9/28/2017

Optical Fiber Block Diagram

TOPIC

OPTICAL FIBER

ELEMENTS
1. OPTICAL FIBER Advantages of Optical
2. SOURCE links compared to wave-
3. CONNECTORS guides or copper
conductors
4. DETECTORS
5. STANDARD ELECTRONICS
DEVICES

Extremely wide system

Immunity to crosstalk
bandwidths
Certain types of fiber have been Fiber cables are not surrounded
tested in the laboratory up to 40 by a changing magnetic field,
Ghz of bandwidth, with no limit which is primary cause of
in sight crosstalk between metallic
conductors located physically
close to each other.

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Immunity to electromagnetic
interference
• External noise does not affect
energy at the frequency of light
• Immune to every kind of
electromagnetic noise, even
lightning
Lower signal Attenuation
Typical attenuation figures
of a 1 Ghz bandwidth signal
for optical fibers are 0.03 db
per 100 ft compared to 4.0
db for both RG – 58 / U
coaxial cable and an X –
band wave guide

Light weight and smaller

Lower cost
size
• Optical fiber costs are
• The US navy once replaces
continuing to decline while the
conventional wiring with optical
cost of copper is increasing
system. In this case, 224 ft of
fiber optics weighing 1.52 lb
replaced 1900 ft of copper
wire weighing 30 lb

Conservation of the
Safety and convenience
earth’s resources
• The world’s supply of copper is • The dielectric nature of optic
limited while the principal fibers eliminates the spark
ingredient in glass which is hazard
sand is cheap and in virtually
unlimited supply

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Environmental Immunity
• Optical cables also operate over a
wider temperature range and are
less affected by corrosive liquids
and gases.
• Corrosion
Glass is basically inert, the
corrosive effects of certain
environments are not a problem
Interfacing Costs
• Optical fiber cables must be
connected to standard
electronic facilities, which often
require expensive interfaces.
Optical fiber cables are
more susceptible to losses
introduced by bending the
cable
• Bending the cable causes
irregularities in the cable
dimensions, resulting in a loss
of signal power.
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Disadvantages
of Optical Fiber
Cables
Strength
• Optical fibers by themselves
have a significantly lower
tensile strength than coaxial
cable.
Specialized tools,
equipment, and training
• Optical fiber cables require
special tools to splice and
repair cables and special test
equipment to make routine
measurements.
• Difficult to locate faults in
optical cables because there is
no electrical continuity.
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The light frequency

spectrum can be divided Infrared
into 3 general bands:
• Band of light frequencies that is
too high to be seen by the
1. Infared
human eye with wavelengths
2. Visible ranging between 770nm and
3. Ultraviolet 106 nm.
• Optical fiber systems generally
operate in the infrared band.

Visible Ultraviolet

• wavelengths ranging between • Band of light frequencies that

390nm and 770nm are too low to be seen by the
• This band is visible to the human eye with wavelengths
human eye. ranging between 10nm and
390nm.

Wavelength Optical Fiber Construction

• It is the length that one cycle of an

electromagnetic wave occupies in
space
c

f

 = wavelength (meters/cycle)
c = velocity of light (300,000,000 meter per second)
f = frequency (hertz)

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Three essential types of optical Plastic Core and Cladding

fibers commonly used today:
Advantages:
1. Plastic Core and Cladding • More flexible & more rugged
than glass
2. Glass Core with plastic
Cladding (called PCS fiber • Easier to install
(plastic-clad silica)) • can withstand stress
3. Glass Core and Glass Cladding • Less expensive
(called SCS (silica-clad silica)) • Weigh approximately 60% less
than glass

Plastic Core and Cladding PCS fiber (plastic-clad

silica)
Disadvantages:
• Have less attenuation
• Higher attenuation
• Less affected by radiation, more
• Plastic fibers are limited to
immune to external interference
relatively short cable runs, such
as within a single building.

SCS (silica-clad silica) The Nature of light

• Have the best propagation 2 DIVISION OF LIGHT

characteristics and are easier 1. COMPOSITE LIGHT
to terminate than PCS fibers
2. MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT
• Least rugged

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Composite light

Examples
Energy of a photon, Ep
1. Calculate the wavelengths of red
E p  hf ; Joules (J) and violet light.
hc Freq. of red light = 4.4 X 1014 Hz
= Freq. of violet light = 7 X 1014 Hz

where: Answers
h = Planck's constant 0.68 micron or 680 nm
= 6.625 x 10-34 J-s 0.43 micron or 430 nm
f = frequency, Hz
c = velocity of light, 3 x 108 m/s

