences in the azimuth between line segments and the road’s trajectory
to identify horizontal curves on roadway segments. The outcomes show that the algorithm
could determine all the curves on a roadway section; furthermore, the geometric attributes
of those curves were obtained with reasonable accuracy. However, more work is required
to distinguish simple curves from transition spiral curves.
In the curvature detection approaches, Tsai established a method based on vision
technology to obtain roadway curvature data of horizontal curves from roadway images
through multiple stages. Firstly, curve edges were detected using the image processing
technique; secondly, roadway edge locations were mapped from the image domain to the
real-world domain. Then, camera parameters were calibrated to remove the impact of
capturing angles on image accuracy; finally, horizontal curves were measured [29].
As evident from the review, the previous methods using different data collection sources
have shown their attempts to measure horizontal curve geometric elements, including sim-
ple, reverse, or spiral curves using an automated or semi-automatic manner. However, the
automatic method is not widely used due to the limitation in extracting curves with different
characteristics, whereas measurements of geometric elements of curved ramps are still of
insufficient efficacy and accuracy. Moreover, some previous methods use costly software such
as ArcGIS curve estimators to measure horizontal curve parameters.
In an attempt to address some of these limitations, this study proposes an automatic
method to detect the PC and PT of roadway ramp curves, including simple, compound,
and spiral curves, and measure their attributes from GE imagery.
Over the past few years, GE has become widely applied in transportation engineering for
its superiority and reliability. GE provides images with a resolution of around 0.2–0.5 m/pixel,
depending on terrain and region. Images with such resolutions are considered sufficient for
accurate extractions of the geometric elements of highways. GE imagery can be obtained at no
cost to the user. Therefore, the extraction of GE information for generating highway geometric
elements can be considered for highway design applications.

3. Methodology
The research methodology proposed in this study is divided into multiple stages.
Firstly, a road centerline location is defined from aerial images based on the actual design
of road horizontal alignment. In this method, a set of pixel coordinate points are marked
manually midway between the two edges of the single lane of highway ramps; the selected
 3. Methodology
The research methodology proposed in this study is divided into multiple stages.
Firstly, a road centerline location is defined from aerial images based on the actual design
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 of road horizontal alignment. In this method, a set of pixel coordinate points are marked 4 of 16
manually midway between the two edges of the single lane of highway ramps; the se-
lected points are then fitted with the best curve that passes through those points to gener-
ate a smooth
points are then curve that
fitted meets
with the the
besthorizontal
curve thatcurve conditions.
passes through Secondly,
those pointsafter
to determin-
generate
ing the centerline, a curvature analysis method and linear fitting method
a smooth curve that meets the horizontal curve conditions. Secondly, after determining are integrated
for centerline,
the automatically detectinganalysis
a curvature the PC/PT of curved
method and ramps. After PC
linear fitting and PT
method areare determined,
integrated for
the curve radiidetecting
automatically are measured automatically
the PC/PT of curvedusing theAfter
ramps. least-squares
PC and PT fitting method. the
are determined,
curve radii are measured automatically using the least-squares fitting method.
3.1. Localization of Road Centerline
3.1. Localization of Road
The definition Centerline
of the centerline of the designed road from aerial images is practically
The definition
challenging. of the centerline
This problem is unusual of for
the rational
designed road from
scientific aerial images
applications is practically
because, in addi-
challenging. Thiserrors
tion to intrinsic problem is unusual
of the for rational
aerial imagery, it isscientific
related to applications
the lack of because, in addition
visible markings on
to
theintrinsic errors
roads that canofbethe aerial imagery,
followed to determine it is the
related to the lack
centerline, e.g., of
thevisible markings
centerline on the
of pavement
roads
roads,that can be followed
the markings, to determine
or others, the centerline,
but these elements e.g., the
are variable overcenterline of pavement
time because of wear-
roads, the markings, or others, but these elements are variable
ing and maintenance works. This paper has developed procedures to define the over time because ofroad
wearing
cen-
and maintenance
terline based on theworks. This
actual paper has
Chinese developed
standard procedures
for road to define
design [30]. the road centerline
The standard states that
based on the actual
road trajectory Chinese standard
is differently for road design
defined according [30]. Thecross-section
to the roadway standard states that road
organization:
trajectory
for a singleis carriageway
differently defined
and one according
traffic way, to the
theroadway cross-section
road trajectory organization:
is the geometric for a
centerline
single carriageway
of the carriageway. and one traffic way, the road trajectory is the geometric centerline of
the carriageway.
Based on the above procedures, firstly, a set of coordinate points are selected manu-
Based the
ally along on the
roadabove
laneprocedures,
on the curved firstly,
ramp,a setandof coordinate
those points points are selected
are selected manually
on the middle
along
of a single lane as reference points for the determination of a ramp centerline as shownof
the road lane on the curved ramp, and those points are selected on the middle in
aFigure
single1a.
lane as reference
Then, a Bezier points
curve isfor the to
used determination
superimposeofthe a ramp
path withcenterline as curve
the best shownthatin
Figure 1a. points,
fits those Then, aas Bezier
showncurve is used1b.
in Figure to superimpose the path with the best curve that fits
those points, as shown in Figure 1b.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Data point
point selection
selectionand
andcenterline
centerlinedetermination
determination(Test
(Testsite
site4):4):
(a)(a)
selected data
selected points
data (b)
points
determined ramp centerline.
(b) determined ramp centerline.

