Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature forms the basis of any research study. A

carefully conceived research project is characterized by a clear
and unambiguous definition of the subject under analysis. It helps
to provide a clear understanding of the concept under study and
provides perspectives for research by analyzing the viewpoints
and studies carried out by other scholars on the topic under
study. The review helps to identify the research gap and provides
a direction to the researcher to identify relevant and previously
less researched areas related to the topic. It helps to provide
justification for the problem identified to be studied. The literature
review of this study will build a platform to assess the Quality of
Work Life of Hotels employee working in Star category hotels in
India. The structure of review addressing various concepts
directly and indirectly related to the research problem is
presented under the broad subheadings as follows.

I Job Satisfaction and Quality of Work Life

Occupational Stress, Burnout, Turnover and Quality of Work Life

]
30
 2.1 Quality of Work Life (QWL)
"Quality of Life" is a critical issue for the accommodation sector.
Accommodation sector is known to be inherently labor intensive,
where manpower (human beings) run the show, than machines.
However the continuous shortage of manpower in this sector is a
continuous looming threat for companies. If people have a choice
they prefer vocations in other industries than being employed in
accommodation. This is for the reason that usually a negative
perception exists about 'Quality of Life' (QWL) for employees
about employment in the accommodation sector, that is regarded
as a 24 hour industry, requiring 'highly demanding', but usually
'low paying' jobs with 'mere or no benefits' associated with
employment.

To understand Quality of Life, the meaning of Quality needs

mention.

The term 'QUALITY' can be better understood as follows:

Q - Quest for excellence

U - Undertaking

A - Action

• L - Leadership

I - Involvement of the people

T - Team Spirit

Y - Yardstick to measure progress

Following the meaning of Quality, it becomes imperative to

understand the meaning and concept of 'Quality of Work Life'
(QWL). The term is often also referred as 'Quality of Work Life'
(QoWL). In general terms, QWL is a comprehensive construct that
includes individual's job (paid work) related well-being and the
extent to which work experience at the job are rewarding, fulfilling
and devoid of stress and other negative personal consequences.
Quality of Work Life (QWL) is a philosophy, set of principles,

31
which holds that people are the most important resource in the
organization as they are trustworthy, responsible and capable of
making valuable contribution and they should be treated with
dignity and respect. As regards the origin of the concept, the term
'quality of work life' (QWL) first appeared near the end of 1960s
but became much prominent in 1972 during a International Labor
Organization (ILO) conference on International Labour relations.
Thereafter it gained much attention of psychologists, health
advocates and managements in organizations (Hackman and
Oldham, 1976; Sirgy et. al, 2 0 0 1 ; Taylor et al. 1979). The term
was introduced with relation to gaining insight into the extent to
which an organization provide a conducive working environment
and is also able to provide benefits to the employees, thereby
bringing about a feeling of job satisfaction and resulting in
productivity.

Ever since 1970s, thereafter, research geared has

continuously geared up to address the quality of work life issues
(Ballou and Godwin, 2007; Bearfield, 2003; Elizur and Shye,
1990; Gilette, 2008; Kaira and Ghosh, 1984; Kotze, 2005; Rice,
1985; Saklani, 2010; Stein, 1983) and several definitions of the
term have been coined. The concept can be well understood by
assessing the definitions from various perspectives.

Quality of Work Life as a Reflection of General Well Being

In 1973, Walton defined quality of work life as the conditions and

characteristics of work that contribute to motivation, performance,
and job satisfaction. It was identified that jobs satisfaction would
lead to wellbeing. Equating QWL with general wellbeing of
employee has also been suggested by other scholars in later
research (Danna & Griffin, 1999; Davis and Cherns, 1975; Kotze
2004; Nordenfelt, 1993). However Lawler (1982) believes that
quality of work life, though it contributes to wellbeing, is different
from jobs satisfaction. Some theorists have viewed QWL as being

32
 QUALITY OF WORK LIFE OF OFFICE EMPLOYEES OF HOTEL INDUSTRY

troup P! ife domains

Demographics
Personality
Health and Safety
Econooiic and Family
Social
Quality of
Esteem Work Life
(QWL)
Actualization
Knowledge
Creativity
Feelings about
establishment
Management
lotei I
iroup j
the positive emotional reactions and attitudes an individual has
towards their job (Rainey, 2003).

Hence QWL from this perspective is related to a content

feeling with the job that contributes to wider general wellbeing in
daily life and existence, not exclusively related to the job.

Quality of Work Life from the Perspective of the Individual

Emphasizing the role of the individual employee on work,

Beukema (1987) suggested QWL to be the extent to which
employees are able to shape their jobs actively, in accordance
with their options, interests and needs. Heskett, Sasser and
Schlesinger (1997) explained QWL as the feelings that employees
have about their jobs, co-workers and organization in general,
that act as a catalyst resulting in the organization's growth and
profitability. They added that a positive feeling of employees
towards their job reflects that the employees are happy doing
work and a satisfying work environment increases productivity.
Gilgeous (1998) talked of the importance to an individual's
satisfaction with his or her life dimensions, comparing with his or
her ideal life, further stating that evaluation of the quality of life
depends upon an individual's value system and on the cultural
environment where he lives. Others in later studies (Shamir and
Salomon, 1985;Pizam, 2008)have added that QWL is the degree
to which work time is rewarding, fulfilling or individually
satisfying. In recent research, Cascio (2010) has associated QWL
with the 'perceptions of employees regarding their workplace'

Hence from the perspective of the individual, QWL relates

to his perception, attitude and evaluation of his work life.

Quality of Work Life from the Perspective of the

Organization's Environment

While general 'wellbeing' at work and individual's 'satisfaction'

and perception of his wok are important to judging the quality of
work life, the organization's contribution towards employee

33
benefits and motivation have been given due importance by other
scholars to explain the concept of QWL.