Snell’s law
Example:
Calculate the energy of the Predicts the refraction that
photon of infrared light energy
takes place when light is
at 1.55 μm.
transmitted between two
different materials

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Refractive Index Refractive Index

• It is simply the ratio of the c

n=
velocity of propagation of a light v
ray in free space to the velocity
of propagation of a light ray in a
n = refractive index (unitless)
given material
c = speed of light in free space
(3x108 meters per second)
v = speed of light in a given material
(meters per second)

n2 = n1

n2 n2

n1 n1

n2 > n1

n2 n2

n1 n1

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n1 > n2 Optical fiber

n2

n1

angle of
n1>n2 Snell’s law
refraction
n2
Ø2

n1sinØ1 = n2sinØ2
Ø1
n1 angle of
incidence

• Example Critical angle

For a glass (n = 1.55) to ethyl
alcohol (n = 1.36) interface, and
an angle of incidence of 33
degrees, determine the angle of
refraction.
• Defined as the minimum angle
of incidence at which a light ray
may strike the interface of two
media and result in an angle of
refraction of 90 degrees

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n1>n2 n1>n2

n2 n2
Ø2 Ø2=900

Ø1 Ø1=Øc
n1 n1

n1sinØ (1)
Ø1c = n2sinØ
902
0 n1 sinØc = n2

Example

1. Determine the critical angle

n beyond which an underwater
sin c  2 light source will not shine into
n1 the air

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Propagation of light Optical fiber

through an optical fiber

Light can be propagated down

an optical fiber cable by either
reflection or refraction

Acceptance angle or
acceptance cone half –
angle

• Defines the maximum angle in

which external light rays may
strike the air / fiber interface
and still propagate down the
fiber

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Ø’
n0
n1
Øc
Øinmax Øinmax

Acceptance cone

Øinmax

Numerical aperture Example

• is a figure of merit that is used to
measure the light – gathering or light
– collecting ability of an optical
1. An optical fiber core and its
cladding have refractive
indexes of 1.52 and 1.48
respectively. Calculate N.A.
and in (max).

NA  n12  n22

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Example
A glass – clad fiber is made
with core glass of refractive
index 1.500, and the cladding
is doped to give a fractional
index difference of 0.0005.
Find a. the cladding index b.
the critical internal reflection
angle, c. the external critical
acceptance angle, and d. the
numerical aperture.
Mode of propagation
• simply means path
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Example
Core glass of index 1.6200 is to
be used to make a step index
fiber with an acceptance cone
angle of 100.
A. What will the internal critical
reflection angle be? B. What
should the cladding index be?
C. What fractional index
difference does this give?
Two modes of
propagation
• 1. Single mode
• there is only one path for light
to take down the cable
• 2. Multimode
• there is more than one path
Index profile
• A graphical representation
of the refractive index of
the core
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Two basic types Step index fiber

• 1. STEP INDEX • has a central core with a
uniform refractive index
• 2. GRADED INDEX
• the core is surrounded by an
outside cladding with a uniform
refractive index less than that
of the central core

Graded index Optical fiber configuration

• The refractive index of the 3 TYPES
core is non – uniform, and
there is no cladding • 1. SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX
• 2. MULTIMODE STEP INDEX
• The refractive index is • 3. MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX
highest at the center and
decreases gradually toward
the outer edge

Single – mode Step Single – mode Step

index index
• Has a central core that is
sufficiently small so that
there is essentially only one
path that light may take as
it propagates down the
cable

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Multimode Step index Multimode Step index

• Similar to the single mode
configuration except that
the center core is much
larger

Multimode Graded index

Multimode Graded index
• Characterized by a central
core that has a refractive
index that is nonuniform

Single Mode Fiber

• Maximum allowable radius of the

core in a single – mode fiber cable.

0.383 
rmax 
NA

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• Example
In a single-mode fiber cable,
determine the maximum
allowable diameter of the core
for light frequency of 300THz
and numerical aperture of 0.35.
Multimode Fiber
V number or normalized frequency of
cutoff:
d
V=  n1 2  n 2 2 
 
