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Truck Tire Thermal-Mechanical FEA and DMA with

Application to Endurance Evaluation

Article  in  Tire Science and Technology · December 2006

DOI: 10.2346/1.2345651

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H. S. Yin,1 Y. S. Hu,1 H. Zhang,2 M. M. Yang,2 and Y. T. Wei3

Truck Tire Thermal-Mechanical FEA and

DMA with Application to Endurance
Evaluation4

REFERENCE: Yin, H. S., Hu, Y. S., Zhang, H., Yang, M. M., and Wei, Y. T., ‘‘Truck Tire
Thermal-Mechanical FEA and DMA with Application to Endurance Evaluation,’’ Tire
Science and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 34, No. 4, October – December 2006, pp. 220-236.

ABSTRACT: This work presents a thermal-mechanical finite element analysis 共FEA兲 of a

typical heavy-duty radial truck tire on both drum and roadway. The calculated footprint pres-
sures, strain energy density, and steady-state temperature distribution are compared between
two cases. In addition to structural and thermal simulation techniques for obtaining stress,
strain, and temperature distributions in the tire key areas, several material analysis techniques
are also used to characterize the tire rubber materials. Temperature, frequency, and strain scan
tests are conducted to obtain the dynamic mechanical properties of the tire rubbers of interest.
Furthermore, the changes of the materials’ dynamic mechanical properties with fatigue have
been investigated by testing tire materials before and after drum endurance tests. It has been
found that different parts show different changing trends in dynamical properties after endur-
ance tests, which might indicate different failure mechanisms. Combining the materials’ char-
acterization techniques and thermal-mechanical FEA, this paper attempts to evaluate the tire
shoulder failure mechanism and predict the relative shoulder endurance of an 11.00R20 truck
tire.

KEY WORDS: heavy-duty radial tires, thermal-mechanical analysis, FEA, endurance, DMA

Introduction

It is well recognized that the tire is a critical safety component for vehicles,
since it is related to driving/braking performance, fuel economy, and handling
properties of vehicles. Increasing interests in the field of vehicle safety leads to
more and more attention to tire endurance by automotive and tire industry
sectors. For the heavy-duty radial tires, the design lifetime is generally around
200,000 miles, and the tread wear life 50,000 miles; although by the design
intention, a truck tire should exhibit no failures during its useful life or while the
tread depth is still adequate. However, due to overload and/or structural-
materials design problems, some tires do fail unexpectedly. There exist several

1
Hangzhou Sunrise Rubber Co., Ltd., 23 1st Avenue, Hangzhou Economic and Technological
Development Zone, Zhejiang 310008, China.
2
Department of Automotive Engineering, Tsinghua University, State Key Laboratory of Automotive
Safety and Energy, Beijing 100084, China.
3
Corresponding author: Department of Automotive Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing
100084, China; email: weiyt@tsinghua.edu.cn
4
Presented at the twenty fourth annual meeting of The Tire Society, Akron, Ohio, September 20–21,
2005.

220
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 221

FIG. 1 — Tire thermomechanical analysis algorithm.

kinds of failure modes of heavy-duty radial tires observed in the field and in
drum endurance tests, which generally occur in the area of tire shoulder and/or
tire bead.
This paper presents a thermal-mechanical finite element analysis 共FEA兲 of
a typical heavy-duty radial truck tire on both drum and roadway to compare the
footprint pressures, strain energy density, and steady-state temperature distribu-
tion between two cases, which provides a base to evaluate the tire endurance. As
shown in Fig. 1, a semicouple thermomechanical FEM is developed in which
the heat generation rates are determined from the stress-strain cycles, based on
a rubber hysteretic model, and the temperature fields are calculated by a non-
linear heat-transfer analysis. In addition to the FE simulation techniques, a
series of DMA tests are conducted to obtain the dynamical mechanical proper-
ties of the rubbers of interest. Furthermore, the change of the rubber dynamical
mechanical properties with fatigue is investigated by performing DMA before
and after drum endurance tests, from which the potential failure mechanism can
be identified. Relative endurance of tire key areas can be evaluated based on the
local shear strain, strain energy density, and temperature field calculated, where
the rubber fatigue and aging properties should be considered.

