Environmental Communication

Framing
Two fundamentals

• Framing

• Dual process theory

Initial question

• Why does An Inconvenient Truth (IT) begin with photos of

Earth from space (‘Earthrise’, 1968)?

[‘Blue Marble’ pic (1972) is strongly emphasised in An

Inconvenient Sequel (AIS)]
Framing

• The basic meaning of framing is captured by expressions

such as ‘frame of reference’, or ‘frame of mind’.

• It refers to a way of looking at things, an ‘angle’ or ‘spin’

on a particular issue, or on the world.

• It involves emphasising some aspects of what you’re

engaging with at the expense of others.
Framing

• Being dumped – don’t think of it as a rejection, so

much as an opportunity to meet new people and
find a new boyfriend/girlfriend.
Framing

A definition:

• ‘the setting of an issue within an appropriate

context to achieve a desired interpretation or
perspective.’

(Shome and Marx, 2009, p.6)

Examples

• Ebbinghaus Illusion (1898)

Examples

• plate size nudge

Framing

• Further definition:

‘to frame is to select some aspects of perceived reality

and make them more salient in a communicating text,
in such a way as to promote a particular problem
definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation,
and/or treatment recommendation for the item
described.’ (Entman, 1993, p.52)

Entman, R. (1993) Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.

Journal of Communication, 43(4), pp.51-58.
Framing

Details of Entman’s understanding of framing:

• Problem definition
• Causal interpretation
• Moral evaluation
• Treatment recommendation

• An example of framing could include one or more of

these, and often all of them (which creates a narrative)
 Framing

• Multiple ways in which things can be framed, e.g.:

- Agenda setting; metaphor/analogy; narrative;

linguistic

- Using psychological principles such as the contrast

effect, anchoring, and the use of heuristics (inc.
emotion) [See dual process theory lecture]
Framing

Usefulness of framing as a concept:

1. Serves as a reminder of the value of questions such as:

‘What agenda or bias does the message source have?’,
and ‘How will this message be received by its audiences?’

2. Adds depth/substance to models of communication,

especially in terms of persuasiveness …
Framing & persuasion

‘Frames organise central ideas, defining a controversy to

resonate with core values and assumptions ...’ (Carvalho &
Burgess (in Hulme, 2009,p. 226))

‘A frame links two concepts, so that after exposure to this

linkage, the intended audience accepts the concepts’
connection. ... in many cases, a specific frame only is
effective if it is relevant – or applicable – to the audience’s
pre-existing interpretation.’ (Nisbet, 2009)
Framing

• Two functions can be identified (e.g. Nisbet, 2009):

1. Audience need (frameworks for making sense of

experiences); ‘By providing ... coherence media
frames help people cope with new or problematic
experiences, relating them to familiar ideas and
assumptions about the way the world works.’ (Cox,
2010, p. 163)

2. Source manipulation of audience perceptions

Framing examples

• Framing fracking

• It appears that institutional framing of fracking are

‘poorly aligned’ with public frames (e.g. Hilson, 2014;
Williams et al, 2015)

• Like many environmental issues, fracking has

multiple meanings
 Framing examples
• Climate change and ‘risk’ vs. ‘uncertainty’ framing: e.g.
“The risk of our town flooding, disrupting our businesses and
schools, is now higher than ever before because of climate
change.”

is better than:
“Although there is a great deal that is unknown about how
local services will be affected, climate change is likely to cause
more flooding in the future.”

(see Climate Outreach at, https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/using-

climate-information/the-uncertainty-handbook; also Painter, 2013)
Framing examples

• Caroline Lucas identifying the need to reframe the

Green Party in terms of ‘green hedonism’ instead of
sacrifice.

(Reported in i newspaper 25.6.18):

• https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/caroline-lucas-calls-for-less-pious-
attitude-to-green-living/
Framing (Contrast effect)
Framing (Contrast effect)

• Encouraging environmentally friendly behaviours

through social comparisons (Rabinovich et al, 2011)

• To combat resignation over climate action,

emphasise the contrast between 3 or 4 degrees
global heating and 2 degrees
Framing
Ways that climate change has been framed include:
• Economic frames (e.g. Gore (AIT), Stern Review)
• Political frames (e.g. Klein, This Changes Everything,
2014)
• Social progress (e.g. quality of life, ‘Edenic narratives’)
• Ethics (e.g. global inequalities, future generations;
‘polar bears’; deep ecology)
• Scientific uncertainty (as used by organised denial)
• Catastrophe (e.g. The Day After Tomorrow (2005), The
Age of Stupid (2009)
• Conflict/challenge (e.g. David and Goliath narratives like
AIT and AIS)
Framing

• Or haggis …