Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 5 (1982) 117 - 137 117

0 Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne - Printed in The Netherlands

VARIOUS USES OF THE CASTOR OIL PLANT (RICINUS COMMUNIS L.)

A REVIEW*

ANTONIO SCARPA and ANTONIO GUERCI

Istituto Italian0 di Etnomedicina, Via Cairoli, 8/25 16035 Rapallo, GE (Italy)
(Received April 25, 1980; revised version accepted December 15,198O)

Summary

The ancient and modern medicinal uses of the castor bean plant,
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), in about fifty countries worldwide,
has been surveyed. The different medicinal uses are grouped separately in
relation to their pharmacological action, whether real or presumed, within
the various medical specialities. The results show an extensive use of this
plant throughout the world and the authors suggest that further research
should be carried out to determine the active principles present in the various
parts of the plant.

Historical notes

First we report short historical notes that show the contrasting opinions
of several authors, especially regarding the native region of the castor oil
plant.
Some scholars agree that the birth-place of the castor bean is Tropical
Africa [6,24,58,63] , others Abyssinia [ 571 or Egypt [ 851, whilst others
assert that the origin must be sought in the Tropics [ 91, Southern Asia [ 211,
or India [ 431. What appears certain is that the ancient Egyptians knew this
plant: witness its presence in the sarcophagus, around the mummies of
famous personages, in particular priests, that are 4000 years’ old. In this
region the castor bean was worshipped [ 211. Herodotus mentions that it was
very well known in Egypt from where, most probably, it was first introduced
into Greece [ 431 and further among the Latin peoples who, as Pliny reports,
appreciated it for its therapeutic qualities [ 211. According to Roi [ 851, from
Egypt the castor bean would have reached India and China, where we can
find the first reference to the plant dated from T’ang (618 - 906) in a men-
tion to Hou. Also, Strabone and Dioscoride relate the castor bean as having

*Based on a note communicated at the XIVth Pacific Congress, Khabarovsk,

U.S.S.R., August 20 - September 5,1979.
118

Egyptian origins and being used there as oil for Lumoade and unguent; from
500 B.C. castor oil was also known as an aperient among the Greeks and the
Romans [43].
Cancane [85] introduced the use of castor oil into England and he
published a paper in 1764 in London entitled “A dissertation on the Oleum
Palmae Christi, sive Oleum Ricine or Castor Oil’ “. “Dans la seconde edition
de ce trait6 publiiie en 1769, l’auteur signale que depuis que l’usage de la
drogue est devenue officiel, on l’a vendu dans les drogueries en Angleterre.
Le Dr. Odier, de Geneve, visite I’Angleterre en 1776, apprit 21connaitre
l’usage de l’huile de ricin et l’introduisit sur le continent.” [85]. However,
Inman [43] reports that in about 1500 the plant was beginning to be cul-
tivated in Europe and used against skin diseases but then it fell out of use
until 1750 when it was used again under the name of Oleum Palmae Christi
owing to the shape of the leaf [37] and known in English as Castor Oil (it
seems in confusion with Agnus castus). So probably it was only in 1764 that
Europe completely recognized its aperient properties. It is convenient to re-
member, as we will see later, that Dioscoride, Mesue and Galen [60] de-
scribed in detail its quantitative therapeutic use. It is perplexing that neither
the ancient Hebrews, nor the inhabitants of Palestine and Syria, used the oil
as a medicinal [39], though at Abu Mansur in Persia in the 10th century the
oil was used in medicine and in industry [ 1] and, in Palestine itself, ac-
cording to Post [ 781, as an aperient. At present, utilization of the castor
bean is world-wide, and not only as an aperient or in dermatology as we will
see later.
The castor bean plant, of the family Euphorbiaceae, now grows in
America and Africa and in many regions of Europe, even in Norway where it
can bloom and sometimes bear fruits. In warm countries the plant is peren-
nial and can reach 8 - 10 meters in height. In Spain it is a tree like the olive
and in Sicily it can reach 4 - 5 meters and lives for many years. The roots of
the castor bean are fibrous and scarcely ramified; the trunk is upright, with
alternate leaves with long stalks, palmate, divided into seven or nine lobes.
Flowers arise in the upper part of the branches and stems, and occur in
bunches. The flowers in the upper part of the bunch are female and bear the
fruit. The flowers in the lower part are male and wither after yielding their
pollen. The fruit is formed by three boxes which separate when ripe; each
contains one seed that is like a bean, oblong, swelling in the centre and ter-
minating with a pulpy greyish-white excrescence. The seed contains about
50% of fixed oil. We report a few synonyms of the castor bean relating to its
use in different countries in Table 1.

Pharmacognostic researches and recent pharmacological data on the castor

bean
We summarize the data relating pharmacognostical and pharmacological
information regarding the castor bean, to compare them with the empiric
therapeutic use in order to discover if and how far this is justified.
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TABLE 1
Local names used in different countries for the castor bean plant Ricinus communis L.

Local name Country

Kerua, Kerroa, Charua Arabia

Cherva, Higuera de1 diablo infernal, Tartago Argentina
Bafureira, Baga, Carrapateira, Mamona, Mamono, Ricino Brazil
Pi ma, Yuen Kin tse, Ta ma Tse China
Kai-Dudu-Deu Cochin China
Higuerila Costa Rica
Higuereta Cuba
Ricin, Bois de Carapat, Palma Christi, Paume Dieu France
Wunderbaum, Ricinusol Germany
Aporano Ancient Greece
Kiki, Kroton, Mbacibo’ Modern Greece
Bupurura Guinea Bisau (Manjaco tribe)[SS]
Buorai Guinea Bisau (Biafada tribe)
Djague-Djague Guinea Bisau (Crioulo tribe)
Djacula Guinea Bisau (Futa-Fula tribe)
Torra, Entogai Guinea Bisau (Balanta tribe)
Castor oil seed, Palma Christi, Castor bean Great Britain and U.S.A.
Gaffe da olio, Erba da latte, Erba lattaria, Erba venaria, Italy
Fagiolo d’India, Fagiolo romano, Fico d’inferno,
Girasole, Girasole maggiore, Girasole piccolo, Mano
aperta, Meo, Mirasole, Palma Christi, Riccino, Ricino,
Ricino comune, Ricino minore, Ricino volgare,
Scatapuzia, Zecca
Armanata Falkland Islands
Higuerila, Heguerilla, Higuerillo, Tartago, Tlapatl Mexico [ 361
Wonderolie Holland
Tartago, Castor Paraguay
Higuereta Dominican Republic
Ricinusa Ancient Rome
Catoputia major Russia
Eranda, Erando, Erumba India (Sanskrit)
Tartago Venezuela

