Physics

#1 Scientific method

1. What was Galileo’s contribution to the scientific method?

Galileo Galilei was an Italian mathematics professor of the 16th century.

He was the first to implement a scientific approach in order to investigate a
problem, and is often referred to as the 'father of modern scientific
methodology'. The basis of Galileo's method is still adopted by scientists
for their current investigations:

1. Observation: Observe an event in nature which needs to be

investigated.

2. Hypothesis: Suggest a possible explanation based on the observation.

3. Experiment: Use quantitative data to obtain objective generalisations

and perform several experiments to test the generalisations. The
experiments should investigate only one variable at a time.

4. Conclusion: Make a solid conclusion on the truth of the hypothesis

based on calculations from the experiments. The conclusion itself should
be expressed in terms of an equation. For example, Galileo showed that
an object fell through a distance (s) in a time (t) according to the equation
s = 1/2- kt2 where k is a constant.

2. Who invented calculus in mathematics? Issac Newton

3. What is an independent variable?

The variable that is being altered or investigated

4. What is a dependent variable?

The variable that may be affected by change in the independent variable

5. What is the controlled variable? The variable that is kept constant

6. What are random errors?

 Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the
measured data due to the precision limitations of the measurement
device.

7. What is an example of random error?

Parallax error-Parallax error is the apparent displacement of an object

because of a change in the observer's point of view.

8. How can parallax errors be reduced?

➢ Readings should be taken from a position where the pointer is

directly in front of the image it produces.

➢ Observations should be made with the line of sight perpendicular to

the scale.

➢ The pointer should be as close as possible to the scale when taking

readings. o If the scale is vertical, such as with a measuring
cylinder, eye level readings should be taken.

9. How can the effects of random errors be reduced?

➢ The mean of several readings should be taken.

➢ The line of the graph should have minimum deviation from its
points.

10. What are systematic errors?

Systematic error (also called systematic bias) is consistent, repeatable

error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experiment design.

11. What is zero error?

Any indication that a measuring system gives a false reading when the
true value of a measured quantity is zero, eg the needle on an ammeter
failing to return to zero when no current flows. A zero error may result in a
systematic uncertainty.
12. How can systematic errors be reduced?
 ➢ The value of the error must be discovered and then added or
subtracted from each reading.
➢ The instrument must be adjusted.

13. The vernier calliper has an extra scale known as?

A vernier scale which is capable of measuring to one extra decimal place

over that measured by the main scale

14. What lengths is the vernier caliper used to measure?

This calliper is suitable for measuring lengths between 1 cm and 10 cm.

The following should be noted when using the instrument:

➢ The jaws are adjusted by sliding the vernier scale over the main
scale.

➢ The main scale is read to the mark just before the zero marking on
the vernier scale.

➢ The marking on the vernier scale that best aligns with a mark on
the main scale gives the added significant figure.

15. What measurements is the micrometer screw gauge mainly used for?

It is used mainly for measurements which are less than 1 cm. It is useful
for measuring small lengths such as the diameter of a wire.

The following should be noted when reading the instrument:

➢ The main scale of the sleeve is read to the marking just before the
thimble.

➢ The thimble scale is read at the marking that coincides with the
horizontal line on the sleeve.

➢ The two readings are summed.

16. State the suitability of the following instruments?
➢ A metre rule is used to measure the height of a table because it has the
necessary range required. In most cases, accuracy to the nearest mm is
sufficient for such a measurement.

➢ A vernier calliper is used for measuring the internal diameter of a water pipe. Its
sensitivity, accuracy and range are suitable, as well as its physical design of
expanding jaws.

➢ A micrometer is suitable for measuring the diameter of an electrical wire because

it has the required range, sensitivity and accuracy required by an engineer, as
well as jaws for holding the wire firmly.

➢ A mercury-in-glass laboratory thermometer is suitable for measuring

temperatures in the school laboratory because the experiments generally
performed are within its range. It does not have to be as accurate as a clinical
thermometer.

➢ A clinical thermometer needs to be very sensitive and accurate for the doctor or
nurse to make adequate decisions regarding the patient. It requires only a small
range because the temperatures for which it is used are only between 35°C and
42°C.

17. What are the fundamental quantities and their SI base units?

18. State some derived units and their SI units:

19. State the prefixes of index notation?

20. What is density?

The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.

21. Which device is used to obtain the mass of the body? An electric balance

22. How can the volume of the body be obtained?

 The volume of the body can be obtained by one of the following methods:

➢ If it is a liquid, it can simply be poured into a measuring cylinder and

the reading taken.

➢ If it is a regularly shaped solid, its dimensions are measured and

the necessary calculation performed.

➢ If it is an irregularly shaped solid, it is immersed into a measuring

cylinder of liquid in which it is insoluble; the increase in the reading
gives its volume.

23. What is the unit of density?

Density is usually expressed in kg m-3 or g cm-3. This can be deduced

from the relation p= m/v where kg and g are units of mass, and m 3 and cm3
are units of volume.