Statement of the Problem

Due to the combination of high stress/strain, high temperatures, and large

thickness, the tire shoulder parts are among the most vulnerable areas in tire
components. As for the heavy-duty radial tires, the combination of high load
222 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

and high inflation pressure makes the shoulder endurance problem more severe.
One of the failure modes for heavy-duty radial tires involves cracks or separa-
tions growing from the end of the belts and extending along the belts inwards
and/or outwards, which is generally attributed to strain concentration and/or
high temperature in the area. There are several published reports to explain this
problem from the point of view of stress/strain energy 关1,2兴 or from the heat
generation, thermal-oxidation aging analysis 关3–5兴. Singh 关6兴 pointed out that
elevated temperature is more important than flexural stress in affecting the
degradation of peel properties of aircraft tire coupons. Ebbott 关7兴 used a finite-
element-based method to analyze the severity of internal cracks in cord-rubber
structures and to predict tire rolling resistance and temperature distributions 关8兴
in which both the stiffness and the loss properties are updated as a function of
strain, temperature, and frequency. More recently, Mars 关9兴 created the concept
of the cracking energy density to predict multiaxial fatigue crack initiation in
rubber. Han and Becker 关10兴 performed a failure analysis of truck tires based on
fracture mechanics, using a global-local FE model. LaClair and Zarak 关11兴
discussed the important effects of surface curvature on truck tire endurance
testing and highlighted the impact that curvature has on tire operating tempera-
ture. Generally speaking, the failure analysis procedure includes material analy-
sis, load identification, and service trials. In the present work, thermomechani-
cal modeling techniques by FEM are used to identify service stress-strain
factors and temperature distribution, and several material tests are used to sup-
port the nonlinear finite element analysis and evaluate the relative endurance.
Both on-drum and on-roadway tires are considered and the corresponding re-
sults are compared with regard to tire footprint areas, contact stresses, tire
operating temperature, and strain energy distribution.

Material Characterization

Hardness Test
As a rule of the thumb, the rubber hardness is related to its modulus
through a simple analytical expression. In this work, an actual tire is cut into
sections to investigate the real shoulder separation mode. Hardness tests are
conducted directly with rubbers on the surface of the cut section from the test
tire. On the one hand, these hardness data could be used to find the potential
rubber compound problem or rubber-manufacturing problem. On the other
hand, the hardness data are transformed to modulus properties through Neo-
Hookean law, according to 关12兴, using the following relationship, in which E is
given in MPa:

log E = 0.0235H-0.6403. 共1兲

 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 223

FIG. 2 — Rubber tensile curves.

Tensile Test
In order to get the large deformation properties of the rubber components as
well as the elastic modulus of the steel wires 共as rebar in the structural model兲,
tensile tests are conducted with rubbers and steel wires, respectively. Figure 2
shows the tensile engineering stress and strain curves for chosen coupons of
tread rubber, tread cushion, and shoulder wedge.

Dynamical Mechanical Test

For the tire thermal-mechanical analysts and tire rubber compound engi-
neers, the dynamical mechanical properties of materials are critical factors that
need to be considered during design and analysis cycles. It is assumed in this
paper that the most important rubber product controlling the tire shoulder en-
durance are the tread, tread cushion, and the shoulder wedge, in which dynami-
cal mechanical properties are measured in detail by means of DMA machine.
Figures 3–5 show the dynamical mechanical properties for a tread rubber, a
tread cushion, and a shoulder wedge, where the measured data 共dot兲 are fitted by
the exponential function tan ␦ = de−D0共T−T0兲. Here T0 = 20 ° C, d = 0.212 035, and
D0 = 0.004 531 94 1 / ° C for the tread rubber; d = 0.105 856 and D0
= 0.005 474 27 1 / ° C for the tread cushion; and d = 0.074 and D0 = 0.0058 6
1 / ° C for the shoulder wedge.
The requirements for an idealized compound design include low stress/
strain together with low heat generation, and other requirements which might be
competing with each other. Therefore, a reasonable judgment must be given
through integrated analysis, combining both material test data and structural
modeling results.
224 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 3 — Temperature-dependent loss tangent of tread rubber: measured data (dot) vs curve fit
(solid).

