ASSIGNMENT

NAME : ABDUL SUBHAN

CLASS : T.E
course : FUEL AND
ENERGY(ch-310)

Course teacher
M.umair shaikh
PRODUCTION OF
CHARCOAL
INTRODUCTION TO CHARCOAL
Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or
other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile
constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, called charcoal burning,
often by forming a charcoal kiln, the heat is supplied by burning part of the starting
material itself, with a limited supply of oxygen.

PROCESS OF CHARCOAL PRODUCTION

CARBONIZATION

Carbonization is a particular form of that process in chemical technology called pyrolysis

that is the breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones by heating. Carbonization
is the term used when complex carbonaceous substances such as wood or agricultural
residues are broken down by heating into elemental carbon and chemical compounds
which may also contain some carbon in their chemical structure. During pyrolysis or
carbonisation the wood is heated in a closed vessel of some kind, away from the oxygen
of the air which otherwise would allow it to ignite and burn away to ashes. Without
oxygen we force the wood substance to decompose into a variety of substances the main
one of which is charcoal, a black porous solid consisting mainly of elemental carbon

THE STAGES OF CHARCOAL FORMATION

As the wood is heated in the retort it passes through definite stages on its way to
conversion into charcoal. The formation of charcoal under laboratory conditions has been
studied and the following stages in the conversion process have been recognised.

- at 20 to 110°C The wood absorbs heat as it is dried giving off its moisture as water
vapour (steam). The temperature remains at or slighly above 100°C until the wood is
bone dry.
- at 110 to 270°C Final traces of water are given off and the wood starts to decompose
giving off some carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, acetic acid and methanol. Heat is
absorbed.

- at 270 to 290°C This is the point at which exothermic decomposition of the wood
starts. Heat is evolved and breakdown continues spontaneously providing the wood is not
cooled below this decomposition temperature. Mixed gases and vapors continue to be
given off together with some tar.

- at 290 to 400°C As breakdown of the wood structure continues, the vapors given off
comprise the combustible gases carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane together with
carbon dioxide gas and the condensable vapors: water, acetic acid, methanol, acetone,
etc. and tars which begin to predominate as the temperature rises.

- at 400 to 500°C At 400°C the transformation of the wood to charcoal is practically

complete. The charcoal at this temperature still contains appreciable amounts of tar,
perhaps 30% by weight trapped in the structure. To drive off this tar the charcoal is
subject to further heat inputs to raise its temperature to about 500°C, thus completing the
carbonization stage.

PARAMETERS INFLUENCTING THE EFFICIENCY OF

CARBONIZATION
The specific way the wood is carbonised is also able to effect overall yield because of the
effect it has on the amount of fines produced. Fines may have no market at all or may
only be saleable after going through a fairly costly briquetting process.

The three major factors which influence the conversion yield are:

(a) The moisture content of the wood at time of carbonisation.

(b) The type of carbonising equipment used.
(c) The care with which the process is carried out.

Table 4. Effect of carbonisation temperature on yield and composition of charcoal

Carbonisation Chemical analysis of charcoal Charcoal yield based on

Temperature oven dry wood
°C % of fixed % volatile (0% moisture)
charcoal material
300 68 31 42
500 86 13 33
700 92 7 30
the kiln affects the measure of the yield by changing its content of volatile tarry material.
Soft burned charcoal produced when the temperature does not rise above about 400°C
can have a volatile matter content of about 30% and this is equivalent to a yield of about
42% on a bone dry weight basis. At 500°C the volatile matter is only about 13% and the
yield about 33% on a bone dry basis. Hence, to compare equals with equal

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF CHARCOAL

RAW MATERIAL
The most desirable raw material for this component is hardwoods such as beech,
birch, hard maple, hickory, and oak. Some manufacturers also use softwoods like
pine, or other organic materials like fruit pits and nut shells.
The other primary ingredient, used to produce a high-temperature, long-lasting fire,
is coal. Various types of coal may be used, ranging from sub-bituminous lignite to
anthracite.
Minor ingredients include a binding agent (typically starch made from corn, milo,
or wheat), an accelerant (such as nitrate), and an ash-whitening agent (such as
lime) to let the backyard barbecuer know when the briquettes are ready to cook
over

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEATING

Three types of heating to initiate the carbonisation and maintain high temperatures
during the processes are generally used [5] : Internal heating where part of the raw
material is burnt under controlled air flow, ii) External heating where the retort is
heated from the outside and no oxygen enters the reactor and iii) Heating with
recirculated gas where pyroligneous vapours are burnt in an external combustion
chamber and directed into the reactor where it is in direct contact with the raw
material

INTERNAL HEATING
More than 90% of the charcoal technologies employ internal heating based on the
partial combustion of the feedstock to manufacture charcoal. In this category one
finds the kilns which are made of concrete or brick. The kiln design is simple and
the investment costs are usually low.

