Int. J. Miner. Process.

89 (2008) 1–8

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Int. J. Miner. Process.

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j m i n p r o

Short time mixing response in a big flotation cell

Juan B. Yianatos a,⁎, José M. Larenas a, Michael H. Moys b, Francisco J. Diaz c
a
Chemical Engineering Department, Santa Maria University, P.O. Box 110-V, Valparaiso, Chile
b
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
c
Nuclear Applications Department, Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy, P.O. 188-D, Santiago, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A new approach to characterizing the mixing evolution and mass transport patterns in big flotation cells was
Received 3 June 2006 developed. The procedure consists of using a non-invasive radioisotope tracer technique which allows for the
Received in revised form 8 July 2008 continuous measurement of the local concentration of liquid and solid phases at different points in the cell.
Accepted 17 July 2008
This approach was developed to characterize the mixing performance of a 130 m3 self-aerated flotation cell
Available online 24 July 2008
at El Teniente copper concentrator, Codelco, Chile.
Keywords:
Short-term mixing was experimentally characterized by using appropriate radioisotope tracers for liquid and
Dynamic simulation solids. 82Br in solution was used as liquid tracer and 24Na was used to trace the solid, considering three
Flotation particle size classes: +150, −150 + 45 and −45 μm, for non-floatable gangue mineral. From the experimental
Hydrodynamics data, a dynamic mixing model was developed to represent the internal short time mixing, as well as the
Modeling overall mixing conditions in the pulp and froth zones in a big flotation cell. Results showed a mixing time of
Mixing around 100 s, for liquid and solids, while the pulp mean residence time was 350 s. It was found that the feed
Particle dispersion pulp circulates 1.4 times through the impeller zone before reaching a well mixed condition in the cell. Also
the feed pulp, on average, circulates approximately 5.0 times through the impeller zone, before leaving the
cell into the tailings flowrate.
From grade and solid percent axial profiles measurement, it was also shown that the pulp zone was
reasonably well mixed with minor segregation of coarse minerals, and a very distinctive pulp–froth interface
was clearly observed showing the significant Cu and Mo upgrading in the froth zone.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. Relevance to industrial flotation
Industrial flotation is a complex mineral separation process where
fine solid particles suspended in a pulp can be selectively separated,
according to their mineral surface properties, by attachment with air
bubbles. The bubble-particle aggregates are then separated from the
pulp by buoyancy, to form a froth bed which then flows over a
concentrate weir to yield a concentrate product. Fig. 1 shows two
kinds of cell design, one using open circulation with the impeller
located near the bottom and provided with forced air, and the other,
self-aspirating provided with a riser tube to promote the pulp
circulation through the impeller located near the pulp–froth interface.
Both cells are also provided with a froth crowder (inverted cone) to
improve the froth transport into the launders.
Short time mixing is relevant to the flotation operation because the
efficiency of the process depends upon the probability of collision
between particles and bubbles in order to create particle-bubble
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 32 654235; fax: +56 32 654478.
E-mail address: juan.yianatos@usm.cl (J.B. Yianatos).
aggregates. Self-aspirated or forced air enters the cell from the top,
through the annular section located around the rotational axis.
Bubbles are generated at the impeller zone, also called the active
flotation zone. It has been established that the main opportunity for
an efficient particle-bubble contact occurs when pulp circulates
through the impeller zone (Arbiter, 2000). Thus, two relevant
parameters to describe the mixing condition in a big flotation cell
are the number of pulp circulations through the impeller, before
complete mixing takes place, and the number of pulp circulations
before the pulp leaves the cell.
Mean residence time in single flotation cells has increased due to
the significant increase in flotation cell size in the recent years. At
present, cells of 130 m3 and 160 m3 are used in commercial plants, and
new developments consider self-aspirating cells of 250 m3 (Weber et
al., 2005) and forced air cells of 300 m3 (Anon, 2005).
1.2. Objectives
The main objective of this work was to obtain a better under-
standing of how the mixing takes place in a large sized flotation cell;
how this is related to the pulp circulation patterns and how this affects
the opportunity for contact and disengagement between particles and

0301-7516/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2008.07.002
2 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8

in series (residence time τS) plus a dead time τP (Yianatos et al.,

2005).