Tire Heat Generation Formulation and Thermomechanical Model

To simplify the tire thermomechanical coupling analysis, the following as-

sumptions are adopted in this presentation:
共A兲 The near incompressibility of tire materials and the range of the evolu-
tion of the temperature make the dilations induced by the heating effect
very small. They are neglected here.
共B兲 The dissipative energy incurred by the dependence between the thermal
problem and the mechanical one is negligible, i.e., the only internal heat
source is that generated by material hysteresis loss.

FIG. 4 — Temperature-dependent loss tangent of tread cushion: measured data (dot) vs curve fit
(solid).
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 225

FIG. 5 — Temperature-dependent loss tangent of shoulder wedge: measured data (dot) vs curve fit
(solid).

共C兲 The variation of material temperature is small during one rolling cycle.
共D兲 The time scale of the mechanical problem is assumed to be smaller than
the thermal one; thus structural and thermal analysis could be solved
separately.

Therefore, following the general thermodynamic theory 关13,14兴, the result-

ing equation of energy conservation could be expressed as
␳0CvT = hin − qi,i 共2兲
where Cv ⬅ ⳵2␺ / ⳵T2 is the specific heat at constant volume, hin = SijEnij is the
internal source term resulting from material hysteresis loss, Sij is the second
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor measuring stress per unit area of the material sur-
face in the reference configuration, determined by the Green strain tensor Eij
and calculated just from mechanical analysis, and heat flux is given by the
Fourier law q = −K · ⵜxT, with K being the conductivity tensor.
Considering the assumptions C and D, Eq. 共2兲 could be further recast into
an axisymmetric model by integrating it in space domain along tire circumfer-
ential direction as well as in time domain within a rolling period as

␳0CvT = h̄in − qi,i 共3兲

where h̄in is the equivalent heat generation rate expressed by

h̄in =
1
2␲␶
冕冕
␶

0 0
2␲
hind␽dt 共4兲

wherein ␶ is the rolling period and ␽ the circumferential angle.

226 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Through this averaging procedure, the original three-dimensional 共3D兲 tire

thermomechanical problem reduces to a two-dimensional 共2D兲 model. Note that
all the variables in Eq. 共3兲 are now independent of tire circumferential position.
The whole computing algorithm is described in Fig. 1. It is clearly shown from
Fig. 1 that the heat generation incurred by the tire’s energy loss provides the
coupling effect between the tire’s mechanical and thermal problem, which re-
sults in the temperature rising in tires and speeds the tire failure process. Ac-
cording to computed stress-strain cycles and the loss properties of tire materials,
one may compute tire heat generation rates as follows:

⍀ ញT ញ
h̄in = S 关␸␣兴E 共5兲
2

where E ញ is defined as the equivalent strain amplitude, Sញ the corresponding stress

amplitude, and 关␸␣兴 the loss tangent matrix. In this work, the loss tangents of
tire materials are assumed to be practically independent of frequency in the
practical frequency range and all the strains and stresses in the above equations
are referred to the local strains and local stresses with respect to the natural or
material coordinates system.
From Eq. 共5兲 it is clearly shown that the tire heat generation is proportional
to the tire rotating speed. The energy loss in each element can be computed by
integrating Eq. 共5兲 over the element, which is quite similar to the stiffness
integration in the structural analysis. The knowledge of tire temperature distri-
bution is indispensable to energy loss analysis.