aThe appellative ricinus in ancient Rome was due to the likeness of its seed to the insect
Jodes ricinus.

Chemistry and pharmacognosy

The leaves of the castor bean are rich in potassium nitrate and, in small-
er amounts, ricin. From extracts of the leaves has been isolated a polyacet-
ylenic compound, trans-dehydromatricaric ester, and recently also rutin.
In the stem, seed and leaves hydrocyanic acid [49] is present. Moreover, the
leaves contain a dye that produces the deep blue colour. In the seeds,
besides water, minerals, and glycosides in small amounts, there are principally
lipids, proteins, sterols, vitamins and enzymes [49] such as riboflavin, nico-
tinic acid and lipase, glutamine (especially in the sprouting seeds), norleu-
120

tine and uric acid [ 1051. From root extracts it is possible to isolate another
important polyacetylenic derivative [ 491.
Castor oil is composed of glycerides of oleic, linoleic, stearic and dihy-
drostearic acid though chiefly of ricinoleic acid (C18H3403) which represents
80 - 90% of the total fatty acids [49]. It also contains globulin, cholesterol,
lipase, vitamin E or tocopherol [ 851. In 1964, Paulouse et al. [ 701 identified
/3-sitosterol which may be the most important of the sterols present.
Ricin, a toxic protein, is poisonous like strychnine [ 771, and occurs in
the form of a white powder that is soluble in water and glycerin [ 851, and is
a glycoprotein containing in different amounts the amino acids arginine,
histidine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, cystine, methionine, and glycocoll.
It should be remembered that Vincent and Segonzac [102] have
located by electrophoresis ricin in the band of fl-globulin and are inclined to
consider it more like a peptide than like a real globulin.
Ricinine (N-methyl-cyano-methoxy-pyridone) is an alkaloid derived
from pyridine and has been isolated in crystalline form. It is colourless, odour-
less and soluble in water, chloroform, alcohol and ether [49, 851.
Ricinoleine is the triglyceride of ricinoleic acid; it hydrolyses upon
saponification into glycerine and ricinoleic acid, whilst upon heating it
changes into acrolein and enantic acid [ 851 . Ricinoleic acid can be converted
by alkaline fusion into sebacic acid and secondary otilic alcohol [37].
During germination of the castor oil seed the formation of volatile, non-
volatile and ketonic acids occurs, among which formic, acetic, butyric, lactic,
succinic, fumaric, malic, citric, pyruvic, a-ketoglutaric and ascorbic acids
have been noted [ 491.

Pharmacology
The pharmacodynamics of the constituent and derivative elements of
the castor bean are of great interest, and still the object of very detailed
research. Kingsbury [ 521 asserts that ricin differs from bacterial toxins and
from snake venom by the relative slowness with which it is adsorbed
through the intestinal paries. Pomini [ 771 asserts that this substance has an
effect like that of the poisonous fungus Amanita, causing agglutination of
red blood corpuscles in man and lower mammals and the subsequent produc-
tion of antibodies having a specific immunological action, in the same way as
other toxins [49] . As is well known, the fresh seeds are very poisonous.
There is no agreement about the lethal quantity, this value varying from per-
son to person and, for example, from the possible previous protracted inges-
tion of oil [ 521. Three seeds are able to induce fatal gastroenteritis [ 331,
seven or eight of them can kill a man [ 771, five or six represent the fatal
dose for children and from ten to twenty for adults [34].
Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk [ 1051 report the following data regarding
the toxicity of castor bean seeds, according to Froehner, in some animals
(in g/kg): horse 0.1, goose 0.5, rabbit 1.0, ram 1.25, pig 1.4, ox 2.0, goat
5.5, fowls 14.0. The symptoms of poisoning are nausea, diarrhea (sometimes
bloody), fever, cyanosis, vomiting, perspiration [49, 52, 1051 and after
 121