Asserting the importance of the organization in contributing

to the individual's QWL, Robbins (1989:207) defined QWL as "a
process by which an organization responds to employee needs by
developing mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the
decisions that design their lives at work". QWL from the
organization's perspective is associated with a set of methods;
such as autonomous work groups, job enrichment and high
involvement adopted in the working system, aimed at boosting the
satisfaction and productivity of workers leading to organizational
productivity(Chan, and Einstein, 1990).Mirvis and Lawler (1984)
point out that QWL is related with satisfaction of employees with
wages, hours and working conditions in the organization.

They emphasize that a good quality of work life can be

perceived if the organization provides a safe work environment,
equitable wages, equal employment opportunities and
opportunities for advancement. QWL also consists of
opportunities that the organization provides for employees' active
involvement in group working arrangement or problem solving
that are of mutual benefit to employees and employers. Kotze
(2004) further states that in the past, a business with a QWL was
considered as an environment that merely fulfilled employees
'economic needs', but in present times, it covers a lot of other
work related dimensions as well as the fulfillment of social needs
of the employees along with providing opportunities for growth
and advancement. Now the concept includes aspects as reward
system, physical work environment, employee involvement, rights
and esteem needs (Cummings and Worley, 2005).

Therefore, from the point of view of the organization's

environment that determines QWL, it can be summarized that
QWL includes measures that an organization takes to provide for
its employees, a greater opportunity to effectively do their jobs,

34
REDUCE WORK STRESS MANAGEMENT
and thereby ensure the 'holistic well-being' of an employee in
relation to work-related aspects.

Drawing form the above three different perspectives that

can be taken to understand the meaning of QWL, a recent
explanation of QWL by Serey (2006) is quite conclusive and sums
up the meaning. The definition is related to meaningful and
satisfying work which emphasizes '4 C's' i.e. Concern,
Consciousness, Capacity and Commitment. It includes (i) an
opportunity to exercise one's talents and capacities, to face
challenges and situations that require independent initiative and
self-direction; (ii) an activity thought to be worthwhile by the
individuals involved; (iii) an activity in which one understands the
role the individual plays in the achievement of some overall
goals; and (iv) a sense of taking pride in what one is doing and in
doing it well.

It is therefore gathered from various definitions that QWL is

a 'multi-dimensional' construct that inculcates a variety of
interrelated factors. It includes a feeling of 'well being' at work, a
'positive perception of work environment', 'job satisfaction',
feeling of 'job involvement', 'motivation', 'physical, health and
jobs security', all of which can contribute to high productivity at
the job. It also includes 'opportunities for employees' for
competence development and individual growth at work. In
essence, good QWL helps in providing an employee the right
balance between professional and personal life and QWL in an
organization is regarded as a major component of quality of life in
general (Lawler, Nadler & Cammann, 1980).

2.1.1 Factors in Quality of Work Life

As the various perspectives and definitions suggest that Quality

of Work Life consists of a large number of dimensions, factors or
inter-related elements (Rethinam & Ismail, 2008).

35
Many models have been developed to measure QWL and each
model has emphasized various factors that contribute to QWL and
can be a criteria to measure the same. These widely used models
are by Walton (1975), Hackman & Oldham (1975), Westley
(1979), and Timossi et al., (2008).

Walton's model as one of the earliest model to measure

QWL specifying various factors as criteria has attracted a lot of
attention in QWL studies. His criteria and sub-criteria of QWL are
presented in Table 1.

Table 2.1
Walton's Criteria of QWL (1975)
CRITERIA SUB CRITERIA
Fair and appropriate Fair compensation, wage balance,
compensation participation in results, fringe
benefits
Safe and healthy Workload, weekly journey,
environment process technology, salubrity,
fatigue
Development of human Autonomy, importance of the task,
capacities polyvalence, performance
evaluation, given responsibility
Growth and security Professional growth, trainings,
resignations, encouragement for
studies
Social integration Discrimination, interpersonal
relationship, compromise of team,
valorization of ideas
Constitutionalism Employee rights, freedom of
expression, discussion and norms,
respect to individualities
Total life space Influence on the family routine.
possibility of leisure, time of
work and rest
Social relevance Proud of the work, institutional
image, community integration
qualities of products/ services,
human recourses polices

Source:(Adapted from Timossi et al., 2008)

36
 Taylor et al. (1979)have identified the essential components
of quality of working life as basic 'extrinsic job factors' of wages,
hours and working conditions, and the' intrinsic job factors' of the
nature of the work itself. They suggest that a number of other
aspects could be added, which include the following:

individual power

employee participation in the management

fairness and equity

social support

use of one's present skills

self-development

a meaningful future at work

social relevance of the work or product

effect on extra work activities

In the same year, (1979), Warr et al., (1979), in an

investigation of QWL, have identified relevant factors, including
work involvement, intrinsic job motivation, higher order need
strength, perceived intrinsic job characteristics, job satisfaction,
life satisfaction, happiness, and self-rated anxiety as related with
QWL.

Walton (1980)has divided the main components of QWL into

four categories. According to him, the affecting factors on QWL
include: work meaningfulness, work social and organizational
equilibrium, work challenge, and richness.

Chander and Singh (1983), state that QWL includes factors

like employment conditions, secured employment, income
adequacy, sharing of profits, stock options, rewards, employee
autonomy, commitment, social interaction, self- expression, self-
esteem, satisfaction, democracy, involvement, career

37
advancement, job enrichment, relationships with supervisors and
peers.

In 1984, Straw and Heckscher have identified remuneration,

healthy working conditions and social integration in the
organization, as factors that contribute to quality of work life.