Structural Finite Element Modeling Procedure

As mentioned above, stress-strain and strain energy distributions in tire key

areas are obtained through using the nonlinear FE structural analysis. In order to
simulate the cord reinforced rubber composites, rebar elements are used to
model the belt and carcass, while the rubbers are modeled by layered solid
elements. As shown in Fig. 1, a semicoupled thermomechanical finite element
analysis is used to model tire stress-strain and temperature distribution by using
the commercial code Abaqus 关15兴. As a simple and fast way, at first the Neo-
Hookean law is used for the rubbers and the linear elastic is applied to rebars.
Then, as a comparative analysis, tensile test data are input to the model to
perform further calculations. As usual, the tire in this work is meshed in the tire
section plane and then revolved to obtain the tire’s 3D model, in which the tread
pattern is simplified as longitudinal grooves. The advantages of using rebar
element techniques lie in that first the materials are modeled more reasonably
and second the local stress/strain, and subsequently the heat generation, could
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 227

FIG. 6 — Tire FE model on drum (a) undeflected and (b) deformed.

be simulated more reasonably since no assumption of the homogenization of the

cord-rubber composites is needed.
The FE modeling for an all-steel 11.00R20 radial tire model on drum and
on road are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, which includes 1576 elements and 1711
nodes in one section. The tire design parameters are provided by a domestic tire
rubber company. All the material samples are obtained from the tire company
and the static and dynamic tests are conducted for each sample. For this tire
model, inflation analysis, vertical loading, and rolling on both drum and road-
way are conducted, with 910 kPa air pressure and 65 km/ h velocity. The ver-
tical loads include 11 load rates, the corresponding vertical loads being 2.343,
3.018, 3.586, 3.905, 4.260, 4.615, 4.970, 5.325, 5.680, 6.305, and 6.390 Tones.
The Abaqus surface-surface contact approach is used to model tire tread-
drum, tread-roadway, and bead-rim contact modeling. In order to obtain the
converged solution more quickly, deflection control is used first, then load con-
trol. Contact area and stress distributions could reflect the quality of many key
tire design parameters such as tread contour, belt configuration, and tire shoul-
der design. Meanwhile, the contact stress distribution is closely related with
vehicle performance. Due to these reasons, the simulation of contact shape and
stresses are key to tire designers to evaluate and improve their products.

FIG. 7 — Tire FE model on roadway (a) undeflected and (b) deformed.

228 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 8 — Contact stress and shape on (a) roadway and (b) drum.

Figure 8 shows the contact shape and stress under 4.615 Tone vertical load
on both drum and roadway. For the former the contact area is
0.0488 square meters and for the latter 0.059 64 square meters. The footprint
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 229

FIG. 9 — Local SENR distribution on (a) drum vs (b) roadway, 4.615 Tone, 65 km/ h.

width on the drum is nearly the same as that on the roadway, while the length of
the latter is larger. The average pressure for the drum is a little bit larger than
that of the roadway, about 22% in this case.
Figure 9 shows the local strain energy density 共SENR兲 distribution in the
tread-shoulder areas, which clearly indicates that the tire on drum undertakes
more severe strain energy density distribution, especially in the tire shoulder
parts. Note that here the strain energy density represents the maximum that a
material element undergoes during one cycle of tire rolling.

Tire Heat Transfer Model

In contrast to the 3D model of the structural analysis, a 2D model is used

for the steady-state thermal analysis in which the tire is treated as an axisym-
metric model with an equivalent element heat source. This equivalent heat
230 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

source is essentially an average value homogenized along the circumference

and directly imported from the results of the energy-loss model described
above. In this case only tire section mesh data are needed to define the tire
heat-transfer model problem.
A steady-state heat conduction equation with internal heat sources can be
written as