WOOD CARBORIZATION TECHNOLOGIES

These kilns are the most widespread kilns worlwide, due to its simplicity and low cost,
especially for small producers. They are recommended for flat sites and, in general, are
built with baked bricks, clay and sand mortar. Normally, more than one kiln is used and
they are disposed as batteries or tandems. The operation of the kiln starts with the
firewood loading, followed by carbonization and unloading of charcoal. The use of dry
firewood is essential for good carbonization, because the firewood moisture directly
influences the yield of the kiln.
The following section is a succinct description of some charcoal processes applying these
different fundamentals principles of heating.

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

In a larger scale, the most commonly used technology are the Missouri kiln mainly which
are encountered mainly in Brazil. They are made of poured concrete and have rectangular
or square shape with a volume capacity of 180 m3 up to 800 m3 (Figure 4Along each
side of the kiln are four chimneys with air vents, and on the roof there are six to eight air
vents which can be sealed during the cooling period. In the centre of the kiln, are laid
brands from previous burns partially charred and dried in order to ignite the kiln. Part of
the wood are burnt within the kiln to carbonise the reminder. The charcoal yield from a
Missouri kiln may vary from 20 to 30% depending on operational conditions and
feedstock used. This kiln can produce 10.000 t of charcoal a year.
The kiln roof has no dome shape. It is an exclusivity of VEREDAS SYSTEM once the
kiln roof is done by carbon steel panels. The panels are covered by thermic insulating
plates. Both panels and thermic insulating plates are removable. The insulating material is
removed when the carbonization ceases aiming to accelerate the charcoal cooling process
increasing the kiln productivity. The carbon steel panels are removed when the cooling
process ceases aiming to unload charcoal and reload wood to new batch 100% made by
machines.
.

EXTERNAL HEATING
We remind in these processes, part of the pyroligneous vapours are burnt in an external
combustion chamber and directed into the reactor where it is in direct contact with the raw
material
In each of the two retorts a vessel with dried fresh wood is to be placed alternately.
Carbonization of one vessel usually takes about between eight hours. When one vessel has
reached the carbonization temperature (ca. 500°C), thermal decomposition takes place, and
pyrolysis gasses are emitted from the vessel. These gasses are combusted in-situ to provide the
heat supply for heating up the other vessel (Figure 10). LPG is used to provide heat for the initial
process start-up. After carbonization, the hot vessels are left for a 35 hours cooling period before
emptying

HEATING WITH RECIRCULATED GAS

The Lambiotte carbonisation process is the most known continuous process. The retort
has the shape of a vertical cylinder with a fed opening at the top and a discharge cone at
the bottom. Wood is transported to the top of the retort by a hoist and enters the retort
through a lock-hopper. On its way down, the wood passes three zones, that is, the drying,
the carbonisation and the cooling zone. The functions of wood drying, pyrolysis and the
charcoal are performed simultaneous and independently into at least three reactors
(Figure 12). The emitted gases during pyrolysis with a significant heating value are
burned in a combustion chamber, generating hot gases which are transported to the
reactor performing the wood drying.
Properties of Charcoal

Physical Properties of Charcoal

 Charcoal exists in a solid amorphous state.

 The colour of the charcoal powder is black.
 Charcoal is a black porous solid that consists of carbon.
 It is a low-density compound.
 Charcoal shows low mechanical strength properties.
 The structure of carbon charcoal shows a large surface area.
Chemical Properties of Charcoal

 Charcoal is a low ash compound. This property of charcoal makes it a high-value

product.
 It is a highly combustible compound.
 It shows high reactivity towards carbon dioxide.
 Charcoal is not easily absorbed in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract 
 Charcoal is not metabolized in the body

CHARCOAL BRIQUETTING : A briquette is a block of flammable matter

used as fuel to start and maintain a fire. Residues from agriculture and forestry e.g.
bagasse, coffee husks, saw-dust, and coconut husks are a valuable source of raw material
and can be used for producing briquette. After collection, the wood or agro-industrial
waste is dried before it is converted to charcoal in a charring kiln. The carbonised
biomass is then mixed with water and locally-available binders such as starch, gum
arabic, molasses, clay and others. Finally, the mixture (powdered charcoal + binder
mixture) is pressed into briquettes. Piston and screw presses are the most widely used
technologies where as in the developed countries roll presses are more common.