d
V =  NA

Example
A fiber glass has a core
diameter of 25 μm and
numerical aperture of 0.135.
How many modes will it support
if the fiber operates with light
source wavelength of 0.835 μm?
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Multimode
• Number of paths (modes) possible for
multimode fiber cable:
1 2
N = V
2
Where:
N = number of propagating modes
d = core diameter (meters)
λ = wavelength (meters)
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding
NA = numerical aperture
• Example
Determine the core diameter of
a multimode step-index fiber
with a core refractive index of
 1.6, a cladding refractive index
 of 1.584, and a wavelength of
1300nm and has approximately
372 possible modes.
Losses in Optical Fiber
cables
• 1. ABSORPTION LOSS
• 2. MATERIAL OR RAYLEIGH
SCATTERING LOSS
• 3. CHROMATIC OR WAVELENGTH
DISPERSION
• 4. MODAL DISPERSION
• 5. RADIATION LOSS
• 6. COUPLING LOSSES
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Absorption loss
• Impurities in the fiber absorb
the light and convert it to heat
Material or Rayleigh
scattering loss
• When light rays that are
propagating down a fiber may
strike one of the impurities in
the fiber, they are diffracted
which causes light to disperse
or spread out in many direction
thus, some light may continues
down the fiber but some of it
escapes through the cladding.
Modal dispersion or
pulse spreading
• Caused by the difference in the
propagation times of light rays
that take different paths down
a fiber
• Occur only in multimode fibers
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Example
1. Calculate the optical power 60 km
from a 0.1 mW source on a single –
mode fiber that has 0.20 db/km
loss.
2. A system operating at 1.55 μm
exhibits a loss of 0.35 db/km. If 225
μW of light power is fed into the
fiber, calculate the received power
through a 20-km section.
Chromatic or
wavelength dispersion
• Each wavelength within the
composite light signal travels at
a different velocity and
therefore do not arrive at the
far end of the fiber at the same
time, causing chromatic
distortion
Bandwidth Length Product
(BLP) or Bandwidth
Distance Product (BDP)
- It indicates what signal
frequencies can be propagated
through a given distance of fiber
cable and is expressed
mathematically as the product
of distance and bandwidth
(sometimes called linewidth)
- Expressed in Mhz-km units
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• Example For UPRZ transmissions, the maximum

For a 350-m optical fiber cable data transmission rate in bits per
second (bps) is expressed as
with a BLP of 700 Mhz-km,
determine the bandwidth.
1
f b(bps) 
t x L

For UPNRZ transmissions, the Example

maximum data transmission rate in For an optical fiber 20km long
bits per second (bps) is expressed
with a pulse – spreading
as
constant of 10ns/km, determine
the maximum digital
1 transmission rates for
fb(bps)  a. Return – to – zero
2t x L b. Nonreturn – to – zero
transmissions

Example Example

Calculate the maximum 2. The length of the fiber – optic

length of a dispersion- cable is 0.367 km. Its maximum
limited system where the data rate 43 Mbps. What is its
dispersion factor?
fiber has a 0.0015 μs/km
dispersion and a 50 – Mbps
bit rate.

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Radiation losses Coupling losses

• 1. Lateral misalignment
• Caused by small bends in the
fiber • 2. Gap misalignment
• 3. Angular misalignment
• 4. Imperfect surface finish

Comparison between
Light Sources LED and ILD
• 2 TYPES • ILDs have a more direct
radiation pattern , it is easier to
couple their light into an optical
• 1. LED – Light emitting diode fiber
• 2. ILD – injection laser diode • The radiant output power from
an ILD is greater than that for
an LED
• Typical output:
ILD – 5mW
LED– 0.5 mW

Comparison between
LED and ILD
• ILDs can be used at higher bit • ILDs are more temperature
rates than can LEDs dependent than LEDs
• ILDs generate monochromatic
light, which reduces chromatic • ILDs have typically much
or wavelength dispersion shorter lifetime than LEDs
• ILDs are typically on the order
of 10 times more expensive
than LEDs

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Comparisons
Light detectors
• APDs are more sensitive
• 2 TYPES than PIN diodes

• APDs require less additional

• 1. PIN (Positive – Intrinsic – amplification
Negative)
• 2. APD (Avalanche
Photodiode)

OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM

Link Budget
DESIGN
The system design develops a
power budget, similar in many • It is calculated between a light
respects to the path analysis source and a light detector
or link budget of Line Of Sight • Consists of a light power
source, light detector, and
(LOS) microwave and satellite
various cable and connector
communication link design.
losses.
However, there is a little
variability in a fiber – optic link
budget; for example there is no
fading.

Losses typical to optical Losses typical to optical

fiber links:
• Cable losses
- depend on cable length,
material, material purity.
- generally given in db/km and
can vary between a few tenths
of a dB to several dB per
kilometer.
fiber links:
• Connector losses
- typically vary between a few
tenths of a dB to as much as
2dB for each connector.

