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ChapB RESISTIVITY
ChapB RESISTIVITY
Contents
(05/96)
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96)
Schlumberger
B1.1 INTRODUCTION
The resistivity of a formation is a key pa- opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance at
rameter in determining hydrocarbon saturation. a specified temperature. The meter is the unit
Electricity can pass through a formation only of length and the ohm is the unit of electrical
because of the conductive water it contains. resistance. In abbreviated form, resistivity is
With a few rare exceptions, such as metallic
sulfide and graphite, dry rock is a good electri- R = r A/L,
cal insulator. Moreover, perfectly dry rocks are where
seldom found. Therefore, subsurface forma- R is resistivity in ohm-metres,
tions have finite, measurable resistivities be- r is resistance in ohms,
cause of the water in their pores or absorbed in A is area in square metres,
their interstitial clay. and L is length in metres.
(See Figure B1)
For the purposes of our discussions we will
divide substances into two general categories, The units of resistivity are ohm-metres
conductors or insulators. squared per meter, or simply ohm-metres
(ohm-m).
Conductors are substances that pass electrical
current (e.g., water, shales, mud). Insulators Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity
are substances that do not allow electrical cur- and is expressed in mhos per meter. To avoid
rent flow (e.g., hydrocarbons or rock matrix). decimal fractions, conductivity is usually ex-
pressed in millimhos per meter (mmho / m),
The measured resistivity of a formation de- where 1000 mmho/m = 1 mho/m
pends on
C = 1000/R.
- resistivity of the formation water
- amount of water present Formation resistivities are usually from 0.2 to
- pore structure geometry. 1000 ohm-m. Resistivities higher than 1000
ohm-m are uncommon in permeable forma-
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a sub- tions but are observed in impervious, very low
stance is the resistance measured between porosity formations (e.g., evaporites).
(05/96) B-1
Introduction to Openhole Logging
ra 2 R = resistivity
R= OHM-METERS
L a = area
METER
L = length
r = resistance
(05/96) B-2
Schlumberger
(05/96) B-3
Introduction to Openhole Logging
Grains/gal at 75°F
10
8
ppm
6
5
200
4 10
3 300
15
400
2 20
500
25
600
30
700
800
1 40
100
0 50
0.8
0.6 0
170
0.5 0
200
0 100
0.4
300
0.3 0 150
400
0 200
0.2 500
0 250
600
0 300
700
0
800 400
0
10,
0.1 000 500
12,
00
0.08 14, 0
000
17,
00
0.06 20, 0 1000
000
0.05
30, 1500
0.04 000
40, 2000
000
0.03
50, 2500
000
60, 3000
0
70, 00
0.02 00
80, 0 4000
000
100 5000
,0
300 120 00
,
,00
0 140 000
,0
170 00
0.01 ,
200 000 10,000
,
250 000
280,000 15,000
,00
0
°F 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 20,000
°C 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Chart GEN-9
Figure B2
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Schlumberger
B1.4 SUMMARY
1. Dry rock formations are an insulator. Mudcake thickness is symbolized by hm c.
2. Formations conduct current because of
water in the pore spaces. Invasion Profiles:
3. Knowledge of water resistivity (Rw) is 1. Flushed Zone. Adjacent to the bore-
essential for log interpretation. hole the invasion process flushes out
4. Resistivity used rather than resistance. the original water and some of the hy-
5. Formation resistivity factor (F) is a po- drocarbons (if any were present). The
rosity-related formation characteristic. resistivity of this zone is termed Rx o;
6. Relationships the water saturation is called Sx o where
a. F = (Rt / Rw) = (Ro / Rw)
FR mf
100% water saturated porous rock
b. F = a / φm Sxo =
2
7. Symbols Rxo
Rw - resistivity of connate water
Rt - true formation resistivity (for clean formations only)
Rxo - resistivity of flushed zone
Plotting Rxo as a function of radial
a - constant depth into the formation yields (Figure
m - cementation factor. B4).