about eight days death supervenes. Autopsy reveals the existence of necrotic
lesions in many organs. Oliver [66] asserts that oil injected in high doses can
induce vasodilatation and lymphangitis.
The pulp of the seeds contains allergens (glycoproteins) which in par-
ticularly sensitive persons can promote strong allergic reactions such as
coryza, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, eczema, and bronchial asthma [ 49, 1051.
In 1965 Eperjessy et al. [ 311, experimenting on laboratory animals,
found that ricin injected subcutaneously caused a marked hyperthermia,
more accentuated than that caused by any other known pyrogenous com-
pound. Another interesting action of ricin is that it inhibits the formation of
tumours in rats in the precocious stage, and also suppresses them after
several days of development [49] . In confirmation of this Kupchan et al.
[ 551, of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Virginia, isolated
from plants of the Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiu es&a L. and Croton tiglium
L.) active principles with a diterpenic ether structure which show a statis-
tically significant inhibitory activity with regard to tumours and especially
leukaemia in laboratory animals. Besides, it seems that the extract of leaves
of the castor bean is active against some microbes such as Mycobacteriurn
tuberculosis [49] and Aspergillus niger [105].
Extracts of the trunk, according to Feng [32] , have shown a spasmatic
effect on the isolated rat uterus, an action on the striated muscle of toad,
increased blood flow in the hind leg of the rat and decreased blood pressure
in the dog. As is well known, the purgative properties of castor oil are due to
ricinoleic acid liberated from glycerides through the action of pancreatic
lipase; the ricinoleic acid so liberated, acting at the level of the small intes-
tine, lyses the lipidic components of the intestinal mucosa, causing a reflex
exaggeration of peristalsis [34] . Now it is important to remember that
freshly pressed oil is not purgative. Some of the sources to which we have
referred show a scarce utilization of the castor bean in some countries such
as New Zealand from which no therapeutic uses have been reported [8]. The
same is true for the United States of America, according to Krochnal [ 541.
In other cases the information is vague. Kourennoff [ 531 mentions that
the castor bean is used medicinally in Russia, and Zapernick [ 1071 asserts
that this plant is used in official Polynesian and Tibetan medicine, without
specifying further details. In Abu Mansur (Iran) in the 10th century, castor
oil was used, among other things, to clear the stomach of the “humour” and
to stop the secretion of mucus. According to certain beliefs, since castor oil
is considered to be of “cool temperament”, it naturally suggests itself to per-
sons suffering from “excessive heat of the system” [2]. Burkill and Haniff
[ 151 recall that a particular quality of castor bean is found in Chinese shops
of medicinal plants in Penang.

In the following sections are listed the therapeutic applications of the

castor bean and its different parts as observed in different parts of the world,
and grouped under the pharmacological action of interest to the various
122

medical specialities. Some quotes are accompanied by a short explanation to

clarify the original meaning.

Respiratory apparatus

In China, to recover from rhinitis they instil castor bean latex in the ear
of the patient [ 1041; on the other hand, in Madagascar they use the leaves
locally in the treatment of angina [73]. Durante [27] describes the custom
practised in Italy to splash leaves of the castor bean with vinegar to cure
chest inflammation. In Haiti they use castor oil with an infusion of orange
leaves against bronchitis [ 751. In India and Pakistan, unspecified parts of the
plant are used to treat bronchitis [23] . In the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta,
to recover from pneumonia and other feverish afflictions, they rub them-
selves with the leaves [ 50, 511.
Pierre-Noel [ 751 states that in Haiti asthma is treated by a spoonful of
castor oil with parsley, the effect being immediate; the same weakness is
treated in Madagascar with the leaves [ 731 and in India and Pakistan with
unspecified parts of the plant [ 231. In India the root is used against pleuro-
dynia [ 1051.
The above-mentioned uses can be partially justified by observations
made in the laboratory that extracts of the leaves possess specific activity
against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Aspergillus niger [ 46 J . The action
of terpenic esters present in different amounts in plants of the Euphorbiaceae
should be noted.

Cardiovascular apparatus

In the 10th century in Iran, the oil was used for apoplexy [l],and in
Haiti, together with the juice of the pais congo (Cajanus indica), the oil is
suggested for cerebral congestion [ 751. In Ceylon congestions are treated by
rubbing with castor oil (instantly warming the blood) [ 21, whilst in Haiti
lymphangitis is treated by lubricating the inflamed part with castor oil [ 751.
From the pharmacological point of view, the presence of ricinine, an
alkaloid derived from pyridine, and the depressant effect on blood pressure
(in the dog) caused by extracts of the trunk should be considered.

Digestive apparatus

The different parts of the castor bean have many applications for infec-
tions of the digestive apparatus. Local application of leaves is suggested for
dental caries in Madagascar [ 73, 811 , whilst in South East Africa the Zulu
utilize the root in cases of odontalgia [105]. In China, according to
Wahnofer [104], the castor bean is used against swelling of the tongue.
 123

Among the Zulu they use the castor bean to relieve gastralgia [ 1051; for the
same syndrome in Columbia they use an infusion of white bark [ll] and in
Mexico they masticate the seeds [72]. In Madag~c~ they use the leaves
[ 731, and in Iran the oil has been used for intestinal colic [l] . In Madagascar
the seeds and the leaves are used against belly-ache [ 831. In Brazil the oil is
used to stop vomiting. In Algeria jaundice is treated with an infusion of leaves
[ 561 whilst in India the root is used [ 1051.
In Algeria, splenalgia [56] is treated with an infusion of leaves, whilst
in the Dominican Republic the leaves are used as a poultice to treat internal
pains and to massage the spleen 2441.
Kerharo and Adam [ 491 observed that in the neighbourhood of Matam
(Senegal) they use infusions of leaves externally, together with womb
fumigations using the dried inflorescences of the castor bean scattered on
dying‘coals, to contend ascites. In Italy, according to Palma 1671, they still
use the castor bean for peritonitis, though which part of the plant is not
specified, In India and Pakistan the plant is utilized for dropsy [23] for
which, in Italy, the seeds are used cooked in goat’s milk whey.
The castor bean has been widely used as an anthelmintic. Littre and
Gilbert [ 581 mention in their treatise its use for the above property as
well as a purgative. In Brazil the oil is used [71] ; in Italy the oil with other
anthelmintics [69]. Wallnofer 11041 refers to the Chinese use for the vermi-
fugal properties of the seeds; in Abyssinia the latex of different species of
Ficus mixed with castor oil is used as an anthelmintic in the folk-medicine
of some peoples [ 891.
In East Africa the oil is used as a taeniafuge [7] . In the Transvaal castor
oil is still used against diarrhea [ 761, as in Soma~land [ 1051, In Algeria they
use the pulverized dried flowers in a dose of one drachma [ 561. In Mexico,
they have the custom of giving the root, which is naturally jelly-like and
refreshing, to stop diarrhea and dysentery - hence its popular name Apit-
zapatli de la Z’ehoitztea [40] . Bally [lo] states that in Tanganyika they mas-
ticate the root against belly-ache and diarrhea. In India [97] the leaves are
used for their astringent action.
The largest known use of the castor bean is surely as a purgative. As we
will see it is used for this on every continent. In Italy, Negri [63] asserts that
the castor bean overcomes coprostasis due to inflammation of the abdominal
organs in general and of the intestinal canal. Arietti [6] , Palma [67] and
Viola f 1031 extol the properties of the oil. Pomini [77] asserts that 2 - 10 g
of the oil act like a laxative, 20 - 40 g with lemon, coffee or tea, like a purga-
tive for adults.
In East Africa [ 71, Eritrea and Ethiopia [ 161, among the Zulu and the
Somalian peoples [ 1053, in Nigeria [66] and in Senegal, they all use the oil.
In Ethiopia, in particular, the oil is obtained by putting the seeds in a pot
with a perforated base, surrounded by coals [35],
In the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta they employ the roasted seeds or
the oil obtained from the decorticated seeds, roasted, mashed and boiled in
water; the floating oil is collected by decantation [ 501. The same process is
124