A
ABezier
Beziercurve
curveisisaaparametric
parametriccurve
curvethat
thatuses
usesBernstein
Bernsteinpolynomials as as
polynomials a basic [31].
a basic A
[31].
A Bezier curve of degree n (order n 1) is represented by:
Bezier curve of degree n (order n + 1) is represented by:

r(rt)t = ∑i=0 bbi BBi,n, (tt),, 0 ≤0t ≤t1 1

n
(1)
(1)

The coefficients, bi, are the control points or Bezier points and, together with the basis
function Bi,n(t), determine the shape of the curved lines drawn between successive control
points of the curve from the control polygon.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 5 of 16

The coefficients, bi, are the control points or Bezier points and, together with the basis
function Bi,n t , determine the shape of the curved lines drawn between successive con-
trol points of the curve from the control polygon.
A Bezier
A Bezier curve
curve cancan
be be evaluated
evaluated at aatgiven
a given parameter
parameter value
value t0 , and
t0, and thethe curve
curve cancan
be be
divided at this value using the de Casteljau algorithm Figure 2 [32], recursively
divided at this value using the de Casteljau algorithm Figure 2 [32], recursively applying applying
thethe following
following equation
equation to obtain
to obtain thethe
newnew control
control points:
points:
bbki (t0t ) = (11− t0t )bbki−−11 + tt0 bbki −1 ,, kk = 1,2,
1, 2,…. ., .n,, n,
i i k,
= …k,, .n,. . , n, (2) (2)
TheThe
algorithm
algorithmis shown
is shownin Figure
in Figure 1 and hashas
1 and thethe
following
followingproperties:
properties:
• • TheThe
values b are
0 the original control points of the curve.
values bi are the original control points of the curve.
• • TheThe
value of the
value curve
of the at parameter
curve at parameter value t tis isb b.n .
value 0 n
• • TheThe
curve is divided at parameter value
curve is divided at parameter value t0 and 𝑡 and can can beberepresented
representedasastwo
twocurves,
curves,
with
with control points 0(b ,1b , … , bn ) and (bn , bn−1 ,…, b ).0
control points (bi , b1 , . . . , bn ) and (bn , bn , . . . , bn ).

Figure 2. The
Figure de Casteljau
2. The algorithm.
de Casteljau algorithm.

TheThe method
method is implemented
is implemented using
using thethe graphics
graphics editor
editor Inkscape
Inkscape 1.1.1.1. After
After that,
that, thethe
centerline image file is saved with the scale and imported to Python for the PC/PT
centerline image file is saved with the scale and imported to Python for the PC/PT detec- detection
tionand
andcurve
curveradius
radiuscalculation.
calculation.

3.2.3.2.
PC PCandand
PT PT Station
Station Identification
Identification
The first step in obtaining the geometric parameters for the horizontal alignment of
The first step in obtaining the geometric parameters for the horizontal alignment of
road curves (i.e., curve radius and curve length) is to correctly identify the PC/PT locations.
road curves (i.e., curve radius and curve length) is to correctly identify the PC/PT loca-
The curve radii cannot be measured directly if the PC and PT points are not identified. The
tions. The curve radii cannot be measured directly if the PC and PT points are not identi-
PC and PT are the connection point between the curved segment and the tangent segment,
fied. The PC and PT are the connection point between the curved segment and the tangent
or two curved segments. Figure 3 illustrates the PC/PT location on a curved ramp. To
segment, or two curved segments. Figure 3 illustrates the PC/PT location on a curved
automatically detect the PC and PT points, the curvature analysis method and the linear
ramp. To automatically detect the PC and PT points, the curvature analysis method and
fitting methods are integrated to automatically determine the PC and PT points.
the linear fitting methods are integrated to automatically determine the PC and PT points.
Sustainability 2022,14,
Sustainability2022, 14,1001
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of 16
17

Figure3.3.The
Figure ThePC/PT
PC/PT location
location on
on aa curved ramp.
curved ramp.