B1.5 DRILLING PROCESS AND 2. Transition Zone. Further from the
PERMEABLE BEDS borehole the flushing action of the
Before proceeding to a discussion of meth- mud filtrate may create a variety of
ods of obtaining formation resistivity, let us situations. If the flushing proceeds as
examine what happens to a permeable forma- a uniform front, we call this a step
tion when it is penetrated by the drill bit. profile of invasion (Figure B5[a]). If
(Refer to Chart Gen-3 [Figure B3] in this sec- the intermingling of formation fluids
tion or the Log Interpretation Chart book.) is gradual, we call this a transition
zone (Figure B5[b]). Sometimes in
Under normal conditions, the hydrostatic oil- or gas-bearing formations, where
head of the mud column is greater than forma- the mobility of hydrocarbons is greater
tion pressure. This differential pressure forces than the connate water, the oil or gas
filtrate from the mud system into the forma- move out leaving an annular zone
tion pore spaces, leaving solid particles or filled with connate water (Figure B5c).
mudcake buildup on the borehole wall. If Rmf > Rw, then the annular zone will
Eventually this impervious mudcake will seal
off further invasion (unless it is removed by have a resistivity lower than Rxo and Rt
some mechanical process; e.g., removing the and may cause a pessimistic saturation
drill bit). calculation.
(05/96) B-5
Introduction to Openhole Logging
Rm
Adjacent bed
Rs
Uninvaded
hmc zone
Flushed
zone Rt
Rm c Zone of
transition
dh or
(Bed Rw
thickness) annulus
Mudcake Rx o
Sw
h Rm f
Sx o
Rs
di
dj
Adjacent bed
(Invasion diameters)
∆rj
dh
Hole
diameter
Chart GEN-3
Figure B3
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Schlumberger
3. True Unaffected Zone. This is the zone tion Sw. Plotting Rxo , Ri and Rt as a
that we want to analyze—it is the for- function of invasion gives us Figure
mation undisturbed by the drilling B4.
process. Its resistivity is termed Rt ,
water resistivity Rw and water satura-
Rxo
Di
Di Di D2 Di
Figure B5
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Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-8
Schlumberger
amf
Em = K ;og
aw
(05/96) B-9
Introduction to Openhole Logging
The result is an increase of positive charges left drop of potential measured across the current
behind in the formation water. These positive lines in the borehole. Along its path the SSP
charges restrict Cl– migration toward the current has to force its way through a series of
flushed zone. A difference of potential appears resistances, both in the formation and in the
at the boundary between the two solutions: mud (Figure B9). This means that the total po-
tential drop (which is equal to the SSP) is di-
amf vided between the different formations and
Ej = K′ log mud in proportion to the resistances met by the
aw current in each respective medium. The SP,
which is the measure of the potential drop in the
d) Spontaneous Potential (SP) mud of the borehole, is only part of the SSP.
The total potential of the whole chain is thus In general, it is a large portion because the elec-
the algebraic sum Em + Ej , which is also called trical resistance offered by the borehole is, in
the Static Spontaneous Potential (SSP). Elec- general, much greater than that offered by the
trokinetic potential is neglected. The SP is the formations.
Rmfe
SSP = -K log
Rwe
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Schlumberger
(05/96) B-11
Introduction to Openhole Logging
†
corrosion charts are available to correct for these factors.
‡
Pyrite in the formation produces a positive SP.
(05/96) B-12
Schlumberger
This chart and nomograph calculate the equivalent forma- Example: SSP = 100 mV at 250°F
tion water resistivity, R weq, from the static spontaneous R mf = 0.70 ohm-m at 100°F
potential, E SSP, measurement in clean formations. or 0.33 ohm-m at 250°F
Enter the nomograph with ESSP in mV, turning through
Therefore, R mfeq = 0.85 × 0.33
the reservoir temperature in °F or °C to define the
= 0.28 ohm-m at 250°F
R mfeq /R weq ratio. From this value, pass through the R mfeq
value to define R weq. R weq = 0.025 ohm-m at 250°F Rweq
For predominantly NaCl muds, determine R mfeq as E SSP = –K c log(R mfeq /R weq ) (ohm-m)
follows: K C = 61 + 0.133 T°F 0.001
a. If R mf at 75°F (24°C) is greater than 0.1 ohm-m, K C = 65 + 0.24 T°C
correct R mf to formation temperature using Chart
Gen-9, and use R mfeq = 0.85 R mf.
b. If R mf at 75°F (24°C) is less than 0.1 ohm-m, use
Chart SP-2 to derive a value of R mfeq at formation
temperature.