used in Guinea Bissau [ 1011. Among the Pygmaean people in equatorial

Africa [lo] , in Senegal [ 461 and in Madagascar [ 831, they use the seeds, and in
the Malagasy region also the leaves. In Palestine they use the oil [78] and in
India and Pakistan the root, the cortex and a decoction of leaves which are
also considered good purgatives [ 231 like in Indonesia.
In Ceylon they rub the oil on the abdomen [2] , whilst in China they
prefer to use mashed seeds [ 851. In Haiti they use an enema with 30 - 40 g
of oil in a decoction of senna seeds [ 141 or distill the oil for internal use
[13]. In Indonesia [45] and the Philippines [12,30,80] castor oil is the
purgative par excellence. It is very widespread also in Latin America, and in
Columbia [4], Argentina [69], Brazil [22, 57, 711 and Mexico [35, 59,651,
where it is indicated as a purgative.
In Italy [67] the castor bean is suggested for use against strangulated
hernia (it is not specified which part of it), whilst in Brazil castor oil is sug-
gested for use against prolapse of the rectum [ 711. In the case of hemor-
rhoids, in Brazil the oil is suggested [32] for internal use, or a decoction of
leaves for local applications. The oil is used locally against hemorrhoids in
Columbia [4] , and in Haiti one leaf of the castor bean plant, which is dried
to warm it, is pressed on the afflicted part [75].
From the pharmacognostic point of view we emphasize the presence in
the trunk, seeds and leaves of hydrocyanic acid. As we have already men-
tioned, the triglyceride of ricinoleic acid, ricinolein, is converted by saponi-
fication into glycerin and ricinoleic acid. To this process must be due, among
others, the purgative properties of the oil, which in large quantities, together
with other parts of the castor bean, more specifically the ricinoleic acid
liberated by specific pancreatic enzymes, acts on the intestinal mucosa to
induce, by reflex action, exaggerated peristalsis.

Articulations, bones and muscles

In Haiti they use the leaves [ 131 to heal contusions and related inflam-
mations. In Arabia the leaves, dampened with the white of an egg and an
onion [ 951, and in Columbia leaves with the oil, are always applied locally.
Rubbing with oil is practised in Algeria for cases of bone deformities [ 561,
whilst in the Transvaal, acute osteomyelitis is treated with the oil [76]. In
Italy articular pains are treated with the cooked seeds minced in soup of old
cockerel [ 271. In Indonesia the leaves are applied locally [ 951. For Libya
we report a formula of Panetta’s [68] . “Mix one handful of castor bean, one
of occa cow’s butter, one of honey and one of vinegar; smear the mixture on
a piece of cloth and put it on the afflicted part.”
Also, utilization of the castor bean as an antirheumatic is quite well
known. In Madagascar they apply the leaves locally [ 731, in Arabia a non-
specified part of the plant is used [ 951, in Somaliland the oil [ 1051, and in
Ceylon the afflicted part is massaged with the oil cooked with several drugs
- if the condition is very serious one tablespoon should be taken for imme-
 125

diate relief [2] . According to Dastur [23] , in India and Pakistan they use a
decoction of the roots with potassium carbonate. Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk [105] mention that in India they often use the root against
rheumatism, lumbago and sciatica. In the Philippines they use the seeds
[ 121 . In Malaysia the oily leaves [ 111 or the oil of the leaves are applied to
the afflicted part, making sure that if the skin is corroded by it, the skin
must also be treated [ 151. In Haiti the leaves dipped with castor oil or sheep
or pork fat are used to massage the afflicted limbs [13] .
The local application of the leaves as an antirheumatic draws our atten-
tion to their chemical composition and pharmacological activity. The leaves
are rich in potassium nitrate and ricinine, apart from tiuns-dehydromatricaric
ester. As previously pointed out, hydrocyanic acid is present, with the oil
occurring in smaller quantities. The pharmacodynamics of the association of
the different components mentioned can be expressed therapeutically by
hyperthermia in the treated area; in fact, in 1965 it was observed that sub-
cutaneous injection of ricine caused a hyperthermia that, according to
several scholars, is higher than that caused by any other pyrogenic com-
pound [31].

Urogenital apparatus

According to Pomini [ 771, in Italy the roots of the castor bean are
known also for their diuretic action. In India and Pakistan the castor bean is
used against inflammation of the genital organs [ 231 and in particular the
purified seed is used against vaginal and uterine diseases [ 971. In India the
oil is considered to have a spermatopoietic action [97]. In Brazil the root is
used against pains due to renal calculus [ 211, whilst in Algeria they use a
decoction of leaves [ 561. In Ceylon, in the case of hydrocele, the oil is mas-
saged on the afflicted part [ 21. We should remember that an important poly-
acetylenic derivative has been isolated from the root extract [49] ; moreover,
the anti-inflammatory action could be due to the toxic action of ricine,
which causes vasodilatation followed by an increase of the platelets.