3.2.1.
3.2.1. Curvature
CurvatureRecognition
Recognition.
On
Onhorizontal
horizontalcurves,
curves,calculating
calculatingthe thecurvature
curvaturevalue
valuedenotes
denotesthe therotation
rotationrate
rateof
ofthe
the
tangent
tangentdirection
directionangle
angleofofa acertain
certainpoint
point toto
thethe
arcarc
length, indicates
length, indicatesthethe
degree
degreeof deviation
of devia-
of theofcurve
tion fromfrom
the curve the tangent line line
the tangent of theof point, or mathematically
the point, or mathematically indicates the the
indicates degree
degreeof
curvature of the curve at a certain point
of curvature of the curve at a certain point [33]. [33].
In
In this
this study,
study,many
manycurvature
curvaturecomputations
computations have have been
been carried
carried out
out to
to calculate
calculate the
the
curvature
curvatureatatdifferent
differentlengths
lengthsalong
alongthe the
roadroad
trajectory usingusing
trajectory Python. After many
Python. After attempts,
many at-
we foundwe
tempts, that placing
found thatthe curvature
placing at 2 m positions
the curvature (Figure 4b)
at 2 m positions gives a4b)
(Figure better
gives result; as
a better
shown in Figure 4c,d, the greater the distance the greater the decline rate,
result; as shown in Figure 4c,d, the greater the distance the greater the decline rate, and and vice versa,
the
vicesmaller
versa, the
the distance
smaller thethedistance
lower the thedecline
lowerrate
the (Figure
decline 4a)
rateand the greater
(Figure 4a) andthe thenumber
greater
of points, which in turn increases the computational burdens.
the number of points, which in turn increases the computational burdens.
The curvature performs as follows:
1. The curvature for the straight segments is always equal to zero; 2. The curvature for
the circle is a constant value equal to 1/R (curve segment with a fixed radius) Equation (1);
3. The curvature of the transition curve defines the geometry of the Euler spiral [34], the
curvature is calculated linearly, and it has a constant rate of change. Figure 5 shows the
ideal curvature of a road curve segment by combining two alignments, composed by two
clothoids and a circular arc.
y 00 1
ρ= q = (3)
2 3 R
(1 + y 02 )
• ρ: Curvature;
• y02 : First derivative;
• y00 : Second derivative;
• R: Radius of curvature;

3.2.2. Linear Fitting Analyses for PC and PT Detection

The difficulty found in the recognition of the PC and PT of the horizontal spiral curve
is due to the design characteristics of these curves; the curvature is extremely sensitive to
the input parameters. A slight variation can move the transition point between a circle and
a transition curve several centimeters to either side, because near the transition point the
circle and the spiral are practically the same; when the transition point moves, that changes
the length of the spiral. Hence, it is impossible to determine the PC/PT points by detecting
exactly the intersection points of the curvature on the transition section.

Figure 4. Curvature sampling at different positions: (a) curvature at 1 m position; (b) curvature at 2
m position; (c) curvature at 3 m position; (d) curvature at 4 m position.
 of curvature of the curve at a certain point [33].
In this study, many curvature computations have been carried out to calculate the
curvature at different lengths along the road trajectory using Python. After many at-
tempts, we found that placing the curvature at 2 m positions (Figure 4b) gives a better
result; as shown in Figure 4c,d, the greater the distance the greater the decline rate, and
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 7 of 16
vice versa, the smaller the distance the lower the decline rate (Figure 4a) and the greater
the number of points, which in turn increases the computational burdens.

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

The curvature performs as follows:

1. The curvature for the straight segments is always equal to zero; 2. The curvature
for the circle is a constant value equal to 1/R (curve segment with a fixed radius) Equation
(1); 3. The curvature of the transition curve defines the geometry of the Euler spiral [34],
the curvature is calculated linearly, and it has a constant rate of change. Figure 5 shows
the ideal curvature of a road curve segment by combining two alignments, composed by
two clothoids and a circular arc.
y 1
ρ
R (3)
1 y

• ρ: Curvature;
• y : First derivative;
• y : Second derivative;
Figure 4. Curvature
Figure4. Curvature sampling at different positions:
positions: (a)
(a) curvature
curvatureat
at11mmposition;
position;(b)
(b)curvature
curvatureatat2
• m position;
R: Radius curvature
of curvature;
2 m position;(c)
(c) curvatureatat33mmposition;
position;(d)
(d)curvature
curvatureatat44mmposition.
position.