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Losses typical to optical
fiber links:
• Source – to – cable interface
loss
- small percentage of optical
power is not coupled into the
cable, representing a power
loss to the system of several
tenths of a dB.
Losses typical to optical
fiber links:
• Splicing loss
- splices are not perfect, losses
ranging from a coupling tenths
of a dB to a several dB can be
introduced to the signal.
• Example
Determine the optical power received in dBm
and watts for a 20km optical fiber link with
the following parameters:
LED ouput power of 30mW
Four 5-km sections of optical cable each
with a loss of 0.5 dB/km
3 cable-to-cable connectors with a loss of
2dB each
No cable splices
Light source-to-fiber interface loss of 1.9dB
Fiber-to-light detector loss of 2.1 dB
No losses due to cable bends
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Losses typical to optical
fiber links:
• Cable – to – light detector
interface loss
- represents a loss to the
system usually of afew tenths of
a dB.
Losses typical to optical
fiber links:
• Cable bends
- When an optical cable is bent
at too large an angle, the
internal characteristics of the
cable can change dramatically.
The fiber margin fm of
several decibels (e.g. 6 db)
must be included into the
analysis to account for extra
splice losses in the event of
future cable breaks or
deterioration in the optical
light source output power over
the lifetime of the link.
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Make a power budget analysis for

a fiber optic system with the
following characteristics
Losses
CCITT recommends 3 db for LED – to – fiber connection – 5 db
link budget. Others Three connectors – 1.5 db each
Six splicers – 0.5 db each
recommend 6 db 10 km of fiber – 0.6 db/km
Fiber to detector – 6 db
Specifications
LED power output – 0.1 mW
Detector sensitivity – 0.1 W
Max. Bit rate – 5 Mbps
Total fiber dispersion – 4 ns /km

1. Which of the following

items is/are part of a
fiber optic transmitter?
SELECT A. An optical source only
B. A source drive circuit only
THE C. An optical source and a
source drive circuit only
BEST ANSWER D. An optical source, a source
drive circuit, and an interface
circuit

2. An optical source has 3. Which of the following

which of the following
functions?
A. To convert light to electrical
energy (current)
B. To amplify the electrical signal
C. To convert electrical energy into
light
D. To convert light into sound
properties are NOT
desired properties of an
optical source?
A. Be compatible in size to low-loss
optical fibers
B. Emit light at wavelengths that
maximize fiber loss and dispersion
C. Maintain stable operation in
changing environmental conditions
D. Cost less and be more reliable than
electrical devices

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4. An optical detector has 5. In fiber optic systems,

which of the following what are theprincipal
purposes? types of detectors used?
A. To convert an optical signal into an
A. Integrating spheres
electrical signal
B. To convert an electrical signal to an
B. Photon counters
optical signal C. Photomultiplier tubes
C. To amplify the optical output signal D. PIN photodiodes and APDs
D. To generate an optical pulse
proportional to the input current

6. The term detector 7. A PIN photodiode

responsivity has which of usually operates in what
the following meanings? way?
A. The minimum amount of optical power A. Reverse-bias voltage applied
required to achieve a specific receiver
performance B. Forward-bias voltage applied
B. The range of optical power levels
over which the receiver operates
C. No bias voltage applied
within specified values D. All of the Above
C. The ratio of the output photocurrent
to the incident optical power
D. The wavelengths over which the
detector will convert light to electric
current

8. What is the name of the 9. How does the speed of

current produced by a light in the fiber compare
photodiode when no light to the speed of light in the
is incident on the device? air?
A. Threshold current A. It is slower in the fiber
B. Spill current B. It is faster in the fiber
C. Photocurrent C. It is the same in both the fiber
and the air
D. Dark current
D. No relationship

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10. Total internal 11. What are the three

reflection occurs at which basic parts of an optical
of the following angles? fiber?
A. Obtuse angle A. Core, cladding, and coating
B. Fresnel angle B. Inside, middle, and outside
C. Right angle C. Fiber, kevlar, and jacket
D. Critical angle of incidence D. Hole, shell, and coating

12. The higher the index 13. If a typical light

number detector produces 20 μA of
A. the higher the speed of light current for an 80 μW of
B. the lower the speed of light incident light, what is the
C. has no effect on the speed of responsivity?
light
D. the shorter the wavelength A. 0.25 A/ W
propagation B. 2W/A
C. 3200 A – W
D. 0

14.An optical fiber and its 15.An optical fiber and its cladding
cladding have refractive have refractive indexes of 2.52 and
indexes of 2.52 and 2.48 2.48 respectively. Calculate in
respectively. Calculate N.A. (max).
A. 0.35 A. 270
B. 0.45 B. 280
C. 0.55 C. 250
D. 0.65 D. 240

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17. A system operating at 1.55 μm