Klatt, Murdick and Schuster (1985) have identified eleven

dimensions of QWL. These are enumerated as, pay,
occupational stress, organizat'tona] health programmes,
alternative work schedule, participate management and control of
work, recognition, superior-subordinate relations, grievance
procedure, adequacy of resources, seniority and merit in
promotion and development and employment on permanent basis.

Cunningham and Eberle (1990) consider the importance of

task, physical work environment, social environment within the
organization, administrative system and relationship between life
'on' and ' o f f the job as critical factors that have effect on QWL.

Havlovic (1991) suggests that job security, better reward

system, high pay, growth opportunities and participation are
important factors for QWL in organizations.

Baba and Jamal (1991) include job satisfaction, job

involvement, work role ambiguity, work role conflict, work role
overload, job stress, organisational commitment and turn-over
intentions, and job content as typical factors and indicators of
QWL.

In another study it is found out that QWL construct can best

be seen as being dynamic, and as encompassing dimensions
such as: job security, reward system, training and career
advancement opportunities, and participation in decision making
(Lau and Bruce, 1998).

Sirgy et al.(2001) base their study on a new measure of

quality of work life on satisfaction with a variety of needs relevant
to the work place. Their basic premise of the quality of work life
38
construct and measure is that workers bring a cluster of their
needs to their employing organization and are likely to enjoy a
sense of quality of work life to the extent that these needs are
satisfied through work in that organization. The emphasize 'need
satisfaction' of employees as a criteria for predicting
organizational commitment, job satisfaction and satisfaction in
other life domains.

QWL is closely related to the more general term quality of

life in the sense that life at the workplace affects life outside the
workplace as well (Saklani, 2004). Rose et al. (2006) have found
in their survey that the relevant factors to an individual's quality
of worklife include the task, the physical work environment, the
social environment within the organization, administrative system
and a relationship between life 'on' and ' o f f the job suggesting
that a balance between work and personal life is critical.

Serey (2006), has observed in his research on QWL, that

career growth opportunity is a crucial factor determining
constructs of QWL. He points out that QWL includes (i) an
opportunity to realize one's potential and utilize ones talents, to
excel in challenging situations that require decision making,
taking initiative and self-direction; (ii) a meaningful activity
perceived worthwhile by the individuals involved; (iii) an activity
in which one has clarity of role necessary for the achievement of
some overall goals; and (iv) a feeling of belongingness and pride
associated with what one is doing and moreover doing it well.

Huang, Lawler and Lei(2007) have identified through their

research, factors like, creative and meaningful job
characteristics, compensation and benefits, work/life balance and
supervisory behavior, as components of QWL.

According to Adhikari & Gautam (2010) measures of Quality

of Work Life are: adequate pay and benefits, job security, safe
and health working condition, meaningful job and autonomy in the

39
job. Research also indicates that QWL is combination of policies,
procedures, strategies and ambience relating to the workplace in
order to achieve employee satisfaction by improving working
conditions in the organizations (Nazir et al., 2011).

In summary, though the authors have identified individually

diverse factors in QWL, most of the factors are overlapping and
more or less have the same work dimensions under
consideration, only differing in number. However it can be
summarized that QWL includes a wide variety of on the job
factors including work environment, individual motivation and
growth opportunities and off the job relationship between work
and personal life.

The core constituents of Quality of Working Life still

continue to be researched in the interest of betterment of an
organization, in order to improve the quality of work life of its
employees, for ultimate organizational success. It is important
for organizations to keep note of all of these to keep its
employees happy in the interest of productivity and performance
of the organization. QWL in an organization should ensure it
includes individual's job related well-being to provide rewarding
and fulfilling work experiences that are devoid of stress and other
negative personal consequences.

2.2 Human Resource Management and Quality of Work Life

with Reference to Service Industry

The tourism and hospitality industry as a major service sector in

particular, is highly labour-intensive and hence is a valuable
source of employment for a major part of population all along the
continuum of jobs ranging from unskilled to highly skilled and
highly specialized. Interaction of 'management with employees',
and that of 'employees with customers' runs like a chain in this
service filed. This interaction is the key in determining the quality

40
of delivery of services and the quality of the tourism experience
of customers

Management Employees Customers

Though this a crucial chain of interactions, the proper

management of the workforce in the service sector remains a
challenge for tourism organizations as the industry requires tough
work by manpower, but usually fails to provide encouraging
working environment, compensation or other benefits for its
employees. This brings into question the main concern for an
organization's human resource management to provide a good
quality of work life for the employees.

Any organizations is regarded as a 'social system'. It is

'People' that make up the internal social system of the
organization. People are the living, thinking, feeling human
beings who form the pulse of the organization. With a large
manpower, serving in accommodation establishments, particularly
'hotels' become an ideal examples of a wide social system that
consists of individuals and groups. These 'people' i.e service
providers in the form of manpower are the key to achieving the
objectives of the organization that exists to serve 'people' as
customers. Hence to maintain a happy workforce that can lead to
happy customers, for an organization to pay attention to the
quality of work life of its workforce becomes imperative for the
success of the organization. In this context the broader role of
'Organizational Behavior' also becomes important (Aswathappa,
1996; Fincham and Rhodes, 1999; Nelson & Quick 2011;
Newstorm and Davis, 1999; Robbins, 2 0 0 1 ; Rollinson, 2005;
Singh and Chhabra,1998; Wood, 1994).

Organization Behaviour is described as field of study that

investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure
have on behavior within organization. Organizational Behavior is

41
the study of individuals and their behavior within the context of
the organization in a workplace setting (Kaifi and Noori, 2011).

The three primary outcomes of organizational behavior are

job performance

organizational commitment, and

quality of work life (QWL).