0.4 0.4
0.5 Rmfeq 0.01
0.6 0.6 (ohm-m)
0.01
0.8 0.8
1 1 0.02 0.02
0.04
0.06
2 2
0.1
aw /amf or Rmfe /Rwe
0.05
3 0.2
4 4
0.4
5 0.6 0.1
6 6
1
8 8
10 10 2 0.2
4
25 00° C
6
0°
C
2
20 20
10
15
50
C
Formation 0.5
10
0
50°
0°
°
0°C
temperature
F
40
30
C
20
0°
30
0°C
F
100
20
40 40
°F
0°F
40
°F
50 1.0
60
+50 0 –50 –100 –150 –200
100
ESSP, static spontaneous potential (mV)
2.0
© Schlumberger
SP-1
Figure B11
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Introduction to Openhole Logging
0.001
250°C
200°C
0.002 150°C
100°C
75°C
0.005
50°C
25°C
0.01
Saturation
0.02
R weq or R mfeq (ohm-m)
0.05
0.1
0.2
250°
C
200
°C
0.5 150
°C
100
°C
75°
C
N
50°
aC
1.0 C
la
25°
t2
C
5°
C
2.0
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5
R w or Rmf (ohm-m)
EXAMPLE: Rweq = 0.025 Ω•m at 120oC. From chart, Rw = 0.031 Ω•m at 120oC
Special procedures for muds containing Ca or Mg in solution are discussed in Reference 3. Lime base muds
usually have a negligible amount of Ca in solution; they may be treated as regular mud types.
SP-2m
Figure B12
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Schlumberger
B2.0 Measurement of Rt by
Induction Principles
(05/96) B-15
Introduction to Openhole Logging
There is also a direct coupling between the B2.3 SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG
transmitter and receiver coils. The signal PRINCIPLES
originating from this coupling is eliminated The SFL device measures the resistivity of
electronically. the formation near the borehole and provides
the relatively shallow investigation required to
The induction tool works best when the evaluate the effects of invasion on deeper re-
borehole fluid is an insulator—even air or gas. sistivity measurements. It is the short-spacing
The tool also works well when the borehole device used in the Phasor induction SFL tool.
contains conductive mud unless the mud is too
salty, formations are too resistive or borehole The SFL system differs from previous fo-
diameter is too large. cused electrode devices. Whereas those sys-
tems attempt to focus the current into planar
discs, the SFL system establishes essentially
constant potential shells around the current
electrode.
(05/96) B-16
Schlumberger
The SFL device is able to preserve the spheri- The first sphere is about 9 in. away from the
cal potential distribution in the formation over survey current electrode; the other is about 50
a wide range of wellbore variables, even when in. away. A constant potential of 2.5 mV is
a conductive borehole is present. To accom- maintained between these two spherical sur-
plish this, the SFL device is composed of two faces. Because the volume of formation be-
separate, and generally independent, current tween these two surfaces is constant (electrode
systems (Figure B14). The bucking current spacing is fixed) and the voltage drop is con-
system serves to plug the borehole and estab- stant (2.5 mV), the resistivity of this volume
lish the equipotential spheres. The io survey of formation can be determined by measuring
current system causes an independent survey the current flow.
current to flow through the volume of investi-
gation; the intensity of this current is propor- B2.4 DUAL INDUCTION—
tional to the formation conductivity. SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG
This is the most basic of induction devices
and was the reference resistivity induction de-
vice for more than 20 years until its retirement
in 1990. The tool supplies three focused resis-
tivity curves: two induction and a shallow in-
vestigating spherically focused curve plus the
spontaneous potential (SP). Each curve has a
different depth of investigation (Figure B15).
(05/96) B-17
Introduction to Openhole Logging
ILM
0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000
ILD
0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000
SP SFLU
-150.0000 (MV) 0.0000 0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000
600
Figure B15
(05/96) B-18
Schlumberger
(05/96) B-19
Introduction to Openhole Logging
When SFL = ILM > ILD and if Rxo = SFL 3. It measures low resistivities (less than
chart Rint-2c must be used (Figure B17) to ob- 10 ohm-m) accurately.
tain Rt . This response indicates very deep inva- 4. Recording of three focused resistivity
logs, which investigate different vol-
sion.
umes of formation, enables us to
study invasion profile and good Rt
In general, the closer the medium curve is to
the SFL, the deeper the invasion. The result of values in the case of deep invasion.
correcting for invasion is to obtain an Rt that is
lower than the ILD. Hence, by using ILD Correction charts are available for
without correction, you will obtain an optimistic - borehole
Sw. - bed thickness
- invasion.
e) Summary Disadvantages:
Benefits: 1. Not reliable for resistivities > 250
1. Dual-Induction SFL tool can most ef- ohm-m (use a dual laterolog)
fectively be used in holes filled with 2. Large hole and saline mud results in
moderately conductive mud, noncon- large borehole signals give an unusu-
ductive mud, and air-drilled holes. ally low apparent resistivity. (use
2. Vertical focusing is good and gives DLL in this case).
reliable values of Rt for beds thicker
than 3 m.