 


 − t−τ p − t−τ p
− t−τp τS τL
−α de þ αde ð2Þ
τS
Eðt Þ ¼ for tNτ P
ðτ L −τS Þ

where

τL
α¼ ð3Þ
ðτL −τS Þ

2.2. Mixing model of a big flotation cell

Fig. 1. Mechanical flotation cells showing sections through two different cells.
bubbles, near the impeller zone and in the whole volume. A second
objective was the modeling of the froth mixing characteristics.
2. Modelling
2.1. Residence time distribution (RTD) of a single big flotation cell
There is very little published data on RTD for single big mechanical
flotation cells operating in industry. Experimental RTD tests for three
large flotation cells (Dorr–Oliver, Outokumpu and Wemco) have been
reported by Lelinski et al. (2002). Tests were developed as a part of the
rougher flotation evaluation in order to select the cell type for a new
industrial flotation circuit. Results showed that RTDs of single big cells
are different from a perfect mixed CSTR, so that a more complex
system must be considered for modeling purposes. Thus, in order to
characterize the RTD of a single big flotation cell two mixing models
were tested in this work. Firstly, a tank-in-series (TS) plus dead time
model (Yianatos et al., 2005),

N−1 

t−τp exp − t−τp ⁎N=τ
Eðt Þ ¼ for tNτP
ðτ=NÞN ⁎CðN Þ
where, τ is the mean residence time, N is the number of tanks in
series, and the gamma function Γ(N) accounts for the non-integer
solutions of N. Secondly, in considering new experimental evidence,
it will be later shown that a better fit can be obtained using the
following alternative approach to model the RTD of a big cell. The
LSTS (large and small tank-in-series) model, in Eq. (2), consists of one
large perfect mixer (residence time τL) and two small perfect mixers
The focus here was to observe the internal behavior of the actual
process using a non-invasive radioactive tracer technique. From
different tests, using solids and liquid tracers at the feed entrance
and at different locations inside the cell, a better understanding of the
pulp circulation characteristics (stream lines and time delays) could be
achieved. This approach allowed obtaining direct information on the
mixing time of the liquid and solid in the cell. From this experience,
together with the data obtained from axial and radial profiles of solid
concentration, particle size and mineral grade, a conceptual model
regarding the macro-circulation patterns was proposed, see Fig. 2.
The mathematical model considers pulp circulation through an
arrangement of serial and parallel stages, such as perfect mixers with
dead zone and plug flow. The model structure was designed to describe
the macroscopic flow patterns which can be expected in the actual
system. Physical aspects such as minimum transport time between the
entrance and the output of the cell, as well as the time response of the
tracer concentration at four locations inside the cell, were considered
and tested against the experimental data.
To develop the mixing simulation model, the Laplace transform
approach was applied to the basic flux models. The Laplace transform
of a time domain function, i.e. F(t) corresponds to the Transfer Function
G(s) in Laplace domain.
Perfect mixer,
ð1Þ
K
GPM ðsÞ ¼ ð4Þ
1 þ τS
Plug flow,
GPF ðsÞ ¼ e−τS ð5Þ
The mixing model developed, based on the knowledge of these
empirical observations, is shown in Fig. 3. The model considers the feed

Fig. 2. Flow patterns in a big mechanical flotation cell.

 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8 3

Fig. 3. Mixing model of industrial flotation cell (130 m3) with location of sensors.

transport through the Riser Tube (plug flow delay G2) up to the
impeller (perfect mixer with dead time G3) and then to a series of
perfect mixers and plug flow stages (G4 and G5) which represent the
downward flow in the annular section of the cell. To describe the actual
mixing characteristics and the pulp circulation in the cell, the impeller
output signal was distributed to the downward circulating streams.
Also, pulp circulation from the bottom of the cell to the impeller,
through the inner pipe (riser tube), as well as direct pulp transport
from the feed to the output tailing, was provided. The fraction of fresh
feed which was directly diverted to the cell output was also modeled
considering a perfect mixer and plug flow arrangement (G8). In
addition, in order to represent the froth transport conditions a transfer
function, consisting of a perfect mixer with dead time (G9), was
defined to relate the impeller output transient signal with the
concentrate response, which was directly measured.
The parameters of each transfer function Gi were fitted using the
transient response data obtained for an impulse tracer disturbance at
the feed entrance. A summary of these functions is presented in
Appendix A.
3. Experimental method
RTD measurements in laboratory and industrial flotation columns and
industrial flotation cells (Goodall and O'Connor, 1991; Yianatos and
Bergh, 1992; Yianatos et al., 1994, 2005).
In this work, radioisotope activity (cps) was measured online by
NaI/Tl scintillation detectors. A maximum of twelve probes were
connected to a data acquisition system which allows online observa-
tion of the local tracer concentration at a minimum period of 50 ms.
Probes were provided with lead collimators to constrain the solid
angle of observation of the local radioisotope activity. For the
experimental tests, probes were installed at the feed entrance, tailings
output pipe and concentrate output channel. Also, in order to measure
the inner transient tracer concentration, four probes were installed on
the cell wall outside the cell between the feed entrance and tailings
output, as it is shown in Fig. 3. In reference to the cell rotational axis,
detectors were symmetrically installed at 2000 mm radius, and in two
levels at 992 mm and 2092 mm from the bottom of the cell. These
detectors were focused along cell radii and were sensitive only to
radioactive concentration between detector and the impeller.
The overall air flowrate entering the cell, 960–1040 m3/h, was
determined from the air velocity profiles measured at the air inlet pipe
(10 in. diameter), using a hot-wire digital anemometer TSI model