Infectious diseases

The pygmies of equatorial Africa use the seeds internally against small-
pox [lo] . The leaves, pounded and cooked in the oil, are used in Eritrea,
Libya, Somaliland and in nearby regions against tropical framboesia [ 19,
1051.
In Senegal [46], and in particular in the Walo and Cayor regions [49],
the seeds are ingested to contend leprosy. In Guinea Bissau they use the
peeled seeds [ 1011 and in the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta they use the ’
non-roasted decorticated seeds [ 501: from four to five at a time ground in
water [ 511 .
126

In Matam (Senegal) they treat bilharziasis [ 481 with a decoction of the

leaves applied externally and by fumigations to the lower belly from d.ried
inflorescences scattered on an extinguished fire which is still warm.
The vitamins and the enzymes present in large quantities in the seeds of
the castor bean and the ricine which causes production of antibodies en-
dowed with a specific immunological action could account for their utiliza-
tion in infectious diseases.

Oncology

Plants of the Euphorbiaceae were just known in Hippocrates’ day and

were used in the folk- medicine of Ancient Greece to counter cancers and
tumours [ 551. According to Durante, the green leaves were used to treat
tumours in general and the mammary tumours occurring after childbirth
[ 271. In Africa (Tonga-Mozambique) they suggest drinking a liquid prepared
from the minced rind of the castor bean for mammary tumours [ 271. It may
be that the “mammary tumours” are not real tumours, but blocked mam-
mary ducts. Terpenic esters, also present in the Euphorbiaceae, according to
recent studies [ 561, show an inhibitory activity in the case of tumours in
rats, not only at the precocious stage but also after some days of development.
The vasodilatory action of the oil and the presence of toxic protein in
the form of ricin could play an important pharmacological role.

Puericulture and pediatrics

Among the uses of the castor bean in the field of puericulture in general,
we refer to the custom of smearing children with the oil at birth, used in
Malawi and in Central Africa [ 1061. In Ceylon they believe that the oil takes
away diseases of children [2] . Against bronchial catarrh in Guatemala they
massage the body with edible oil and put one leaf of the castor bean on the
stomach [ 31, whilst in Columbia, for bronchial catarrh and bronchitis, they
massage the chest with a mixture of two spoonfuls of castor oil and three of
turpentine, covering with a warm cloth [ 41.
In Brazil the oil is often used against enteralgia [ 711 and in India and
Pakistan it is smeared on the abdomen of children against flatulence [23].
In the Transvaal [76], Haiti [75] and Brazil [71] the oil is used against
diarrhea, also if it is caused by dentition [ 711. In Columbia [ 41, in cases of
diarrhea in children, they use the oil of freshly cooked leaves applied exter-
nally on the abdomen. In Italy the purgative properties of the oil have been
known for a long time [63] . Pomini suggests, in pediatrics, one dose of 8 -
10 g [77].
Dastur [ 231, referring to the Indian and Pakistani peoples, asserts that
the smeared oil relieves mastitis during suckling. Of widespread applica-
 127

tion is the use of the castor bean in the treatment of hypogalactia. In

Guinea Bissau it seems that the cooked leaves activate and cause the
secretion of milk. On this subject Ficalho wrote: “... o Dr. Maw William
observou esta applicacao e OS seus accao, se nao para determinar a
secrecao do leite pelo menos para a activar.” [loll. In Somaliland
they use the oil [ 1051. In South Africa and the Cape Verde Islands they
employ local applications of the leaves [go], and in Madagascar they use the
same process but with young leaves [ 741. In India and Pakistan they use a
decoction of the leaves [ 231, whilst in Columbia an infusion of leaves is used as
an enema or luuudos [ 41. In Haiti, for hypogalactia they always suggest use
of the oil [ 141, either for internal use with vervain juice [ 751 or with the
leaves of papaw smeared with castor oil, or, lastly, with plantain juice with
a pinch of salt [ 751. The leaves are suggested for use against engorgement of
the breasts in New Caledonia [ 821. In Italy they use the leaves [ 771 and
Targioni Tozzetti [ 981 reports that the large leaves “are used by the common
people to induce milk in the puerperium, applying them to the breast”. Scarpa
[ 901 has conducted experimental research on the galactagogual action of the
green leaves of the castor bean put on the breast, as he saw among the
Basutos, the juice from the leaves being used to soak compresses. He noted
a constant and immediate increase in milk secretion, estimated by means of
weighing the baby. The milk increase was always considerable: from a
minimum of 25 g every suck to a maximum of 110 g. In some cases stop-
ping the treatment was not followed by a decrease in secretion though in
other cases it caused a drop or irregularity in secretion which rose after
resumption of the treatment. Applications caused a sense of warmth and
turgidity in the breast, but no other drawback. The phenomenon could be
explained by the irritant action of the acids (formic, acetic, butyric, lactic)
contained in the green leaves of the castor bean, though it was probably
caused by the presence of the galactagogual hormonal substances adsorbed
through the skin, and amongst these most probably folliculin, which is wide-
spread in the plant kingdom and which even in small doses exerts galacta-
gogual activity and has the power to hypertrophy the mammary gland.