An important component issue of the study of organization

behavior is the creation of conditions in the workplace that are
conducive for happiness, contentment and motivation of the
workers. These issues are a prime concern for the human
resource management and development department of any
organization (Beach, 1980; DeCenzo and Robbins, 1996) that
besides managing the workforce alone is also concerned with
creation of quality working conditions for employees.

Lawler, Nadler & Cammann, (1980), concur that the quality

of work life in organizations for manpower, is a major component
of quality of life in general. Hence to maintain a quality of work
life for employees, organizations adopt an interdisciplinary
approach, that addresses the quality with respect to a numbers of
domains that are critical for the overall quality of life of an
individual, e.g. including components of sociology, psychology,
communication and management, in order to understand and
manage the 'human resource' capital (HR) that is regarded as the
most important resource to affect production and performance in
an organization (Stone, 2008).

Hence managing employees in view of the diverse players

acting upon them in the environment makes the role of 'Human
Resource Management' (HRM) is very important in any
organization. Human resource management is the part of the
organization that is concerned with the "people" dimension
(DeCenzo and Robbins, 1996) of work. Since an organization is a
body of people, human resource management is related to
42
people/manpower acquisition, development of skills, motivation
for higher levels of attainments, leadership behavior and power,
interpersonal communication, group structure and process,
learning, attitude development and perception, change process,
conflict, job design and work stress, as well as ensuring
maintenance of level of commitment of all the workers in the
organization. In essence, it is responsible for maintaining 'good
human relations' in the organization and achieving productivity
through the same. HRM tries to assure employee satisfaction
thereby improving performance and productivity. Proper HRM can
further an organization's competitive advantage, and directly
contribute to the organization's success

In managing human resources, managers have to deal with

the following:

i) Individual employees who are expected to perform the tasks

allotted to them

ii) Dyadic relationships such as superior-subordinate

interactions

iii) Groups who work as teams and have the responsibility for
getting the job done

iv) People outside the organization system such as customers

and government officials

Particularly in the Service industry, that is 'highly labor

(manpower) intensive', the value of human resource is prime
(Mullins, 1992; Schneider and Bowen, 1993).It is through the
process of human resource management that the activities of the
organization and the efforts of its members are directed towards
achieving organizational objectives. HRM practices can play a
pivotal role in improving individual productivity through the inter
relationship of people, objectives, structures and management,
and can determine the effectiveness, success or failure of an
organization (Figure 2.1).

43
 Figure 2.1
Interplay of Various Components in the Organization

2.2.1 Role of HRM in Tourism as a Service Sector

Human resource management in the service sector has been

identified as very crucial (Boxall, 2003; Casico, 1992; Enz and
Siguaw, 2000; Filitrault, Harvey and Chibat, 1996; Guthrie, 2 0 0 1 ;
Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005). Characteristics of the tourism
sector are different to other production industries and this may
present particular difficulties for the management of human
resource. Particularly characteristics exclusive to tourism sector
include intangibility of the service, heterogeneity, and
perishability of the service encounter. All these characteristics
present particular difficulties for the management of extensive
human resources involved in delivering the complex tourism
service. The sector is often also characterized by low pay,
difficult working conditions, poor communication between
management and employees, and many clandestine jobs, that
makes human resource management further challenging. Further,

44
the seasonality arid unsocial hours in the tourism lead to part-
time and casual work, and therefore result in job insecurity due to
non permanence of this industry. Adding on to all these is lack of
time for training of employees, high employee turnover, poor
career structures and a weak staff commitment to the enterprise
and industry (Bolwell&Weinz,2008). For these reasons, either the
workforce is reluctant to join the tourism service sector
employment, or if at all it seeks employment, the employees are
low on satisfaction and morale in their jobs and show a lot of
frequent job turnover too. Therefore it is a continuous challenge
for HRM in tourism to design strategies to keep the employees
motivated and retain them long term, making the survival of the
tourism enterprise completely dependent on employees.

In tourism a significant component of an employee's

performance is how he/she can be instrumental in creating
satisfied and loyal the customers. To an extent this depends on
the satisfaction of the human resource itself. Therefore the role of
HRM practices in leading to satisfied employees and assuring a
competitive advantage of business is prime (Schneider and
Bowen, 1993). Heskett et al. (2008) have pointed out that highly
satisfied customers drive growth and profitability in a service
business and that all aspects of the operation that affect
customer satisfaction should be managed under what they called
the 'service profit chain'. The way this chain operates is that
employee satisfaction increases, when internal service quality is
enhanced, which in turn strengthens employee loyalty, raising
employee productivity. Higher productivity results into greater
external service value for customers improving customer
satisfaction and loyalty. The productivity of a service organization
can be measure by customer job satisfaction.

In tourism and hospitality establishments, the recruitment,

selection, orientation and training of employees as service
providers, performance management and reward system have

45
been identified as significant to customer service excellence and
service quality and for the creation of a 'high-quality service
climate' (Browning, 1998; Tsaur and Lin, 2004).Gronroos and
Ojasalo (2004) state that productivity of an organization is related
to how effectively input resources in a process (manufacturing
process, service process) are transformed into economic results
for the service provider and 'value for its customers'.

The service productivity model (Gronroos & Ojasalo, 2004)

suggests a number of contributions that HRM theory and practice
could make in the improvement of service productivity. With
respect to service provider inputs, service-sector organizations
must create an environment in which employees have the skills
and the tools to provide effective service (Baum, 2008). The role
of organizational rewards (i.e., compensation, benefits and
incentives) in inducing a service climate is also important.
Therefore the actual provision of 'quality service to customers'
becomes dependent not only on the human resource systems in
place, but also on the level of dedication and commitment of
service employees in the organization.