In order to characterize the mixing regime in a flotation cell, a good

representation of the actual process was obtained by using radioactive
tracer techniques. The procedure is very effective because only a small
amount of tracer is required to obtain a significant response over the
background. Also, the procedure is non-invasive, and simultaneous
observations of the tracer concentration at different locations can be
automatically registered. Radioactive tracer applications, such as
radioactive particle tracking (RPT) and gamma ray computed tomo-
graphy (CT) have been extensively used in chemical engineering. The
pioneering work in computed automated radioactive particle tracking
(CARPT) was developed by Lin et al. (1985) for the measurement of
solids motion in gas fluidized beds. More recently, a large number of
refinements and new applications have been described in literature,
i.e. flow mapping in bubble columns (Devanathan et al., 1990;
Moslemian et al., 1992; Chen et al., 1999; Rados et al., 2005), mixing
and turbulence in fluidized beds (Moslemian et al., 1992; Cassanello
et al., 1996; Mostoufi and Chaouki, 2004), RTD and liquid spreading in
packed columns (Blet et al., 1999; Boyer et al., 2005) and the gas–liquid
flow generated in a stirred vessel (Khopkar et al., 2005). Previous work
on the use of radioactive tracers applied to flotation has been related to Fig. 4. RTD of liquid in cell tailings.
4 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8
Fig. 5. RTD of non-floatable coarse solid in cell tailings.
8360-M-6B. Results were in good agreement with the local superficial
gas rate (Jg = 1.3–1.4 cm/s) measured near the pulp–froth interface over
the cell cross-section, using a continuous local air rate sensor. The gas
sensor consisted of a PVC tube, 4 in. diameter, provided with a
rotameter Gilmont B-771 and a local pressure compensation system
(Yianatos et al., 2001).
4. Experimental results
4.1. Residence time distribution, RTD
The residence time distribution of a single flotation cell (130 m3)
was measured for the liquid and solids in three size classes (−45, −150 +
45, + 150 μm). An impulse tracer signal was injected almost
instantaneously (within 2 s) at the feed entrance and the RTD signal
was directly measured by sensor S5, located over the cell tailings
output pipe.
Figs. 4 and 5, for example, show the tank-in-series (TS) and the
large and small tank-in-series (LSTS) models fit, for the liquid and
coarse non-floatable solid, respectively. A similar result was obtained
for the intermediate and fine size classes. From the TS model it was
found that the liquid RTD was equivalent to N = 1.1 perfect mixers in
series, while the RTD for the non-floatable solid of different size
classes was equivalent to N = 1.3 perfect mixers in series. The effective
mean residence time of the liquid and solid was about 340–360 s.
Fig. 6. Short-term mixing of fine non-floatable solid (−45 μm) in a big cell, 130 m3.
Fig. 7. Short-term mixing of liquid in a big cell, 130 m3.
This result shows that the mixing process in a large sized cell is
more complex than a simple mixer, particularly in terms of the solid
transport process. Additionally, the LSTS model was also used
successfully in modeling single large size pneumatic flotation
columns, 140–200 m3: the LSTS model gave a better fit compared
with the axial dispersion model for closed boundary conditions at
both ends (Yianatos et al., 2005). Non-significant differences in the
mixing behavior of the liquid and solids at different size classes were
observed.
4.2. Mixing time
The mixing time in the 130 m3 flotation cell was estimated as the
time where the four tracer detectors, 1,2,3 and 4, located on the cell
wall, as shown in Fig. 3, reached a similar (equal) tracer concentration
level within a minimum periodic oscillation. Fig. 6 shows the tracer
concentration at the four symmetric locations inside the cell, after a
feed impulse injection consisting of fine non-floatable particles of less
than 45 μm. Here, it was observed that after a period of tmix = 100 s, the
feed became almost fully mixed. A similar result was observed for the
solid mineral, of different particle sizes, and liquid tracers. It is of
interest to note the periodic dilution of the response of sensor 3 by
fresh feed material after a time of 100 s.
Fig. 7 shows the response time after an impulse liquid injection
signal fed at the cell feed point.
Fig. 8. Model simulation: liquid transient response of sensors S1, and S4.
 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8 5