Dermatology

Against tinea and seborrhea of the scalp in Ethiopia they smear the oil
locally [35] ; again, the oil in an alcoholic solution is employed in Italy as it
is recognised to have an antiseborrheic action and favours the growth of hair
[ 771. In Angola the leaves are used externally to treat scabies and skin
diseases [25]. In Guinea Bissau the oil is obtained from the decorticated
seeds by boiling in water, following which the oil that is floating is collected
by means of decantation, and is used against dermatosis and itch (scabies)
[ 1011. Among the Basutos in South Africa, the roasted seeds are pulverized
to treat impetigo, eczema and pustules [ 901. In Tanganyika the young leaves
are used to treat furuncles [lo] . In Africa (Tonga-Mozambique) the juice of
128

the cortex of the castor bean is put on eruptions of the skin [ 951, whilst a
drink of the minced cortex is used against pustules [ 21. Instead, in Nepal,
the pustules are treated with poultices with a leaf base [ 111.
They use the oil against warts in South and East Africa [ 1051; in Colum-
bia, according to Jarvis (see Alzate [ 4]), the oil is used to eliminate warts by
putting it on the warts themselves morning and night, massaging over and
over again. Even from the time of Hippocrates the plants of the Euphorbia-
ceae were known and used in folk-medicine to cure warts [ 551. Durante
[27], in his Herbario Nuouo, states that external use of the oil heals
petechiae, and that the pounded seeds are used to treat impetigo.
Against various skin diseases in Malaya they spread the oil locally [ 111.
In India and Pakistan a pulp of leaves is applied to large fur-uncles and
swellings [ 231. In Sushruta Samhita (Treatke of Sushruta)’ [ 971 we read that
the leaves were used beneficially for the skin. Alzate states, referring to
Columbia, that the oil removes spots from the face and hands of old persons,
though it is necessary, morning and night, to massage over and over again in
order that the oil can penetrate well. The oil is also suggested for large spots
that appear on the body [4]. Again, Durante [27] states that the leaves
daubed with vinegar reduce St. Anthony’s fire. In Malaya the cracked seeds
are used externally against scrofulous inflammations [ 111. Parts of the castor
bean are also used widely as a vulnerary. In Senegal, the leaves are used [48],
in the Transvaal the oil [ 761. In India the castor bean has a vulnerary action
against scorpion bites and the bite of venomous snakes [20]. In Nepal they
use the seeds against scorpion bites [61], whilst in Brazil the castor bean is
still used against snake bites. The Brazilian healers use particular plants with a
decoction of roots of the castor bean [ 911. Furthermore, in Brazil, the oil
put on scalds relieves pain and promotes healing [71] . In Russia they use the
oil externally for bums, eczema and to soften the skin [62].
In the Philippines (Tangan-Tangan) the castor bean is known for the
antiseptic and topical action of the leaves, in particular if they are boiled, to
wash wounds [96]. They use the leaves topically against wounds, ulcers or
sores in Senegal [ 461, Eritrea and Ethiopia [ 16,351, Guinea Bissau [ 1011,
Tanganyika [lo] , and the Transvaal [ 111, whilst in Malawi the oil is used.
We found applications of other parts of the castor bean in Tanganyika,
where the juice of fresh twigs is put on wounds [38, 391. In Angola scarifica-
tions and incisions from tattoos are massaged with the ashes of the burned
castor bean [ 261. In South Africa the cortex is used to protect and to cover
wounds [ 111; in South East Africa, the cortex is used by local populations
to stitch wounds and to treat wounds and sores. In the Transvaal they use
the powder from roasted seeds to put on sores and furuncles of children
[ 1051.
Again, in Africa (Tonga-Mozambique), the leaves cooked in milk are used
as a poultice for ulcers [ 111 and in Rhodesia the leaf is a pulp for boils [ 1051.
This use is also well known outside Africa. In Indonesia the leaves are put on
chronic ulcers [95] , whilst in Malaya and China seeds of the castor bean are
crushed and the paste obtained is used to treat scrofulous ulcers [42]. In
 129

China the juice of the leaves is put on chronic wounds of the legs [ 1041. In
India and Pakistan they use the mashed seeds against scrofulous ulcers [ 231;
in the Philippines, again against ulcers, the leaves are cooked in milk to make
a mash which is applied locally [ 121. In Columbia the oil is the ideal applica-
tion against ulcerated feet [ 951.
In the field of cosmetology we are reminded that in Italy the oil is used
in an alcoholic solution 1773 and in Tanganyika they use it to grease the
body with soap and oil [ 1051. Here we assume that only some of the sub-
stances contained in the castor bean can have a biodynamic activity in the
field of dermatology. From the extract a polyacetylenic compound, trans-
dehydromat~c~ic ester has been isolated. From the seeds have been isolated
riboflavin, vitamins, lipids, protein and the glyceride of oleic acid; the oil
also contains vitamin E. Also present is nicotinic acid which, due to its ir-
ritant action, could act as a hemostat and cicatrizing agent, especially for
burns, wounds, sores, etc.

Venereal diseases

The crushed seeds of the castor bean are used in Eritrea [ll] to treat
blennorrhagia [ 991. In the Dominican Republic the seeds are used as a decoc-
tion against gonorrhea [ 111. In India and Pakistan, whilst used against the
same venereal disease, no precise information is available as to which part of
the plant is used [ 231.
In Algeria, the pulverized seeds are swallowed with honey to treat
syphilis. The effect goes on for one year for every seed swallowed after pre-
paring it in the warm blood of rabbit 1411. Recently, ricin has been localized
electrophoretically in the beta-globulin band [ 102). It most probably pro-
vides a barrier, though weak, with an immunological action that seems to be
effective against the formation of tumours, as already mentioned.

Otorhinolaryngology

Against otitis in the Transvaal are used ~stillations of crushed seeds

with water, or dried leaves f 111.In Ceylon they introduce 7 or 8 drops of
oil into the auditory duct [2] . The Cariani of Thailand use the smoke of the
burned leaves of the castor bean [92]. In Malaya they blow into the ears and
insert a small piece of the stem of the castor bean [ 151. The .practice in Haiti
is more elaborate, where the instillations are used with a basis of castor oil,
previously boiled with the juice of a very green cucumber. Also in Italy, as
Durante states [ 271, the oil used for instillations alleviates ear-ache. In
Malaya, in a similar way to what was described for otitis, against deafness
they blow into the ears crushed seeds of the castor bean and insert a small
piece of the stem [ 111.
The castor bean, according to Chinese medicine, cures troubles of
speech and hearing [ 1041. In this case it is difficult to identify the pharma-
130

codynamic action of the compounds of the castor bean. The only sugges-
tion we are able to make relates to the anti-inflammatory action. Recently
it has been demonstrated that, in rats, a diet poor in tryptophan causes a
marked reduction in the synthesis of cerebral serotonin which in turn con-
trols a greater sensitivity of the senses in general, and acoustics in particular
[ 181. The presence, in ricin, of this amino acid could explain the above-
mentioned uses.