Figure
Figure5.5.The
Theideal
idealcurvature
curvatureof
ofaaroad
roadcurve
curvesection.
section.

3.2.2. This study

Linear proposes
Fitting Analysesa linear
for PCfitting-based
and PT Detectionmethod to determine the exact positions
of the
ThePC and PT found
difficulty of the in
curved ramps, effectively
the recognition of the PCminimizing
and PT of thethe errors caused
horizontal spiral by the
curve
curvature sensitivity to the input data. The data from test site four are taken as
is due to the design characteristics of these curves; the curvature is extremely sensitive to an example to
show how this method works. Figure 6a shows the curvature profile of
the input parameters. A slight variation can move the transition point between a circlethe road centerline,
andaFigure
and 6b presents
transition the linear
curve several fitting result
centimeters and side,
to either PT/PT determination
because calculatedpoint
near the transition from
the described procedure. Each segment on the black line corresponds
the circle and the spiral are practically the same; when the transition point moves, that to a piece-wise
approximation;
changes the lengthhorizontal linesHence,
of the spiral. indicate arcs
it is or tangents,
impossible and inclined
to determine parts are
the PC/PT spirals.
points by
The endpoints of each segment are determined automatically according to the direction of
detecting exactly the intersection points of the curvature on the transition section.
the curvature profile. When the curvature reaches the tangent, it turns into horizontal lines
This study proposes a linear fitting-based method to determine the exact positions of
that indicate the endpoints of the curve segment. The x-axis represented the normalized
the PC and PT of the curved ramps, effectively minimizing the errors caused by the cur-
vature sensitivity to the input data. The data from test site four are taken as an example
to show how this method works. Figure 6a shows the curvature profile of the road cen-
terline, and Figure 6b presents the linear fitting result and PT/PT determination calculated
from the described procedure. Each segment on the black line corresponds to a piece-wise
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Sustainability 2022, 14, x that

lines FOR PEER REVIEW
indicate the endpoints of the curve segment. The x-axis represented the normal- 8

Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001
ized distance along the curved ramp, and the y-axis represented the curvature values.8 of The
16
reason for normalization is to make variables comparable to each other.
lines that indicate the endpoints of the curve segment. The x-axis represented the norm
ized distanceramp,
distance along the curved along the
andcurved ramp,represented
the y-axis and the y-axis
therepresented
curvature the curvature
values. The values.
reason for normalization is to make variables comparable
reason for normalization is to make variables comparable to each other. to each other.

Figure 6. PC and PT determination (test site 4): (a) curvature profile; (b) PT and PT determination.

3.3. Curve Radius Calculation

Figure 6. PC andFigure
PT determination
6. PC and PT(test site 4): (a) curvature
determination profile;
(test site 4): (b) PT and
(a) curvature PT determination.
profile; (b) PT and PT determinat
After the road centerline is determined and the PC and PT are detected, the identified
3.3.
PC/PTCurve
are Radius
then 3.3. Calculation
marked
Curveon the centerline
Radius Calculation by their x,y coordinates. In this section, the least-
After
squares the road
method is centerline
used for curveis determined and the PCaand
radius calculation; PT are
Python detected,was
program thewritten
identifiedto
After the road centerline is determined and the PC and PT are detected, the identi
PC/PT
performare thethen marked
various tasks on the presented
of the centerlinemethod.
by theirThe x,y objective
coordinates. In this
function section, the
minimizes
PC/PT are then marked on the centerline by their x,y coordinates. In this section, the le
least-squares
squared deviationsmethod is usedthe
between for curve radius calculation; a Python program was an written
squares method isselected
used for curves
curveand generated
radius curves.
calculation; After that,
a Python program opti-
was writte
to perform
mization methodthe various
is tasks
used to of
fit the
the presented
curved ramp method.
to the The
data objective
points, function
using the minimizes
LS method
perform the various tasks of the presented method. The objective function minimizes
the
[35].squared
Finally, atdeviations between the
the post-processing selected
stage, the curves and generated curves. using
After basic
that,
squared deviations between theradii of the
selected curves
curves and aregenerated
computed curves. After that, an o
an optimization
horizontal curve method
equations. is used to fit the curved ramp
The proposed toapplied
the data forpoints, using the LS
mization method is used to method can beramp
fit the curved to the simple,
data compound,
points, using the LS met
method
and spiral[35]. Finally, at the post-processing stage, the radii of the curves are computed
curves.[35]. Finally, at the post-processing stage, the radii of the curves are computed using b
usingConsider
basic horizontal
the curve curve
horizontal equations. The proposed
alignment inmethod 7,can be applied for simple,
horizontal curve equations. Theshown
proposed Figure
method which
can be consists
applied offorasimple,
spiral compou
compound, and
curve at the beginningspiral curves.
and spiralofcurves.
the ramp, a circular curve, a spiral, and circular curve in the
Consider
middle, and anthe horizontal
exit curve alignment
spiral, a tangent, at the end. shown in figure,
Figure B 7, and
which consists ofthe
a spiral
Consider the horizontal curveInalignment
this shown inEFigure
represent
7, which start-
consists of a sp
curve at the beginning
ing and ending curve of
points.atSC the ramp, a circular curve, a spiral, and circular curve in the middle,
therepresents
beginningthe of transition
the ramp,curve to a circular
a circular curve, acurve,
spiral,CS
andrepresents
circular curve in
and an exit spiral,
the circular curve a tangent,
to theand at thecurve,
transition end. In thisSTfigure, B and theEIn representcurve
the starting and
middle, an exit spiral, aand
tangent, indicates
at the end. transition
this figure, B andto the tan-
E represent the s
ending points. SC represents the transition curve to a circular curve, CS represents the circular
gent point. ing and ending points. SC represents the transition curve to a circular curve, CS repres
curve to the transition curve, and ST indicates the transition curve to the tangent point.
the circular curve to the transition curve, and ST indicates the transition curve to the
gent point.