Table 1
Adjusted mass balance of the first cell in rougher flotation

Cu grade Solid Solid flowrate Pulp flowrate

% % tph m3/h
Feed 0.92 40.0 714 1416.5
Concentrate 19.5 39.2 20.8 38.4
Tailing 0.36 40.2 693.2 1377.6

Simulation of the short time mixing characteristics, in the 130 m3

rougher flotation cell, was developed using the toolbox Simulink 6.0
R14 from Matlab 7.0 R14. Fig. 8 shows that the general trend of the
liquid tracer concentration in the simulated response at sensors (S1,
S4), according to the model described in Fig. 3, was in good agreement
with experimental data presented in Fig. 7. Similar results were
obtained to describe the transient response of the solids tracers
(different particle size classes).

Fig. 10. Axial total solid profiles at 3 radii in a flotation cell.

4.3. Internal circulating ratio

The mixing condition in the big cell is dictated by the pulp suction
capacity (pumping capacity) of the impeller moving the pulp upwards
through the riser pipe into the impeller zone. Thus, in order to
characterize the mixing in the big cell, an internal circulating ratio R
(%) was defined,
Qimp
R ¼ 100
F NF was defined. The flotation number represents the number of times
where, Qimp (m3/h) is the volumetric flowrate through the impeller of
the cell, and F (m3/h) is the volumetric feed flowrate entering the cell.
The internal pulp circulation was calculated from liquid and solid
tracer measurements and adjusted mass balances. The time delay
between the transient response of the tracer sensors (S1 and S4),
located at 110 cm below, was calculated and was equal to 20 s, as
shown in Fig. 8. The annular cross-section of the cell was 33 m2, thus
the volumetric pulp downwards flowrate was 6534 m3/h. From the
global mass balance around the cell, see Table 1, the volumetric
flowrate reported to the concentrate was 38.4 m3/h and the flowrate
circulating through the impeller zone was equal to 6572.4 m3/h
(annular plus concentrate flowrate). Then, the internal circulating
percentage (R = 100 ⁎ 6572.4 / 1416.5) was equal to 464%.
4.4. Flotation number
The active flotation zone, near the impeller, is a region of high
turbulence where particles have the higher probability of collision
with new bubbles generated at the impeller edge, as well as in the low
pressure region of the impeller zone where there is a potential for
micro-bubbles precipitation onto the particles. Thus, circulation
through the impeller plays a dominant role for particle collection in
this kind of equipment (Arbiter, 2000). In order to characterize the
operation of a mechanical flotation cell in terms of the probability of
particle-bubble aggregate formation, a new specific flotation number
ð6Þ
the pulp flowrate circulates through the impeller before it leaves the
cell, and can be estimated by
τ
NF ¼ ð7Þ
timp
where τ is the pulp mean residence time in the cell and timp is the time
required for a complete circulation through the impeller.
Considering that the total volume of the cell was equal to 130 m3
(Weber et al., 2005) and the internal circulating flowrate was
6572.4 m3/h, then the time required for a complete circulation
through the impeller, without by-pass flow, would be timp = 71.2 s
(3600 ⁎ 130 / 6572.4). From the experimental data, the by-pass flow
can be estimated as the fraction of material which leaves the cell in a
less than required time for one circulation through the impeller. Thus,
from the RTD data of liquid and solids, i.e. Figs. 4 and 5, it was found
that the by-pass flow was 4.7–9.4% of the feed flowrate, with a mean
residence time of around 53 s. Then, the maximum volume of cell
occupied by the by-pass flow was 2.0 m3 (1416.5 ⁎ 0.094 ⁎ 53 / 3600)