ⵜ · K ⵜ T − h̄in = 0 共6兲

where h̄in is the average heat generation rate and K the material effective heat
conduction matrix.
The heat generation rates calculated are brought into the commercial pro-
gram 共Abaqus兲 heat-transfer model as specified distributed fluxes 共through Key-
word *DFLUX兲 for each element. Also it should be pointed out that these heat
fluxes are dependent on tire real temperature, which is dealt with by adopting
the following empirical equation:

tan ␦共T兲 = tan ␦共T0兲e−␭共T−Tr兲 . 共7兲

In the following example, Tr is chosen as 20 ° C and the coefficient ␭ is
determined from Figs. 3–5. The user subroutine is used to implement
temperature-dependent heat fluxes. As mentioned above, the tire rubbers are
modeled as isotropic material, i.e., K11 = K22 = K33. However, the tire belts and
carcasses as mentioned in the above are modeled as transverse isotropic mate-
rials; therefore, they have two independent thermal conductivities: one, K11,
along the reinforced fiber directions and the other, K22 = K33, transverse to it, as
follows. The heat conduction matrix of a ply with off-axis angle ␣ can be
written as

冢 冣
Kxx Kxy
K̄ = Kxy Kyy 共8兲
Kzz
where

Kxx = m2K11 + n2K22 ; Kyy = n2K11 + m2K22

Kxy = mn共K11 − K22兲; Kzz = K22 共9兲

in which m = cos ␣, n = sin ␣.
Including the composite properties in the FE model of tire modeling is
important for the successful modeling of layer structures. The user subroutine
method 共SUBROUTINE ORIENT, in which the direction cosines are deter-
mined by the coordinates of element nodes兲 is used to define material coordi-
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 231

nates in the commercial program. Two types of thermal boundary conditions are
considered; the first is thermal convection boundary conditions expressed as

冏 冏
Kn
⳵T
⳵n 0
= ␭TR共T − Ta兲 共10兲

in which Kn is a heat conduction coefficient along the normal to the boundary,

␭TR a thermal convection coefficient between tire surface and environments, the
value of which depends on tire velocity, surface conditions, humidity, etc., and
Ta the specified environment temperature. The other thermal boundary condi-
tion considered is the specified temperature boundary, i.e., T = T̄ 共T̄ is the speci-
fied temperature兲.
The specified temperatures may be prescribed to tire nodes contacted with
rim, and the remaining areas dealt with thermal convection boundary conditions
defined by given coefficients. In order to describe the variations of thermal
convection coefficients with tire surface position, the outer and inner surfaces of
the tire section are meshed into five areas with respective thermal convection
coefficients prescribed.
Figure 10 shows the 2D temperature distribution under a 4.615 Tone ver-
tical load on both drum and roadway, with a velocity of 65 km/ h. It can be
shown that the tire on drum undertakes a higher temperature, especially in the
tire shoulder parts.
It can be found from the simulations that the most important factors affect-
ing the temperature field are velocity and load. From the point of the materials’
match and compound, the dynamical properties and the modulus match change
the strain energy distribution and energy loss 共heat generation兲, and subsquently,
the temperature distribution.
The calculated temperature and strain energy provide a solid base to evalu-
ate tire endurance and possible failure mechanism.

Discussion: Change of Dynamical Mechanical Properties Versus Failure

Mechanism

It can be shown from the thermal-mechanical FEA that the tire shoulder
area will undertake a high strain energy density cycle, as well as high heat
generation and high temperature. Due to these, the materials in the area of the
tire shoulder might fail by strain fatigue, thermal oxidative aging, or thermal
reversion-anaerobic aging. But which degradation type is dominant for shoulder
wedge, tread cushion, or tread compound? To answer this question, these rubber
materials have been chosen to perform a series of DMA tests before and after
tire endurance tests. Figure 11 shows the rubber samples cut from the tires after
drum endurance tests.
232 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 10 — Temperature distribution: (a) drum vs (b) roadway loading, 4.615 Tone, 65 km/ h.