Figure 7. The geometry of fitting

fitting continuous
continuous horizontal
horizontalcurves
curvesto
toaasequence
sequenceofofselected
selecteddata
datapoints.
points.
In order toFigure 7. Theand
generate geometry of fitting
plot the continuous
desired curves,horizontal
includingcurves
the to a sequence
tangents, theof selected
first data
stage is to codepoints.
a function that generates and plots the desired roadway curve using all
parameters as input. To test the function, the above curve parameters are considered as a
sample; seven parameters are considered. “xB” and “yB” are the coordinates of “B”, and
they are constant. Parameter “LE” is the length of the straight line at the exit.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

In order to generate and plot the desired curves, including the tangents, the first stage
is to code a function that generates and plots the desired roadway curve using all param-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 9 of 16
eters as input. To test the function, the above curve parameters are considered as a sample;
seven parameters are considered. “xB” and “yB” are the coordinates of “B”, and they are
constant. Parameter “LE” is the length of the straight line at the exit.
Afterthese
After these stages,
stages, an
an objective
objectivefunction
functionisiscoded, and
coded, andan an
optimization function
optimization is used
function is
to find the parameters minimizing that objective function, which is a
used to find the parameters minimizing that objective function, which is a norm ofnorm of the errors.
the
The objective
errors. function
The objective of the of
function optimization modelmodel
the optimization is written as:
is written as:
J
2J
min h(xB,yB , LsE,
minR , tc2yB,
h(2 xB, i , LsM,R21 , tc1ii , Ls1,LE, xE,i , yE)
LsE, R , tc2 , LsM, R1 , tc1 Ls1, LE, xE,
= min minj ∑ kQj −Wj k2
Q j -W
yE)= (4)
(4)
j=1 j=1

where
wherehh==thethe objective
objective function, m2,m2, xB1,
xB1,yB1yB1==the
thecoordinates
coordinatesofofstart
start point
point “B”,
“B”, LsELsE =
= the
the length
length of the
of the spiral
spiral curve,
curve, R2 =R2 the= radius
the radius
of theofcircular
the circular
curve,curve, tc2 arc
tc2 = the = the arc circular
of the of the
circular curve,
curve, LsM LsMlength
= the = the length ofcurve,
of spiral spiral curve,
R1= theR1= the radius
radius of circular
of circular curve, curve,
and tc1and tc1arc
= the =
the arc of
of the the circular
circular curve.curve. LsI length
LsI = the = the length
of the of the spiral
spiral curve,curve, LE length
LE = the = the length of straight
of straight line at
line
theat theand
exit, exit,xB1
andand
xB1yB1
and=yB1the =coordinates
the coordinates
of endofpoint
end point “E”.
“E”. Qj Qj =selected
= the the selected
pointpoint
in the
inOXY
the coordinate, j = the jtotal
OXY coordinate, = thenumber of the selected
total number points, Wj
of the selected = the Wj
points, orthogonal projection
= the orthogonal
of Qj on the
projection alignment,
of Qj and |Qj −and
on the alignment, Wj||Qj = the 2- norm
− Wj| = the or
2- Euclidean norm, representing
norm or Euclidean norm, repre- the
residual
senting (difference)
the between Qjbetween
residual (difference) and Wj. Qj and Wj.
Theconstraints
The constraintson onthe
theradius
radiusandandlength
lengthofofthe
thetransition
transitioncurve
curveare
aregiven
givenby:
by:

Rmin,i≤≤Ri
Rmin,i Ri≤≤ Rmax,I, i =1,1,2,2,…,I
Rmax,I, i = . . . ,I (5)
(5)
Lmin,i ≤ Li ≤ Lmax,I, i = 1, 2,…,I (6)
Lmin,i ≤ Li ≤ Lmax,I, i = 1, 2, . . . ,I (6)
where Rmin, i, Rmax, i = the lower and upper bounds on Ri (m), and Lmin, i, Lmax, i =
where Rmin, i, Rmax, i = the lower and upper bounds on Ri (m), and Lmin, i, Lmax, i = the
the lower and upper bounds on Li (m).
lower and upper bounds on Li (m).
In order to run the code, the start and end positions of each curve segment of the
In order to run the code, the start and end positions of each curve segment of the
roadway ramp need to be provided. Those positions have been determined based on the
roadway ramp need to be provided. Those positions have been determined based on the
PC/PT
PC/PT detected
detectedininSection
Section3.2;
3.2;then,
then,it itwill
willautomatically
automaticallyfitfitthe
thecurve
curveon
onthe
thedata
datawith
withthe
the
LS
LS error criterion. The results are presented as shown in Figure 8. The data from testsite
error criterion. The results are presented as shown in Figure 8. The data from test site
four
fourare
aretaken
takenasasan
anexample
exampletotoshowshowhow howthis
thismethod
methodworks.
works.

Fittedcurve
Figure8.8.Fitted
Figure curvewith
withleast-square
least-squareerror
errorcriterion
criterion(test
(testsite
site4).
4).

Thespiral
The spiral parameter
parameter (A)
(A)isiscomputed
computedusing
usingthethe
following formula
following for each
formula spiralspiral
for each curve:
curve: √
A = R×L (7)
A √R L (7)
where A = the parameter of the spiral, R = radius of the circular cure, and L = length of a spiral.
Figure 9 illustrates the whole data processing procedure for the extraction of the
geometric elements of curved ramps.
 where A= the parameter of the spiral, R = radius of the circular cure, and L = length of a
spiral.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 Figure 9 illustrates the whole data processing procedure for the extraction of the10ge-
of 16
ometric elements of curved ramps.

Figure
Figure 9. 9. Summary
Summary ofof the
the whole
whole process.
process.

4. Case Study
4. Case Study
Test Sites
Test Sites
In this study, four highway ramps were selected as test sites. The test sites are located in
In thisJiangsu
Nanjing, study, four highway
Province, ramps
China, were in
as shown selected asimages
satellite test sites. The test
in Figure 10.sites
Theare located
information
insuch
Nanjing,
as theJiangsu
locationProvince, China, asthe
of the highways, shown in satellite
number, segmentimages
length,inandFigure
number10. The infor-
of the lanes
mation
of the ramps at the test sites are shown in Table 1. The images used in these applicationsof
such as the location of the highways, the number, segment length, and number are
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the 11 in
of 17
GElanes of the
images withramps at the
a spatial test sites
resolution are cm/pixel;
of 2–4 shown in the Table 1. The
images areimages used
scaled with these
the scaling
applications
benchmarks are GE images
provided withimage
in each a spatial resolution
to return theirofdimensions
2–4 cm/pixel; the actual
to the imagesvalues.
are scaled
with the scaling benchmarks provided in each image to return their dimensions to the
actual values.

Table 1. The location details of four test sites.

Location
Test Site Highway Length (m) Lanes
Easting Northing
1 S 55 287.75 675,744.00 3,518,284.00 1
2 S 88 282.51 679,060.00 3,514,339.00 1
3 S 55 203.05 669,327.00 3,533,951.00 1
4 S 88 298.91 671,488.00 3,524,935.00 1

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Highway
Highwaycurved
curvedramps
rampsinin
GE images:
GE (a) (a)
images: ramp 1; (b)
ramp 1; ramp 2; (c)2;ramp
(b) ramp 3; (d)3;
(c) ramp ramp 4.
(d) ramp 4.

5. Results
5.1. PC and PT Determination
Firstly, curvatures at the test sites were extracted and plotted as shown in Figure 11;
the curvature was automatically calculated using Python. Afterward, the linear fitting
method was applied to each segment of the curvature data at the four test sites, and results
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 11 of 16

Table 1. The location details of four test sites.