Fig. 9. Axial solid percentage profiles for fine, medium and coarse particles, at radii
2210 mm. Fig. 11. Grade profiles along the cell.
6 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8
Fig. 12. Tracer concentration in concentrate overflow.
and the time required for a complete circulation through the impeller,
considering by-pass flow, was timp = 70.1 s (3600 ⁎ 128 / 6572.4).
According to this result, and considering the solid mean residence
time was 350 s, it was found that on average, a new particle had the
opportunity to circulate 5.0 times (NF = 350/70.1) through the impeller
before leaving the cell.
Also, comparison of the mixing time in the cell with the time
required for a single circulation through the impeller showed that
each particle, on average, circulates 1.4 times (tmix/timp = 100/70.1 = 1.4)
through the impeller before the system became well mixed.
4.5. Solid percent and mineral grade axial profiles
In order to link the hydrodynamic characteristics of the cell with its
metallurgical performance, axial profiles showing the upgrading of
different minerals (copper, molybdenum, iron and insoluble) for the
same three particle size classes, and solid percent profiles were
measured. Axial profile samples were taken at ten different heights
from 50 to 4000 mm and 3 radii: 1910, 2210 and 2510 mm. The pulp
sampling procedure consisted of taking a continuous sample at the
local point by means of a peristaltic pump. Results show that the pulp
zone was reasonably well mixed with a minor segregation of coarse
minerals, and a very distinctive pulp–froth interface was clearly
observed showing the significant Cu and Mo upgrading in the froth
zone.
Fig. 13. Gamma ray scanner of a big flotation cell, 130 m3.
Fig. 9 shows the axial solid percentage profiles for fine, medium and
coarse particles (−45, +45–150, +150 μm) together with the overall
solid percentage. It can be seen that the overall solid percentage
decreases slightly from the bottom to the pulp–froth interface. This
means that mixing of mineral particles in the bulk of the cell was
reasonably good, especially for particles of less than 100 μm. At the
interface level the overall solid percentage reaches a minimum, mainly
due to the coarse particles segregation along the pulp zone. On the
other hand, water and fine particles entrainment into the froth occurs
together with particle-bubble aggregates transport into the froth,
while water drop back, and to a lesser extent, particle drop back (by
gravity) also occurs from the upper part of the froth to the pulp, thus
allowing an increase in water content just below the pulp–froth
interface.
Axial profile samples taken at three radii: 1910, 2210 and 2510 mm,
showed that radial solid segregation occurs, as is shown in Fig. 10. This
effect can be attributed to the pulp rotational flow, created between
baffles installed below the internal launders, in the upper part of the
cell, around the rotor–stator system. Also, the analysis of the axial
profiles of three particle size classes (−45, +45–150 and +150 μm)
clearly showed that coarse particle segregation occurred because of
the rotational flow, and the coarse solid content at the medium radii
was lower. Also, the rotational flow was directly observed at the pulp–
froth interface by using a floating sensor which followed the circular
motion of the pulp, between two radial launders.
Fig. 11 shows that in the pulp zone, the mineral grade was almost
constant along the axial profile, for the different particle sizes (−45 to
+150 μm), which means there was no selectivity in this zone. However,
a very distinctive pulp–froth interface, located at 15 cm from the
overflow level, can be clearly observed showing the significant Cu
upgrading in the froth zone. Thus the interface acts as a barrier to
prevent the non-selective mineral transport into the froth (van
Deventer et al., 2004). Similar results have been observed for other
sulfide minerals such as molybdenite while the insoluble mineral
showed the opposite trend (Yianatos et al., 2001). From sampling and
mass balance adjustment, a 61.9% copper recovery, and a concentrate
grade of 19.5% copper, was determined for the first cell of the rougher
bank which corresponds to the normal operation.
4.6. Mixing in the froth zone
The mixing condition in the froth zone was determined from the
knowledge of the pulp concentration near the interface and the
concentrate overflow. Thus, an empirical model was developed
between the tracer concentration near the pulp–froth interface,
 J.B. Yianatos et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 89 (2008) 1–8
assuming the net pulp flowrate entering the froth had the same
concentration, and the tracer concentration in the concentrate over-
flow. Fig. 12 shows the comparison between the experimental and
simulated transient concentration of tracer, in the froth overflow.