Hinkin and Tracey (2010) have identified six categories of

innovative HR practices used by hospitality and service
companies as a culture of caring for employees. These include:

open communication
flexible scheduling to meet the needs of a changing
workforce
innovative methods to attract, select, retain a loyal and
competent workforce
training programmes viewed as investment in people
emphasizing career tracks and promotion from within
performance management systems aligned with
organizational objectives, and
compensation programmes reflecting the organizational
values and linking pay to performance

46
 Tourism organizations should therefore create encouraging
and engaging environment for the employees by providing them
'monetary and non-monetary' benefits along with a feeling of
'participation' and 'emotional association' with their workplace to
guarantee a 'quality of work life'. Managers need to address the
issue of creating conditions in the workplace that can mobilize
human effort to achieve organizational objectives, and "make
work meaningful and rewarding" for employees (Curtis &
Upchurch, 2008).

2.3 Job Satisfaction and Quality of Work Life

2.3.1 Concept of Job Satisfaction

Employees are the back bone of every organization and without

employees no work can be done. Therefore the 'satisfaction of
employee' is very crucial for any organization(Bruce and
Blackburn, 2001). According to Stein (1983), a satisfying work life
is 'good in' and 'of i t s e l f . An employee's feeling of contentment
with his or her job can reflect upon his quality of work life.
Usually organizations that provide a good quality of work life,
show presence of 'satisfied employees', whereas organizations
having poor quality of work life, bring about dissatisfaction in
employees.

An insight is first needed into the concept of 'job

satisfaction'. Job satisfaction relates to inner feelings of workers
and is a general attitude towards one's job, the difference
between the amount of reward workers receive, and the amount
of reward they believe they should receive. The most-used
research definition of job satisfaction is by Locke (1976), who
defines it as " . . . a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (p.
1304). Job satisfaction increases employee's morale,
productivity, etc. and creates innovative ideas among the

47
employees. Satisfied employees provide a higher level of external
service quality, the service experience that customers receive
and evaluate, which leads to increased customer satisfaction.

Spector (1997) states that the antecedents of job

satisfaction can be categorised into two groups. The first group
includes the 'job environment itself and some factors related to
the job. The second group includes 'individual factors' related to
the person who will bring these factors to the job including
previous experiences and personality. Often both groups of
antecedents work together to influence job satisfaction. Feldman
and Arnold (1983) explain job satisfaction as the amount of
overall positive affect (or feelings) that individuals have towards
their jobs (p.192). It is also explained as a set of favorable or
unfavorable feelings with which employees view their work (Davis
and Newstrom, 1989:176).

Luthan (1998) outlined three important dimensions of job

satisfaction as follows:

1. Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation.

As such it cannot be seen, it can only be inferred.

2. Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome

meets or exceeds expectations. For instance, if
organization participants feel that they are working much
harder than others in the department but are receiving
fewer rewards they will probably have negative attitudes
towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other
hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are
being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive
attitudes towards the job.

3. Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which

are most important characteristics of a job about which
people have effective response. These are: the work itself,
pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and coworkers.

48
 Armstrong (2003) suggested a classification of job
satisfaction factors as 'extrinsic factors', 'intrinsic factors', 'social
relationships' in work place, 'individual's abilities to do his work,
and the 'quality of supervision'.

Various studies on jobs satisfaction have been carried out,

and they all largely identify a number of factors that are crucial to
job satisfaction. Some of the widely recognized factors are as
follows.

Factors in Job Satisfaction

Job Clarity: clear understanding of what is required to be

done by the employee at work, and the performance
expected from him/her..

Salary / Wages: In accordance with the work done, in

relative comparison to other people doing the same work,
and opportunity of increase of salary/wages going up the
career graph.

Benefits: In addition to salary, including healthcare,

insurance, retirements benefits, paid vacations, bonus, etc.

Ability to Influence Decisions: A degree of autonomy in

the decision-making process of the organization that
contributes to a sense of individuality, involvement and
identification with the organization.

Job Security: The security of having the job for a relatively

stable and long period of time that can assure personal /
sustenance for a long term.

Workload: A manageable workload that keeps one

productive and challenged but does not lead to stress or
burnout. Neither overload of work leading to burnout or
fatigue, nor under load leading to boredom or slack
performance.

49
 Flexibility: Possibility of opting to have flexible work
schedules that can suit one's attending to personal / home
life.

Physical Work Environment: Comfortable / attractive

physical working conditions, (space, hygiene, ventilation,
safe equipment, etc)

Training and Education: Regular orientation to learn new

skills and tasks and keep abreast with latest knowledge and
skills for the job.

Advancement and New Opportunities: Challenges and

opportunities for growth and promotion up the career
ladder.

Recognition: of Individual employee and work, and rewards

for good performance increasing prestige and self worth.

Interpersonal Relations:- Good relationships in the

workplace with colleagues, seniors and juniors. Sense of
teamwork and camaraderie. A good social and environment
with feeling of love and belongingness.

Organizations need to take care of all these factors to

ensure that employees remain satisfied as it is assumed that that
satisfied employees have good performance. Oshagbemi (1999)
points out the relevance of job satisfaction to the 'physical and
mental well-being of employees'. It is believed that satisfied
employees are more likely to experience high internal work
motivation, to give high quality work performance, and to have
low absenteeism and turnover, and contribute more to the
organization than dissatisfied ones. On the other hand, lack of job
satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Jamal, 1997). It is also
often connected with health problems and dissatisfaction with life
in general (Thurman, 1977). Though job satisfaction is important
to a good quality of work life, it does not guarantee motivation on
the job.

50
 However there is a tenuous relationship between job
satisfaction, productivity and employee turnover. It can be
highlighted as follows:

Satisfaction and Productivity: The general notion is that a

happy employee is a productive employee. The relationship
between productivity and satisfaction is very high when the
employee behavior is not constrained or controlled by the
outside factors.