16. A light – emitting diode can exhibits a loss of 0.35 db/km. If 225
couple how much power into μW of light power is fed into the
an optical fiber ? fiber, calculate the received power
through a 20-km section.
A. 1 watt
A. 44.9 μW
B. 100 microwatts
B. 54.9 μW
C. 1mwatt C. 34.9 μW
D. 1 picowatt D. 64.9 μW

18. Calculate the maximum 19. Defined as to which light pulses

length of a dispersion-limited are spread due to the different
system where the fiber has a group velocities of the different
0.001 μs/km dispersion and a 5 – wavelengths within the source
Mbps bit rate. spectrum
A. 30 km A. modal dispersion
B. 20 km B. chromatic dispersion
C. 40 km C. wavelength dispersion
D. 50 km D. both B and C

1. Which of the following

items is/are part of a
fiber optic transmitter?
20. What is the wavelength of A. An optical source only
the violet color? B. A source drive circuit only
A. 680 nm C. An optical source and a
B. 430 nm source drive circuit only
D. An optical source, a source
C. 68 nm drive circuit, and an interface
D. 43 nm circuit

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2. An optical source has 3. Which of the following

which of the following
functions?
A. To convert light to electrical
energy (current)
B. To amplify the electrical signal
C. To convert electrical energy into
light
D. To convert light into sound
properties are NOT
desired properties of an
optical source?
A. Be compatible in size to low-loss
optical fibers
B. Emit light at wavelengths that
maximize fiber loss and dispersion
C. Maintain stable operation in
changing environmental conditions
D. Cost less and be more reliable than
electrical devices

4. An optical detector has 5. In fiber optic systems,

which of the following what are the principal
purposes? types of detectors used?
A. To convert an optical signal into an
A. Integrating spheres
electrical signal
B. To convert an electrical signal to an
B. Photon counters
optical signal C. Photomultiplier tubes
C. To amplify the optical output signal D. PIN photodiodes and APDs
D. To generate an optical pulse
proportional to the input current

6. The term detector 7. A PIN photodiode

responsivity has which of usually operates in what
the following meanings? way?
A. The minimum amount of optical power A. Reverse-bias voltage applied
required to achieve a specific receiver
performance B. Forward-bias voltage applied
B. The range of optical power levels
over which the receiver operates
C. No bias voltage applied
within specified values D. All of the Above
C. The ratio of the output photocurrent
to the incident optical power
D. The wavelengths over which the
detector will convert light to electric
current

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8. What is the name of the 9. How does the speed of

current produced by a light in the fiber compare
photodiode when no light to the speed of light in the
is incident on the device? air?
A. Threshold current A. It is slower in the fiber
B. Spill current B. It is faster in the fiber
C. Photocurrent C. It is the same in both the fiber
and the air
D. Dark current
D. No relationship

10. Total internal 11. What are the three

reflection occurs at which basic parts of an optical
of the following angles? fiber?
A. Obtuse angle A. Core, cladding, and coating
B. Fresnel angle B. Inside, middle, and outside
C. Right angle C. Fiber, kevlar, and jacket
D. Critical angle of incidence D. Hole, shell, and coating

12. The higher the index 13. If a typical light

number detector produces 20 μA of
A. the higher the speed of light current for an 80 μW of
B. the lower the speed of light incident light, what is the
C. has no effect on the speed of responsivity?
light
D. the shorter the wavelength A. 0.25 A/ W
propagation B. 2W/A
C. 3200 A – W
D. 0

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14.An optical fiber and its 15.An optical fiber and its cladding
cladding have refractive have refractive indexes of 2.52 and
indexes of 2.52 and 2.48 2.48 respectively. Calculate in
respectively. Calculate N.A. (max).
A. 0.35 A. 270
B. 0.45 B. 280
C. 0.55 C. 250
D. 0.65 D. 240

17. A system operating at 1.55 μm

16. A light – emitting diode can exhibits a loss of 0.35 db/km. If 225
couple how much power into μW of light power is fed into the
an optical fiber ? fiber, calculate the received power
through a 20-km section.
A. 1 watt
A. 44.9 μW
B. 100 microwatts
B. 54.9 μW
C. 1mwatt C. 34.9 μW
D. 1 picowatt D. 64.9 μW

18. Calculate the maximum 19. Defined as to which light pulses

length of a dispersion-limited are spread due to the different
system where the fiber has a group velocities of the different
0.001 μs/km dispersion and a 5 – wavelengths within the source
Mbps bit rate. spectrum
A. 30 km A. modal dispersion
B. 20 km B. chromatic dispersion
C. 40 km C. wavelength dispersion
D. 50 km D. both B and C

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20. What is the wavelength of

the violet color?
A. 680 nm
B. 430 nm
C. 68 nm
D. 43 nm

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