(05/96) B-20
Schlumberger
ILD
0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000
SP SFL
-80.0000 (MV) 20.0000 0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000
NO INVASION
SHALLOW
INVASION
MODERATE
INVASION
VERY DEEP
INVASION
Figure B16
(05/96) B-21
Introduction to Openhole Logging
Rxo 50
20 40 60
70
) Rt
di (in. 80
30
30 90
25
25
20
20
10 15
9
15
8
5
3
3
2
1
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
RIM /RID
Rint-2c
Figure B17
(05/96) B-22
Schlumberger
(05/96) B-23
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-24
Schlumberger
1. Tool Depth
2.
Chart B1
(05/96) B-25
Introduction to Openhole Logging
IDPH QUALITY
IMPH QUALITY
SFLU QUALITY
PHASOR PROC.
1/240
1450
---TENS
---SFLU
SP---
---IMPH
---IDPH
---SFQF
---IMQF
---IDQF
1475
Figure B19
(05/96) B-26
Schlumberger
100 200
20
70
RSFL/RIDPH
50
10 40
30
20 1
5
15
10
7
2 5
Rxo 3
2
Rt
1
1 2 3 4 5
RIMPH /RIDPH
These charts (Rint-11) apply to the Phasor induction tool when operated at a frequency of 20 kHz. Similar
charts (not presented here) are available for tool operation at 10 kHz and 40 kHz.
The 20 kHz charts do provide, however, reasonable approximations of Rxo/Rt and Rt /RIDPH for tool operation
at 10 kHz and 40 kHz when only moderately deep invasion exists (less than 100 inches).
All Phasor* Induction invasion correction charts are applicable to Enhanced Resolution Logging (ERL*) and
Enhanced Resolution Analysis (ERA*) presentation.
Rint-11a
Figure B20
(05/96) B-27
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-28
Schlumberger
B3.0 Measurement of Rt
by Laterolog Principles
(05/96) B-29
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-30
Schlumberger
LLD
2000 (OHMM) 200000
BS LLS
125 (MM) 375 2000 (OHMM) 200000
TENS MSFL
50000 (N) 0 0.2 (OHMM) 2000
CALS LLD
125 (MM) 375 0.2 (OHMM) 2000
GR LLS
0 (GAPI) 150 0.2 (OHMM) 2000
2550
2600
Figure B23
(05/96) B-31
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-32
Schlumberger
40 120
50
Rt 3.04
30 di (in.)
Rxo
1.1 30 di (m)
20 1.2
1.3
1.4
15 20 1.6
1.8
15
10
8 Rt
10
RLLD
6
7
RLLD /Rxo
4 5
3
3
2
2
1.5 1.5
1
di (in.) Rt
0.8 Rxo
di (m)
0.6
100
2.54 60 0.4
0.4 1.52 40
30
0.3 1.01 20
0.75 0.2
0.50
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 50
RLLD /RLLS
Rint-9b
Figure B24
(05/96) B-33
Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-34
Schlumberger
B4.1 INTRODUCTION
As has been mentioned, a measurement of To measure Rxo , the tool must have a very
flushed-zone resistivity Rxo is an important in- shallow depth of investigation. Because the
put when attempting to define invasion di- reading should be affected by the borehole as
ameter. Because the flushed zone may extend little as possible, a sidewall-pad tool is used.
only a few centimetres from the borehole, a
shallow-reading device is required. Such tools Currents from the electrodes on the pad must
are the microlog, microlaterolog, proximity log pass through the mudcake to reach the flushed
and the MicroSFL log. All are pad-type de- zone. Therefore, microresistivity readings are
vices that are pressed against the borehole wall affected by mudcake; the effect depends on
to make their measurements. mudcake resistivity Rmc and thickness hmc.
Moreover, mudcakes can be anisotropic, with
Today, the microlog MicroSFL log are com- mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole
pletely combinable with all main logging wall less than that across the mudcake. Mud-
services. The microlaterolog and proximity cake anisotropy increases the mudcake effect
log have been discontinued because of their on microresistivity readings so that the effec-
limitations in design; hence, explanations of tive, or electrical, mudcake thickness is greater
their measurements are not provided. Another than that indicated by the caliper.
service, the EPT (Electromagnetic Propagation
Tool), also provides an excellent Rxo measure-
ment. This service is an advanced device and
is not discussed in this book. For more infor-
mation, refer to Schlumberger Log Interpreta-
tion Applications/Principles.