Satisfaction and Absenteeism: It is believed that

employees with high satisfaction have higher attendance at
the job than employees with lower satisfaction levels who
record frequent absenteeism.

Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfaction is also related to

employee turnover. People with high satisfaction stay at
their job for a longer duration of time and usually do not
have any intent to leave, while those with low level of job
satisfaction are likely to leave the organization

2.3.2 Relation between Quality of Work life and Job

Satisfaction

QWL has a string bearing on satisfaction (Gayathiri and

Ramakrishnan, 2013). High quality work-life conditions and
organization environment generally lead to job satisfaction and
productive workforce. If quality working conditions are not
present, people will tend to become dissatisfied.

The elements of QWL that the organization can contribute to, in

order to influence jobs satisfaction positively, are as follows:

1) Fair and adequate compensation;

2) Safe and healthy work environment;

3) Opportunities to develop human capacities by performing

meaningful work and suggesting new ways of doing job
tasks;

51
4) Growth and security, which includes opportunities to
improve knowledge, skills, and abilities, and a sense of job
security;

5) Social integration, which includes the opportunity to interact

favorably with both co-workers and manager;

6) Constitutionalism, which includes personal policies that are

administered fairly, a work environment free of harassment,
and equal opportunities for employees to advance;

7) Total life space, which includes the ability to balance the

demands of home and work; and

8) Social relevance, which includes pride in both the job and

the employer.

Lippitt (1978), has listed a number of employee's personal

needs, the fulfillment of which is crucial for QWL. These needs
include:

Surviving each day with security.

Interacting with other people.
Experiencing a sense of personal usefulness.
Being recognized for achievements.
Having been afforded the opportunity to improve skills and
knowledge.

Keeping these factors and needs in view, it can be said that

the provision of a high quality of work life can no doubt result
from a determined effort on the part of the employer.

Kotze (2004) noted that in the past, a business with a QWL

provided an environment that merely fulfilled employees'
'economic needs'. But nowadays, economic needs are only 'one
among the many other needs' that an employee is aiming to fulfill
from his organization. Economic remuneration alone in the form
of salary or wages is not the only factor detrimental for a good
QWL. Employees now have higher expectations from their

52
employers that go beyond good salary, benefits and physical
working conditions.

Working In an organization nowadays employee swish to

experience personal growth, have autonomy at work, challenging
tasks to perform and an environment that supports their self-
expression, and self-fulfillment. Therefore rather than simply
providing a good physical environment to employees with
sufficient salary, employers in addition, need to consider the
'human dimensions' In their organization and thus focus on the
quality of the relationship between the employer, the working
environment and employee, thus ensuring positive labour
relations within the workplace.

Lewis et al. (2001) have identified that It Is not only

'extrinsic rewards' (salaries, tangible benefits, supervisor support
and safety and hygiene of the workplace) but also 'Intrinsic
rewards' such as traits which are specific to the work done, the
task content, skill levels, co-worker support, teamwork
communication, role clarity, organizational relations, autonomy
and challenge that contribute to a determining satisfaction and
perception of a good QWL.

Having examined the different views MIrsepasI

(2006),observes that QWL is explained by the following factors:
(I) Fair and proper payment for good performance (II) Safe and
secure work situation, (III) The possibility of learning and using
new skills, (Iv) Establishing social integration in the organization,
(v) Keeping Individual rights, (vl) Equilibrium In job divisions and
unemployment and (vil) Creating work and organizational
commitment.

Keeping In view the Importance of both the job related

elements and human relations In view of the relationship between
job satisfaction and QWL, Huang et al. (2007) have enumerated
the factors of QWL, as including creative and meaningful job

53
characteristics, compensation and benefits, work/life balance and
supervisory behaviour.

Connell & Hannif (2009) have reported three factors

important to QWL as - (i) Job content; (ii) Working hours and
work-life balance; and (iii) Managerial/supervisory style and
strategies.

While assessing the QWL factors, Cascio (2010) has

suggested that organizations need to answer the questions like-
are employees safe and satisfied? Do they have a reasonable
work-life balance and are they afforded the opportunity to grow
and develop as human beings? The answers can reflect upon the
perceptions that employees have concerning the workplace.

Highlighting the importance for organization to provide a

good QWL for employees, Kotze (2005) states that organizations
need to consider the following values in attempt to deliver a QWL
to employees.

Employees should be treated with dignity and respect,

which they deserve as human beings in any situation.

Employees should be supported in what they do and in what

they are trying to create.
Employees have the need to learn and grow within and with
the organization and should be afforded this opportunity.
Employees wish to understand how their organization
functions and how their efforts contribute to the whole
organization.

Going over the variety of factors important for QWL, it can

be summarized that in essence QWL is a determined effort on
part of the organization to 'satisfy' various life domains of an
individual employee's work life such as health and safety,
personal development, self-esteem issues, actualization, rewards
and recognition, management issues, social issues and the

54
physical workplace. Hence QWL is very closely related to a
feeling of job satisfaction.

2.3.2.1 Job Satisfaction In Tourism Enterprises

With reference to the services industry, particularly tourism,

employee satisfaction is a major step in the process of ensuring
competitive service quality. It is believed that satisfied employees
in turn lead to satisfied customers and that job satisfaction of
employees positively correlates with customer satisfaction
(Maxham, 2003). In tourism, as the product /service is delivered
by manpower, the human element of the service interface, in
particular the attitudes and behaviour of the service provider
become very important to determine customer expectations and
satisfaction(Witt and Muhlemann, 1994). Therefore, especially in
the service sector, employee job satisfaction is a prerequisite to
service excellence and positive attitudes on the part of
employees, who are not only vital for organizational success in
general (Hofmeyr, 1997) but also primarily responsible for
customer satisfaction in particular.