Ophthalmology

In Nigeria, castor oil is used to-prepare, as a soothing base [ 111,

ophthalmic compounds [ 661. In India and Pakistan the oil is used locally
against conjunctivitis [23]. For inflammation of the eye in Indonesia they
apply the leaves locally [95]. In Columbia one drop of oil in the eye reduces
reddening and inflammation; one drop put on the eyelids treats sties [4] .
Finally, in Italy the green leaves, with maize pudding, relieves inflammation
of the eyes. We have already referred above to the anti-inflammatory action
of the pharmacological derivatives of the castor bean.

Obstetrics and gynaecology

In South Africa the pulverized root of the castor bean is sprinkled lo-
cally on the hymen as an antiseptic in the case of hemorrhage [ll]. In
Somaliland [ 1051 the oil, and in Algeria [ 561 a decoction of leaves, are used
as an emmenagogue. Ranaiva [ 841 reports that in Madagascar the castor
bean is used as a purge for pregnant women, while the women drink a decoc-
tion of leaves of Voara and Ricinus against the retention of the afterbirth. Also,
in India and Pakistan a decoction of the leaves and oil is greased on the abdo-
men to promote menstrual flux [ 231. The castor bean is used against amen-
orrhea in India and Pakistan [ 231, in Ceylon against chest and abdominal
pains in pregnant women, and castor oil in decoction with other drugs [2] is
also suggested for external use.
In the Dominican Republic the oil is used as an ingredient of an infu-
sion that is given after childbirth [ 111. Against inflammation and metritis,
in Brazil [ 171 and in Italy [67] they use, respectively, an infusion of leaves
or the whole plant. The decoction of leaves, according to the Algerian
people, can induce barrenness [ 561. In India it is believed that if a woman
eats the seeds the day after childbirth conception will not occur for nine
months [ll].In Mexico cases of women who eat the seeds of castor bean to
become barren are well known [ 291. Local massages with castor oil or with
bruised leaves have an antivaricose action in pregnant women in Senegal
[ 471 . The oil is also used in Italy to treat constipation and renal and uterine
troubles in pregnant women immediately after childbirth [ 631.
In the description of the applications of the castor bean in obstetrics
and gynaecology we again find an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and anti-
 131

varicose action that is justified by a single pharmacotherapeutic activity.

Regarding the emmenago~e activity we should recall the presence in the
plant of the substances mentioned in the section on dermatology. Regarding
barrenness, we presume that some acids present such as cyanic acid [ 461, the
highly toxic protein, ricin, and other substances, may be absorbed very
slowly through the intestinal wall and play a fundamental role. In particular,
as Kerharo reports [ 461, Feng has demonstrated that some extracts of the
stem of the castor bean cause spasm of the isolated uterus of the rat and
striated muscle of the toad.

Nervous system

Against ceph~algia, in the majority of the localities we examined, they

use the leaves locally; namely, in Tonga, [11], South East Africa [105],
Madagascar [ 731, Nepal [ 111, and the Philippines [30], where the leaves are
also mixed with “Whole” [ 121.
In Ceylon they use the oil in massage [ 21, in Mexico [ 111 and Paraguay
[94] the crushed seeds are smeared on the head. Finally, in China the latex
is instilled in the ears [104] . fn Haiti they give the following preparation to
persons who have suffered strong emotions: one spoonful of oil of the castor
bean plant, one spoonful of oil of castor bean seeds, one spoonful of almond
oil, half a bottle of de porter, two spoonfuls of the juice of vervain, a pinch
of salt and a pinch of nutmeg. This seems to have a sedative action [ 761. In
Russia the oil is used as a stimulant of motor activity [ 621. The seeds are
prescribed against nervous and mental diseases by the Senegalese living in
Walo and Cayor [ 491, whilst in India the root is used [ 1051.
In Algeria, against paralysis of the limbs they rub in the oil locally [ 561.
During the tenth century, the oil was used in Abu Mansur [ 11 to treat facial
paralysis. In the area of diseases of the nervous system there are many sub-
stances that can carry out a thera~utic action. We mention, among others
potassium nitrate, which acts as a re-equilibrator of cellular polarity at the
membrane level; protides and enzymes in general, and amino acids such as
arginine, histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc. We should remember again
Feng’s research [32], which has demonstrated, amongst other effects, a
decrease in blood pressure in the dog.

Miscellaneous applications

Under this heading are grouped different applications, both generally

therapeutic and specific or commercial ones. In Mexico they prepare a tinc-
ture from the seeds of the castor bean (here it is also called ~i~e~iZ~~ and
Qceite de ricino) that seems to have an efficacious medicinal action in a
homeopathic dose of 1:lO [ 861. In Italy, the oil is used externally for
rubbings, liniments, ointments and suppositories [ 771.
132