Location
Test Site Highway Length (m) Lanes
Easting Northing
1 S 55 287.75 675,744.00 3,518,284.00 1
2 S 88 282.51 679,060.00 3,514,339.00 1
3 S 55 203.05 669,327.00 3,533,951.00 1
4 S 88 298.91 671,488.00 3,524,935.00 1

5. Results
5.1. PC and PT Determination
Firstly, curvatures at the test sites were extracted and plotted as shown in Figure 11;
the curvature was automatically calculated using Python. Afterward, the linear fitting
method was applied to each segment of the curvature data at the four test sites, and 12
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW results
of 17
are shown in Figure 12. The PC/PT of the curved ramps was obtained by detecting the
intersection points of the fitted straight lines.

Figure
Figure11.11.Curvature
Curvature profile: (a) (a)
profile: curvature profile
curvature of ramp
profile 1; (b) curvature
of ramp profile ofprofile
1; (b) curvature ramp 2;of(c)ramp
curvature
2; (c)
profile of ramp
curvature 3; (d)
profile of curvature
ramp 3; (d) profile of ramp
curvature 4. of ramp 4.
profile
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 12 of 16
Figure 11. Curvature profile: (a) curvature profile of ramp 1; (b) curvature profile of ramp 2; (c)
curvature profile of ramp 3; (d) curvature profile of ramp 4.

Figure12.
Figure 12.PC
PCandandPT
PTdetermination:
determination: (a)
(a) PC
PC and
and PT
PT of
of ramp
ramp 1;
1; (b)
(b) PC
PC and
andPT
PTof
oframp
ramp2;
2;(c)
(c)PC
PCand
and
PTof
PT oframp
ramp3;3;(d)
(d)PC
PCand
andPT
PTof
oframp
ramp4.4.

5.2. Curve Radius

Figure 13 shows the curvature fitted results between actual and estimated curves at the
four test sites. As mentioned in Section 3.3, this study uses the optimization method based
on LS to fit the curves to the input parameters, which finds the least of the sum of the square
deviations. The curve radius is computed using the horizontal curve Equations (5)–(7).
Table 2 shows the results of the proposed method, listing the information about
curve radii for each of the test sites (eleven curves in total). The design plans generated in
AutoCAD Civil 3D are considered as a reference. The deviation error can be mathematically
calculated using Equation (8):

RM − RR
ER = × 100 (8)
RR

where ER = errors on the curve radius of the proposed method, %; RM = the curve radius
measured by the proposed method, m; RR = the reference curve radius, m. The results
show that the proposed method successfully determined all the curves’ radii on the four
test sites. The percentage difference between the estimated radii and the reference of the
simple curves ranges from 0.94% to 4.02%, while the percentage differences between the
estimated and the reference of the spiral curves range from 2.60% to 9.28%. The highest
percentage differences found in the spirals (test site one and test site four) are due to the
slight deviation between the locations of the critical point (CS, SC) of the approximate spiral
and circular curve. When estimating the radius of the curve, a difference in length could be
a matter of the code being inaccurate by one or two points when locating the PC/PT of the
curved ramps.
 5.2. Curve Radius
Figure 13 shows the curvature fitted results between actual and estimated curves at
the four test sites. As mentioned in Section 3.3, this study uses the optimization method
based on LS to fit the curves to the input parameters, which finds the least of the sum of
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 13 of 16
the square deviations. The curve radius is computed using the horizontal curve Equations
(5)–(7).

Figure 13. Curvature fitting result between actual and estimated curves: (a) fitted ramp 1; (b) fitted
ramp 2; (c) fitted ramp 3; (d) fitted ramp 4.

2. Comparison
TableTable between
2 shows the extracted
results data and actual
of the proposed datalisting
method, of horizontal curve.
the information about curve
radii for each of the test sites (eleven curves in total). The design plans generated in Auto-
Curve Radius
CADTestCivil 3D are considered
Site Curve Type as a reference. The deviation error can be mathematically
calculated using Equation (8): Estimated (m) Reference (m) Errors (%)
Spiral R75.43R 79.77 5.44
Test site 1 E 100 (8)
Spiral R
58.61 64.61 9.28
Simple 51.44 50.00 2.88
where E = errors on the curve radius of the proposed method, %; R = the curve radius
measured by the proposed method, m; R = the reference curve radius, m. The results
Test site 2
Spiral 50.94 55 7.38
show that the proposedSimple method successfully determined all50.00
50.47 the curves’ radii on 0.94the four
test sites. The percentageSpiral
difference between the
59.00 estimated radii
57.50 and the reference
2.60 of the
simple curves ranges from 0.94% to 4.02%, while the percentage differences between the
Test site 3 Spiral 62.40 59.00 5.76
estimated and the reference of the spiral curves range from 2.60% to 9.28%. The highest
Simplein the spirals46.81
percentage differences found (test site one and45.00
test site four) are 4.02
due to the
slight deviation betweenSpiral the locations of 81.87
the critical point (CS,
75 SC) of the approximate
9.16
spiralTest
and circular
site 4 curve.Spiral
When estimating71.36
the radius of the curve,
75 a difference4.85
in length
could be a matter of the code being inaccurate by one or two points when locating the
Simple 70.68 70 0.97
PC/PT of the curved ramps.