However, it is also true that the tourism industry is not well

known for high quality employment practices (Janes and Winson,
2010), and is thus always manifest with problems of employee
dissatisfaction. Studies show that employees are usually not
satisfied with the job itself, job security, and training they get.
The industry also requires long work hours and provides lower
than average pay(Kline & Hsieh, 2007; Lam et. al., 2 0 0 1 ; Thrane,
2008). It is also indicated that employees in tourism often leave
the industry due poor working conditions, and a lack of motivation
(Kusluvan and Kusluvan, 2000)

Taking the case of hotels in the service sector, it is noted

that job satisfaction is important as it helps to ensure that
employees will treat their guests with utmost respect. But workers
in hotels report relatively low levels of satisfaction (Charles and

55
Marshall, 1992; Lam et. al.,2001; Kline, and Hsieh, 2007;Santos
and Varejao, 2007; Saporna and Claveria, 2013; Woods et al.
1998).

Literature therefore suggest that keeping in view the low

jobs satisfaction of employees in tourism enterprises, particularly
hotels, the management of organizations must introduce a climate
that fosters satisfaction through benefits and individual
recognition, and in addition also provides some kind of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation that the employees consider relevant for
a good quality of work life, eventually leading to good
productivity, good host- guest relations, assuring customer
satisfaction and retention of employees in the organization to
maintain a healthy survival of business in a fiercely competitive
environment.

2.4 Quality of Work Life and Motivation

A good quality of work life can assure a degree of motivation of

the workforce (Lambert, 1991; Maslow, 1968; Mitchell, 1982).
Motivation is defined as individual's intention or willingness to put
maximum effort in his/her work to reach organizational goals and
enhance one's ability to satisfy some individual needs. The cyclic
process of motivation starts from a deficiency of an unsatisfied
need, that creates an imbalance in the individual, i.e. drive,
leading to action, towards need fulfillment. Thereafter the whole
process of need satisfaction leads to reduced tension. In essence
motivation is driven by needs.

IVIotivation at work 'is a set of energetic forces that

originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to
initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form,
direction, intensity, and duration' (Pinder, 1998:11). Work
motivation is the process that initiates and maintains goal-
directed performance. It also considered to be a degree to which

56
an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified
behaviour.

In work settings, the presences or absence of a number of

factors can determine motivation of employees that becomes
important to assess quality of work life. Therefore understanding
the elements of quality of work life that can be instrumental in
motivating employees is very important for any organization.
Understanding the concept of motivation as applied to
organizations is also imperative as motivation is often confused
with job satisfaction but is actually not the same. Job satisfaction
may or may not contribute to motivation. Hence motivation needs
something 'additional' to the presence of job satisfaction factors
at work.

To better understand the concept of motivation at work,

studies in management and industrial psychology have broadly
identified two kind of motivations as follows:

• Extrinsic motivation: related to 'tangible' external rewards

such as salary and fringe benefits, security, promotion,
contract of service, the work environment and conditions of
work. Such tangible rewards are often determined at the
organizational level and may be largely outside the control
of individual managers.

• Intrinsic motivation: related to 'psychological' (internal)

rewards such as the opportunity to use one's ability, a
sense of challenge and achievement, receiving
appreciation, positive recognition and being treated in a
caring and considerate manner. The psychological rewards
are those that can usually be determined by the actions and
behaviour of individual managers.

Both the factors that determine extrinsic or intrinsic motivation

are related to individual employee's "need fulfillment" and are
important determinants of quality of work life.

57
 In attempting to understand the relation between quality of
work life and motivation, Walton (1973) explains quality of work
life as the conditions and characteristics of work that contribute
to motivation, performance, and job satisfaction. This makes
quality of work life a 'contributor to motivation'. In other words,
the higher the quality of work life, the more motivated employees
will be. Therefore QWL includes factors of motivation like job
security, rewarding systems, promotional opportunities, and
involvement in decision-making processes, among others and is
related to well-being of employees (Davis and Cherns, 1975,
Nadler and Lawler, 1983).

2.4.1 Theories of Motivation in relation to QWL

QWL has its origin in the theories of motivation that provide a

sound base for understanding QWL. Some important theories that
closely relate to QWL are discussed below.

Need Hierarchy Theory of Abraham Maslow (1954): Maslow

gave one of the earliest and much popular 'need hierarchy
pyramid theory' in the study of management.

Figure 2.2

Maslow's Need l-iierarchy Theory in relation to QWL

Needs Related Work Aspects

Self Actualization Challenging Job, Creative tasks, Advancement Opportunities,

Esteem Status, Prestige, Recognition

Love& Belongingness Affiliation w/ith co workers

Safety and Security Physical, Financial and Emotional Security

Physiological Needs Salary and benefits to meet basic needs

58
Maslow identified five basic needs of any individual and explained
that one moves upward a step wise progression fulfilling the
lower order need to the next one. He says at one motivation at
one point of time is determined by one particular need and that
lower level need must be fulfilled before he is motivated to fulfill
higher order needs.

The prime needs identified, by Maslow are as follows:

Physiological Needs- the need for food, drink, shelter and relief
from pain.

Safety and Security Needs - physical, emotional and financial

safety and security.

Love and Belonglngness (Social) N e e d s - n e e d to be loved and

love others in society, be recognized as a member of society and
be accepted by one's peers and to develop friendships.

Esteem Needs (Egoistic)-need to be recognized, appreciated

and rewarded for achievements, and earn status and respect,
autonomy and reputation.

Self-Actualisation - need to be given opportunities and

challenges to exploit one's own potential and realize the worth of
one's existence through ones abilities. Here the individual is
concerned primarily with developing his or her full potential as an
individual and with becoming all that is possible to become.