The oil is used locally in South and East Africa, as a sedative [ 1051. In
Haiti, a tonic action of the castor bean is also known - in fact, the leaves are
an ingredient of an aromatic bath [ 131. In the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta,
they swallow the seeds, which are decorticated but not roasted, as an emetic
and antidote; the vomitory action is due to the ricin taken in a dose close to
toxicity. Again, for the emetic action, in Guinea Bissau they use the peeled
seeds [ 1011, whilst in Madagascar the seeds and leaves are used [74]. In
Guatemala, they crush half an ounce of seeds which are added to coffee and
drunk once [ 31.
As an excipient, the castor bean is used chiefly in Africa. In Senegal the
oil is for internal use [ 46 ] , and the Bufalero people in Central Africa use the
seeds externally [ 931. The natives of Abyssinia grind two handfuls of Jasmi-
num floribundum R. Br. and Jasminum abyssinicum R. Br., which are left
to soak in water, then filtered through a cloth and drunk with butter and
castor oil [ 421.
The oil has a widespread application as an emollient in Italy [ 771. In
Nigeria [ 661 it is used chiefly for bedsores; in Haiti [ 141 they add honey, olive
oil and cacaleus to the oil to produce an emollient enema [ 751. In Columbia,
the leaves, applied to the shoulder, are used for their sudorific property [4].
Against sunstroke in Haiti they suggest crushing the leaves with vinegar
and using this to cover the brow, temples, and sensitive and aching regions
[ 131. In the Transvaal and Hawai feverish people are completely swaddled in
the leaves of the castor bean [ 28,641.
Against gout in Italy, as referred to by Durante [27] , they used the
seeds cooked and minced in a soup of old cockerel; in Indonesia they use the
leaves [ 951.
Under the general heading inflammations, we have grouped together
various applications, referred to by the various countries, that were not
accompanied by further and more accurate information. Thus, in South
Africa the cortex is used for different inflammations [ 111; in Madagascar the
leaves are put externally on local inflammations [ 731; in Mexico the fresh
seeds are put on inflammations and the leaves are used with fat as a compress
[ 721; in Guatemala the leaves of the castor bean are greased with pork lard
and then are put around the waist, fixing them conveniently [3]. Finally, in
Italy the crushed seeds are considered good for inflammations of the but-
tocks and anus [ 271.
In Italy it is recognized that the roots of the castor bean have a repel-
lant action for moles and rodents, and that the whole plant has the same
action for flies [ 771. Also in other European countries, the plant is used in
the fields to banish moles [ 211. In India they believe that the plant keeps
away poisonous snakes [ 201 and insects [ 1051. In Brazil and Columbia it
seems the plant kills flies and drives mosquitoes away [4, 211. In Argentina
the repellant action is also recognized. The usefulness of the castor bean in
inducing adverse reactions is well known: in Guam (Micronesia) the seeds
are used to induce dermatitis or are pulverized and injected into the conjuc-
tival sac producing a violent conjunctivitis with occasional keratitis that can
cause ulcerations or iridocyclitis [ 431.
 133

A different language must be used to discuss the diseases of Ayurueda,

the ancient traditional medicine of India and Ceylon. Ayurvedic medicine is
made up of eight branches; the fourth, Butha-Viya, deals with diseases (Viya
caused by the Bhuta, i.e. by irritated spirits and demons). Amongst these
provokers of diseases are the sannya, the 18 genii commanded by a chief, the
Kolu-sunnyu. Every sunnyu represents one disease and causes it only. Thus
Gulma sunnyu causes helminthiasis, Amuku sunnyu causes vomiting, and
Den& sannya causes hallucinations and nightmares. With the aim of fighting
these demons of diseases, they organized, on fixed and propitious days, com-
plicated ceremonies of which the dance is the main part. Within the ambit of
the sunnya diseases we mention the practive in Ceylon of using castor oil with
other drugs in a decoction for childbirth and in difficulty in respiration;
it must be taken externally and instilled in the ears and the nostrils [ 21. In
India the seeds of the castor bean [ 201 or the whole plant [ 1051 are used
against ichthyosis. The alkaloid responsible for the toxic action is ricinine.
In Angola the oil is used as a seasoning [26] and also in China the fresh-
ly pressed oil is used for the same purpose. Sushruta Samhita [ 971 reports
that the oil has a rejuvenating action, improves the memory and intellectual
faculties, and induces a general state of well-being.
Finally, we deal with the commercial utilization of the castor bean. In
Italy the stems are used as fuel, or as fibres for rigging [ 771. In Portuguese
East Africa they treat fishing lines with the oil to prolong their life [ 1051. In
South East Africa [ 1051 and in Brazil [21] the oil is used as a lubricant in
the lacquering and textile industry. Its utilization as a lubricant is especially
justified for aeroplane engines, due to its stability at low temperatures and
at high altitudes. It has a widespread use also in the manufacture of rain-
coats.
In Brazil it is used in the fi~a~ao de dunas [21] and the leaves serve to
feed silkworms. In Costa Rica the plant is used for sombrear uiveiros de cafb
e cafezais nouos [ 211. The Indians in Mexico and Central America illuminate
their huts with the seeds of the castor bean impaled on the point of a stick.
As it is a leafy tree, it is used to shade coffee and cacao plantations [ 871 as
observed before, in Costa Rica.

Veterinary science

The Lobedu, in South East Africa, use castor oil against skin diseases in
animals and against eye inflammations. In Brazil the oil, mixed with smoke
or kerosene, is used in veterinary science against “Berne” do gado [ 211.

In conclusion, the very wide ethnopharmacological use of Ricinus

communis L. around the world justifies some further comments. Thus it is
not by chance that the pygmy people in Equatorial Africa use the seeds of
the castor bean against hearing disorders, knowing that one of the pharmaco-
dynamic actions of tryptophan in laboratory animals is on acoustic sensi-
134

tivity. Furthermore, it is not by chance that the castor bean, containing nico-
tinic acid, is used to treat inflammations, or that, in view of marked hyper-
thermia caused by some of its constituent compounds, it is used in derma-
tology.
The presence of this plant all over the world since ancient times has
produced, as we have seen among some peoples, its initial utilization in an
“instinctive” manner. We think it would be better to emphasize the very
wide utilization, in every medical speciality, of well-identified parts of the
plant. Our contribution has been to list in a systematic manner these empiric
uses with the aim of drawing even more the attention of other scholars to
the active principles in the castor bean and its different therapeutic proper-
ties, some of which would be interesting to test.

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