The average residence time of pulp in the froth zone was also
estimated from air flowrate and froth depth measurements.
4.7. Gamma ray scanning
As a complementary observation of the internal cell characteristics,
gamma ray scanning, using a neutron backscatter technique was made
across a vertical plane to measure relative density as a function of
height. The plane was selected as the vertical projection of a chord, to
avoid the impeller, internal baffles and other disturbances. This
technique easily reveals pulp–froth interface level, sanding-up due to
particle settling and any other disturbing condition in the cell. The
experimental device consisted of a specially designed machine which
provides an automatic collimated displacement (up and down) of the
emission source and a detector, at a constant velocity. Fig. 13 shows the
cell scanner output, where no significant disturbances can be
appreciated along the pulp zone, from the bottom up to the pulp–
froth interface. In the first 0.2 m from the bottom, the activity (270–
300 cps) corresponds to the cell shell with no pulp inside (open
bottom). Above 0.2 m and up to 1.3 m, the activity was attenuated
(150–130 cps) by the presence of the corner (inclined) baffle and the
increasing cross-section of pulp. Closer to 3 m from the bottom, the
presence of the internal circular launder decreases the activity
(100 cps), and then from 3–4 m the activity increases because the
circular launder was not full of pulp and froth. Finally, above 4 m, the
presence of the internal radial launders was not fully loaded with pulp
and the pulp–froth interface, above which the air holdup increases
significantly (15%–90%), which increased the gamma ray activity to a
level similar to the clear bottom (270–300 cps).
5. Conclusions
Short-term mixing was experimentally characterized by using
appropriate radioisotope tracers for liquid and solids. Experimental
results showed a mixing time of around 100 s, for liquid and solids,
while the pulp mean residence time was 340–360 s.
It was found that the feed pulp circulates 1.4 times through the
impeller zone before reaching a well mixed condition in the cell. Also
the feed pulp, on average, circulates 5.0 times through the impeller
zone, before leaving the cell into the tailings flowrate. These results are
relevant to identify the short term pulp circulation patterns, to better
understand how the mixing occurs, and to evaluate the probability of
particle-bubble contact near the impeller zone in a big flotation cell.
From axial profiles measurements, a slight segregation of solids
was found, particularly coarse mineral, from the bottom to the pulp–
froth interface.
Radial solid segregation was also observed, which can be
attributed to the pulp local rotational flow between baffles, located
in the upper part of the cell. A similar condition was observed for the
three different particle size classes, where coarser particles were also
segregated in the rotational flow.
An empirical model to describe the froth mixing in a flotation cell
was derived from the knowledge of the internal tracer concentration in
the pulp zone and the tracer transient response into the concentrate.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to El Teniente Division of Codelco-Chile, for
permission to present this work. Professor Michael Moys was on leave
from the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa. Funding for process
modeling and control research is provided by Conicyt, Projects Fondecyt
1040100 and 7040191, and Santa María University, Project 270522.
7
Appendix A. Dynamic model transfer functions
Liquid model Flow description
G1 e− 7.5s Transport time from feed to riser tube inlet
G2 e− 5.5s Transport time in riser tube
0:135
G3 ð8sþ1Þð35sþ1Þ Impeller: upper zone
−10:5s
G4 e Upper downwards pulp flow circulation.
sþ1
G5 0:95e−10s Lower downwards pulp flow circulation.
9:57sþ1
G6 0:95e−10s Pulp mixing before leaving the cell into tailings
9:57sþ1
G7 − 7s Transport time in bottom, circulating pulp to the riser tube inlet.
e
G8 0:53e−2:55s Mixing of the pulp fraction diverted to tailings. Short circuiting.
21:2sþ1
G9 e−5s Froth transport: Pulp from impeller reporting to concentrate
ð30sþ1Þð20sþ1Þ
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Glossary
E(t): residence time distribution function
F: cell feed flowrate, m3/h
R: internal pulp circulating ratio, %
K: transfer function gain, Eq. (3)
LSTS: large and small tank-in-series model
N: number of tanks (cells) in series
NF: flotation number, Eq. (4)
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Qi: volumetric flowrate in the riser tube, m3/h Subscripts

TS: tank-in-series model imp: impeller
s: Laplace domain L: large size tank
t: time, s mix: mixing
P: dead time (pure delay)
Greek letters PF: plug flow
α: parameter, defined by Eq. (2) PM: perfect mixer
Γ: gamma function S: small size tank
τ: residence time, min