PRODUCTION OF COKE
INTRODUCTION
Coke is a grey, hard, and porous fuel with a high carbon content and few impurities,
made by heating coal or oil in the absence of air—a destructive distillation process. It is
an important industrial product, The unqualified term "coke" usually refers to the product
derived from low-ash and low-sulphur bituminous coal by a process called coking. A
similar product called petroleum coke, or pet coke, is obtained from crude oil in oil
refineries. Coke may also be formed naturally by geologic processes

PROCESS OF COKE PRODUCTION

The coke production process takes place in coke chambers. First, selected types of quality
coking coals are mixed in a certain ratio in the coal charge, which is subsequently ground
and then transported to coal towers. Charge from coal towers is taken by the stamping
machine, where it is tamped into large coal prisms. This pressed coal block is inserted
horizontally, using the so-called charging board, to the oven of the coke battery, where
the block is heated without access of air by an indirect method (thermal pyrolysis) using
heating walls of coke ovens. The required temperature of ca. 1,150°C is achieved in
heating walls by burning technically pure coke-oven gas. The whole coal prism is
gradually carbonised and converted into coke during the coking cycle, which takes from
32 to 34 hours. The final hot coke is extruded using the extrusion machine through a
basket of the guiding car to the platform of the quenching car. The quenching car brings
this coke under the quenching tower, where coke is cooled by water falling down by
gravitation.
The quenched coke is discharged by the quenching car to the coke ramp, from which it is
batched to the conveyor belt leading to the rough coke screening. Coke is screened here
and foundry coke is loaded onto railway carriages or containers. Blast furnace coke and
technological cokes are transported by conveyor belts (after passing the rough screening)
to the fine coke screening, where it is sorted by grain size at vibration screening and final
coke screening. Final coke types are loaded onto railway carriages, containers and
shipped to customers.

A whole number of by-products is formed during coke production, which are significant
raw materials for chemical industry. Coke-oven gas is captured during coking, from
which the individual chemical products are separated (tar, benzol, amonium sulphate,
solid sulphur).

PARAMETERS AFFECTING COKE STRENGTH

Coke strength is affected by three main factors, which are coke surface area, coke
chemistry and coke carbon forms. Coke, which have smaller size distribution, cause
greater surface area. Coke surface area changes with oven bulk density, quenching
practice and dilatation. Greater oven bulk density or coal bulk density results compact
and higher strength coke. Oven bulk density affected by coal moisture, coal grain size,
density modifiers and charging practice.

Coal moisture and density modifiers increase coal bulk density. While density modifiers
increase production rate, high moisture content decreases production. Finer size
distribution for coal cause lesser bulk density.On the other hand, coarser size distribution
is the reason of fusion problems in plastic state of coking and lesser coke strength.
Optimum charging practice is filling the oven up to leveling bar space uniformly at
minimum time. Bad charging practice prevents uniform heating and cause smaller coke
size distribution. Quenching is the first change to eliminate cokes which have internal
cracks. It is called coke stabilization

MANUFACTURING OF COKE

Coking of coal
RAW MATERIAL
Raw material is Bituminous coal. It appears to have specific internal surfaces in
the range of 30 to 100m2/g. Generally one ton of bituminous coal produces
1400 lb of coke.
10 gallons of tar.

Chemical reaction:-

4(C3H4)n nC6H6 + 5nC + 3nH2 + nCH4

PROCESS FLOW SHEET

Functional role of each unit

(a) Coal crusher and screening:

At first Bituminous coal is crushed and screened to a certain size. Preheating of coal (at
150-250˚C) is done to reduce coking time without loss of coal quality. Briquetting
increases strength of coke produced and to make non -coking or poorly coking coals to be
used as metallurgical coke. Blending prevents damage to oven when high pressure
develops.
(b) Coke oven:
Oven has usually 0.3 to 0.6m width. Here coal is kept for 17 hrs, heat is supplied
completely from the flues on the sides. The oven temperature is usually 1100˚C. As
temperature is increased, the fluidity of mass reaches maximum and begins to solidify to
form coke. Indirect heat transfer is done to prevent burning of coke and formation of
carbon dioxide. Air is prevented so that no burning takes place inside the oven. After
carbonization, the oven doors are opened and the red hot coke is pushed to quenching car.
Heat recovery systems and vertical flues are attached to supply process heat to the coking
chamber. The by-product vapors and gases like light-oil, NH3, tar, coke oven gas which
are combinedly known as foul main stream are collected and passed through condenser.
(c) Gas generator:
Coke breeze comes to generator and is heated with air. Producer gas produced is sent
back to the oven for maintaining high temperatures. The air supply for the furnaces is
preheated by the hot exit gas.
(d) Quenching car:
The red hot coke from oven is pushed to quenching car. On quenching the fluid coke
gets crystallized. It is then dumped on a sloping wharf for cooling and drying.
(e) Coke crusher and screening:
After draining off the water from coke, coke is crushed and screened to be used as a fuel.
The screened coke is then sent to loading units. Coke breeze (or fines) is generated while
crushing of coke.
(f) Condenser:
The foul main is cooled by indirect heat transfer with water for condensation of tar. The
lighter components are sent to tar extractor for further removal of tar.
(g) Tar extractor:
The tar along with some lighter components is sent to tar separator.
(h) Reheater:
The tar free aromatics and NH3 are heated and sent to saturator.
(i) Tar separator:
Tar is completely separated and sent to tar storage. The lighter components are sent to
lime still.
(j) Lime still:
The lighter components from the tar separator are treated with Ca(OH2) and steam.
Phosphates are collected as sludge from the bottom and the aromatics and NH3 are sent
to saturator.
(k) Saturator:
The input stream is scrubbed with H2SO4. The ammonia is separated out from
aromatics. The aromatics are sent to final cooler.
(l) Centrifuge:
NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium sulfate which is solid and is collected in a centrifuge.
(m)Cooler:
The aromatics along with sulfur are cooled up for better scrubbing.
(n) Oil scrubber:
The straw oil is used as scrubber and this will remove aromatics, which are then sent to
light oil still.
(o) Oil still:
The straw oil is recycled back to scrubber.
(p) Oxide purifier or wet purifier:
Aromatic free gas ie. Coal gas from the scrubber comes in this unit. The coal gas is made
H2S free by oxide purifier or wet purifier. The sulfur free gas is collected in gas holder
and is used as fuel gas in furnaces.

PROPERTIES OF COKE
The bulk specific gravity of coke is typically around 0.77. It is highly porous. Both the
chemical composition and physical properties are important to the usefulness of coke in
blask furnaces. In terms of composition, low ash and sulphur content are desirable.. Other
important characteristics are the M10, M25, and M40 test crush indexes, which convey
the strength of coke during transportation into the blast furnaces; depending on blast
furnaces size, finely crushed coke pieces must not be allowed into the blast furnaces
because they would impede the flow of gas through the charge of iron and coke
The water content in coke is practically zero at the end of the coking process, but it is
often water quenched so that it can be transported to the blast furnaces. The porous
structure of coke absorbs some water, usually 3–6% of its mass. In more modern coke
plants an advanced method of coke cooling uses air quenching.

AIR EMISSION AND COKE OVEN GASES

The coke oven is a major source of fugitive air emissions. The coking process emits
particulate matter (PM); volatile organic compounds (VOCs); polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs); methane, at approximately 100 grams per metric ton (g/t) of coke;
ammonia; carbon monoxide; hydrogen sulfide (50–80 g/t of coke from pushing
operations); hydrogen cyanide; and sulfur oxides, SOx (releasing 30% of sulfur in the
feed). Significant amount of VOCs may also be released in by-product recovery
operations. For every ton of coke produced, approximately 0.7 to 7.4 kilograms (kg) of
PM, 2.9 kg of SOx (ranging from 0.2 to 6.5 kg), 1.4 kg of nitrogen oxides (NOx), 0.1 kg
of ammonia, and 3 kg of VOCs (including 2 kg of benzene) may be released into the
atmosphere if there is no vapor recovery system. Coal-handling operations may account
for about 10% of the particulate load. Coal charging, coke pushing, and quenching are
major sources of dust emissions.
By products and their recovery :
Converting raw coke oven gas into a refined fuel using the most environmentally friendly
and economical methods possible requires energy-efficient processes to reduce emissions
and minimize wastewater contaminants. Alfa Laval offers smart solutions to do just that.

Cooling raw coke oven gas enables the recovery of by-products, such as tar, naphthalene,
benzene, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide, from the condensate stream and gas stream
which results after quenching. Today many of these by-products are actually cheaper to
manufacture using other technologies. This is why the main focus of a modern coke by-
product plant is to treat the gas sufficiently to be used as a clean, environmentally
friendly fuel