6. Discussion
The proposed method was applied to extract four highway ramps that have different
characteristics. The highway ramps in Figure 10a,c,d consist of spiral curves connecting
a circular and a spiral curve at each end that connect the circular curve and the tangent;
the spiral curve has a curvature that gradually begins from 1/R in the entrance to the
curvature of the circular curve, Figure 10a. This curve is unsymmetrical, which makes the
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 14 of 16

extraction of the curve more complex. In Figure 10b, the spiral connects one circular curve
and the tangent.
The validation results presented in the previous section have demonstrated the ef-
fectiveness of the proposed method for extracting horizontal curve information from GE
imagery. The results illustrate that the average percentage error for curve radius measure-
ments of the simple curves is 2.20%, which indicates that the proposed method is effective
for curve radius measurements. Through validation against actual ground geometric data,
the algorithm was also shown to be reliable in extracting the geometric information of
curved ramps with high accuracy.
The curvature recognition method and linear fitting method used in this study have
proved their effectiveness in determining the highway ramp curve’s PC/PT (Figure 12).
However, identification errors were also found during validation. The main reasons for
these errors are summarized below:
The typical reason for errors is that the curvature is very sensitive to the input data.
The sensitivity analysis showed that the curvature has slight jumps at some points; the
reason for this is that the curvature is extremely sensitive to minuscule variations. A slight
variation in inputs can move the transition point between a circle and a transition curve
several centimeters to either side because the circle and the spiral are practically the same
near the transition point. In this case, the spiral segment may have been misidentified as a
circular curve by the algorithm, thereby causing this type of error.

7. Conclusions
This paper presents a new method for semi-automatically measuring the horizontal
curves of highway ramps, including the PC/PT and curve radii, using Google Earth
images. In this study, four test sites located on highway ramps were chosen as testbeds. The
conclusions of this study are as follows:
1. The data points were first selected along the road trajectory using a graphics editor
software and fitted with the best curve that passes through those points to generate a
smooth curve that meets the horizontal curve conditions.
2. The curvature analysis method was used for automatic PC/PT location search, and
the linear fitting analysis method was applied for exact PC/PT localization. After the
PC and PT were located, the road curves were measured using the total least-squares
fitting method.
3. The presented method was validated by comparing the estimated results against
a road with known data. The results show that the proposed method successfully
identified the spiral transition from circular curves and extracted their curve radii with
an average error of 2.20% for simple curves and 6.35% for spiral curves. The proposed
method presented a virtual extension to existing methods for obtaining horizontal
curve information and should be of interest to surveying professionals. This helps
reduce the burden associated with traditional surveying tools. The applications of
the developed algorithm range from providing real-time information about curve
geometry to drivers and autonomous vehicles to using the extracted data in safety-
prediction models to improve safety on curves.
4. The precision of GE images may contribute to the errors in the extraction of horizontal
curve parameters. Future research focusing on a fully automatic extraction method
might reduce the errors and increase the overall identification rate. Drone images
may also be used to enhance the accuracy of obtaining the geometric information of
horizontal curves.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.-Q.; Methodology, M.A.-Q., J.C.; Validation, M.A.-Q.;

Formal Analysis, M.A.-Q.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, M.A.-Q.; Writing—Review & Editing,
Y.Z.; Visualization, M.A.-Q.; Funding Acquisition, M.A.-Q., J.C.; Supervision: J.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1001 15 of 16

Funding: This work is jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
[51878163, 51768063 and 51478115].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are available via this link,
https://github.com/alqadri2022/roadway-curve-parameters-extracting (accessed on 3 December 2021).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express special thanks the people who were directly
or indirectly involved in this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

CE Curvature Extension
CF Curve Finder
CS Circular to Spiral
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GE Google Earth
GIS Global Information System
GPS Global Position System
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
LE Length of Strait Ling
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging system
LS Least Squares
PC Point of Curvature
PT Point of Tangent
SC Spiral to Circular
ST Spiral to Tangent

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