It has been found from Figs. 12 and 13 that the dynamical properties of
materials in different areas show different changes in tread, which might indi-
cate different failure mechanisms. Table 1 summarizes some generally accepted
conclusions concerning change of storage modulus and loss tangent of general
carbon black-filled rubber compound with different degradation type, i.e., strain
fatigue, thermal oxidative aging, and thermal revision-anaerobic aging. This
generally accepted knowledge helps us identify the rubber failure mechanism of
the tire tested.
Figure 12 shows the change of the dynamical mechanical properties of the
tread cushion compounds before and after drum tests, where E1 indicates the
storage modulus before drum tests; E1G31, E1G32, E1G33 the storage modulus
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 233

FIG. 11 — Rubber samples cut from the tires after drum endurance test.

after drum tests; TAND the loss tangents before drum tests; and TANDG31,
TANDG32, TANDG33 the loss tangents after drum tests. It can be found that all
storage moduli decrease after drum tests, however, loss tangent 共TANDG31兲
may increase after drum endurance tests. Referring to Fig. 9, the strain energy
density distribution; Fig. 10, the temperature distribution; and Table 1, it might
be concluded that the main failure mechanism of the tread cushion is due to
strain fatigue plus thermal revision-anaerobic aging.
Figure 13 shows the change of the dynamical mechanical properties of the
shoulder wedge before and after drum tests, where E1 indicates the storage
modulus before drum tests; E1G21, E1G2 the storage modulus after drum tests;
TAND the loss tangents before drum tests; and TANDG21, TANDG22 the loss
tangents after drum tests. It can be found that all storage moduli and loss

FIG. 12 — DMA of tread cushion compounds before and after drum tests: E1, storage modulus
before drum tests; E1G31, E1G32, E1G33, after drum tests; TAND; loss tangents before drum tests;
TANDG31, TANDG32, TANDG33, after drum tests.
234 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 13 — DMA of shoulder wedge compounds before and after drum tests: E1, storage modulus
before drum tests; E1G21, E1G22, after drum tests; TAND, loss tangents before drum tests;
TANDG21, TANDG22, after drum tests.

tangent decrease after drum tests. Referring to Fig. 9, the strain energy density
distribution; Fig. 10, the temperature distribution; and Table 1, it might be
concluded that the main failure mechanism of the shoulder wedge is due to
strain fatigue plus thermal oxidative aging.
Recently, Baldwin and Bauer 关16,17兴 reported that shoulder wedge of pas-
senger radial tires undertake aerobic aging in both laboratory and field aging
processes, which is similar with our results concluded here from DMA. How-
ever, the degradation mechanism of tread cushion may be different from shoul-
der wedge, which is omitted by Baldwin and Bauer.

Summary

In this paper, static and dynamic material characterization techniques are

used to investigate the material factors with relevance to truck tire endurance,
while the nonlinear finite element analysis is applied to perform structural

TABLE 1 — Change of dynamical mechanical properties of rubber with degradation.

Change of storage
Degradation type Modulus Change of Loss Tangent
Strain fatigue Decrease Decrease

Thermal oxidative aging Increase Decrease or increase, dependent on

compound

Thermal revision-anaerobic Decrease Increase

aging
 YIN ET AL. ON TRUCK TIRE THERMAL-MECHANICAL FEA 235

analysis and obtain temperature distribution. The thermal-mechanical FE analy-

sis of a typical heavy-duty radial truck tire on both drum and roadway is per-
formed to investigate the difference of footprint pressures, strain energy density,
and temperature distribution between two cases. In addition, the dynamical
mechanical property changes of tire rubbers with fatigue have been investigated
by testing tire materials before and after drum endurance tests.
For tread cushion, it can be found that all storage moduli decrease after
drum tests, however, loss tangent may increase after drum endurance tests. For
shoulder wedge, all storage moduli and loss tangent decrease after drum tests. It
then might be judged jointly from strain energy density, temperature distribu-
tion, and general rubber degradation properties that the main failure mechanism
of the shoulder wedge is due to strain fatigue plus thermal oxidative aging,
while the main failure mechanism of the tread cushion is due to strain fatigue
plus thermal revision-anaerobic aging.

Acknowledgment
Support by the “Tsinghua University Fundamental Research Foundation” is
gratefully acknowledged.

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