(05/96) B-35
Introduction to Openhole Logging
B4.2 MICROLOG
With the microlog tool, two short-spaced As drilling fluid filters into the permeable
devices with different depths of investigation formations, mud solids accumulate on the hole
provide resistivity measurements of a small wall and form a mudcake. Usually, the resis-
volume of mudcake and formation immedi- tivity of the mudcake is slightly greater than
ately adjoining the borehole. the resistivity of the mud and considerably
lower than the resistivity of the invaded zone
Comparison of the two curves readily identi- near the borehole.
fies mudcake, which indicates invaded and,
therefore, permeable formations. The 2-in. micronormal device has a greater
depth of investigation than the microinverse. It
a) Principle is, therefore, less influenced by the mudcake
The rubber microlog pad is pressed against and reads a higher resistivity, which produces
the borehole wall by arms and springs (Figure positive curve separation. In the presence of
B25). The face of the pad has three small in- low-resistivity mudcake, both devices measure
line electrodes spaced 1 in. [2.5 cm] apart. moderate resistivities, usually ranging from 2
With these electrodes a 1- by 1-in. microin- to 10 times Rm .
verse (R1" x1" ) and a 2-in. [5.1 cm] micronormal
(R2" ) measurement are recorded simultane- In impervious formations, the two curves
ously. The currents emitted from these elec- read similarly or exhibit some negative separa-
trodes are totally unfocused and hence flow by tion. Here the resistivities are usually much
the path of least resistance (Figure B26). greater than in permeable formations (see Fig-
ure B27).
(05/96) B-36
Schlumberger
MICROLOG
MCAL(MM )
125.00 375.00
TENS(N )
50000. 0.0
SGR(GAPI) BMNO(OHMM)
0.0 150.00 0.0 40.000
BS(MM ) BMIN(OHMM)
125.00 375.00 0.0 40.000
1/240
2000
2025
MCAL---
---BMNO
---BMIN
TENS---
---SGR
---BS
Figure B27
(05/96) B-37
Introduction to Openhole Logging
Under favorable circumstances the microlog This eliminates the need for a separate logging
can be used to obtain Rxo but it is generally run to obtain Rxo information. See Figure B23
considered a good qualitative indicator of per- for a log example of the MicroSFL tool with
meability, rather than an Rxo measurement. dual laterolog.
(05/96) B-38
Schlumberger
1a. Given Rmf = 2.5 ohm-m at 10oC, find Rmf at 52oC, using Chart Gen-9 (Figure B2).
Rmf =
2a. Given a solution salinity of 80,000 ppm, find the solution resistivity at 121oC.
Rm =
b. Given a solution salinity of 10,000 ppm at 20oC, find the solution resistivity at 50oC.
Rm =
3. Given Rm = 0.74 at 20oC, what does Rm equal at BHT if the total depth is 2400 m and the
geothermal gradient is 2oC/100 m (surface temperature is 20oC) ?
Rm = __________________________ at __________________ oC
(05/96) B-41
Introduction to Openhole Logging
1/240
c) Rmfe = at formation temperature
f) Rw = at25oC
g) Formation NaCl
concentration = ppm
SP---
2175
Figure B30
(05/96) B-42
Schlumberger
1/240
---GR
SP---
Figure B31
(05/96) B-43
Introduction to Openhole Logging
ILM(OHMM)
.20000 2000.0
GR(GAPI) ILD(OHMM)
0.0 150.00 .20000 2000.0
SP(MV ) SFL(OHMM)
-150.0 0.0 .20000 2000.0
1/240
1800 A
---GR
---SP
---ILM
---ILD
---SFL
1700
---SP B
---ILM
---ILD
SFL---
1725
Figure B32
(05/96) B-44
Schlumberger
SP(MV )
8. Calculate Rw for both zones in Figure B33
-80.00 20.000 Rm = 1.18 at 25oC
10 R mf = 0.93 at 16oC
-|---|+
BHT = 59oC
CP 32.6 FILE 4 01-APR-1941 18:13
INPUT FILE(S) CREATION DATE
1 05-JUN-1992 08:41
1675
Rw = at 59oC
Rw = at 25oC
1700
Rw = at 59oC
Rw = at 25oC
---SP
1725
Figure B33
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Introduction to Openhole Logging
(05/96) B-46