Maslow's (1954, 1968) three base needs i.e. physiological,

safety and security and love and belonglngness are also known
as "lower order needs" while the higher two, i.e. esteem and self
actualization are known as "higher order needs". For an
organization it is important to understand the extent to which jobs
can incorporate elements that satisfy both lower and higher order
human needs in order to motivate employees (Imel, 1982).

Chan and Wyatt (2007) and Chelte (1983) lay special focus
on the relevance of Malsow's theory with respect to QWL. They

59
feel that organizations should provide an environment that takes
care of all the five needs of the individual so that the employees
can perceive a good quality of work life. But the need fulfillment
should move from lower order needs to higher order. Their
presumption is that once satisfied, a lower order need can no
longer produce motivation in an individual so an environment that
provides opportunities for higher order needs can motivate people
to perform. Therefore quality of work life in relation to Maslow's
theory demands satisfaction of basic needs followed by provision
of good working conditions, and satisfaction of the need for
career advancement, development and growth of an individual's
capabilities.

Rathi (2010) on the lines of Maslow, says that QWL is

defined as the satisfaction of an individual's various needs, such
as health and safety needs, economic and family needs, social
needs, esteem needs, actualization needs, knowledge needs, and
aesthetic needs from his/her participation in the workplace.

The second important theory with regard to QWL is:

Herzberg's Hygiene Theory or Two Factor Theory

(1959).Herzberg, an American psychologist put forth the
Motivator-Hygiene Theory of Job Satisfaction for introducing job
enrichment for employees which has a close bearing to QWL.
This theory is also referred to as the 'Dual Structure' theory as it
separates causes of job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction. The
presence of both 'Hygiene' and 'Motivating' factors is important
for a perception of good QWL.

60
 Table 2.2

Herzberg's Two Factors in Motivation

Hygiene Factors IVIotivating Factors

( that prevent job dissatisfaction) (that may lead to motivation)

Company Policy Achievement
Supervision Recognition
Working Conditions Work Itself
Interpersonal Relations Responsibility
Salary Advancement
Status Growth
Job Security
Personal Life

The 'Hygiene' factors or 'dissatisfaction-avoidance' factors are

also understood as 'Maintenance' preventive) factors or 'extrinsic
factors' of the job. These are closely related to the environment
and conditions of the work. These include aspects of the job
environment such as interpersonal relationships, salary, working
conditions and security among others. Of these, the most
common cause of job dissatisfaction can be poor company policy
and administration. It is believed that a positive presence of all
hygiene factors can prevent dissatisfaction at work. The absence
or negative presence of any one of these may lead to job
dissatisfaction. Hence in terms of QWL,an organization should at
least provide all good Hygiene factors. It must be noted that
though presence of hygiene factors may lead to job satisfaction
but is no guarantee to provide motivation at work.

The Motivating factors on the other hand are understood as

'Intrinsic' to the job. Intrinsic factors are related to the job itself.
Intrinsic factors seem to influence positively on job satisfaction.
Of these, opportunities provided for advancement and growth that
may lead to achievement (Maslow's self actualization need) can
be the greatest source of extreme satisfaction and motivation.
Other factors as job content, the work itself and responsibility are

61
motivators at work. These motivators (satisfiers) are associated
with long-term positive effects in job performance.

In essence Herzberg's Theory (1959; 1976) can be

understood by the following assumptions:

1. People tend to become dissatisfied by a bad environment,

but they are seldom satisfied by a good environment.

2. The prevention of dissatisfaction is just as important as

encouragement of motivator satisfaction.

3. Hygiene factors operate independently of motivation

factors. An individual can be highly motivated in his work
and be dissatisfied with his work environment.

4. All hygiene factors are equally important, although their

frequency of occurrence differs considerably.

5. Hygiene improvements have short-term effects. Any

improvements result in a short-term removal of, or
prevention of, dissatisfaction.

6. Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature and come back to a

starting point. This leads to the "What have you done for me
lately?" syndrome.

7. Hygiene needs have an escalating zero point and no final

answer.

Herzberg identified that the presence of Motivators is very crucial

for QWL of employees. Establishing a similarity between
Maslow's and Herzberg's theory it can be seen that Maslow's
'lower order needs run parallel to Herzberg's Hygiene Factors',
and 'higher order needs run parallel to Motivators'. In the
hospitality industry, hygiene factors appear more important than
in some other industries because employees have low
expectations of satisfying their higher level needs and so rely
more on the hygiene factors (Mullins, 1998).Herzberg's theory

62
has also been studied at length with respect to hotel employees'
motivation (Chitiris, 1988).

McClleland's(1985; 1961), APA Theory of Motivation: This

theory has similarity to that of Maslow's and Herzberg's. The
Achievement Motivation Theory evolved from work of McClelland
in 1940s. APA, implies need for 'Affiliation', 'Power' and
'Achievement'. In essence, McClelland's theory postulates that
people are motivated in varying degrees by their need for
Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement, and that
all these needs are acquired, or learned, during an individual's
lifetime. Affiliation is similar to lower order need and Power and
recognition are higher order needs. However, McClleland states
that all three needs are equally important in a job to keep
employees motivated and there is no step wise progression of
fulfillment. Hence organizations should at the same point provide
an environment where APA needs are fulfilled.

Relating the various needs and factors that provide a

quality of life and keep the employees motivated as well,
Hackman and Oldham (1976) propose eight conceptual
categories/factors for assessing QWL. These are similar to needs
specified by Maslow and McClleland.

Hackman and Oldham's (1976) identified factors of QWL

and motivation are as follows

adequate and fair compensation

safety and health conditions at work

immediate opportunity to use and develop one's capacity

further opportunity for continuous development and safety

social integration in the working organization

constitutionalism in the work organization

the total space of life and the social relevance of the

worker's life

63
Figure 2.3 provides a picture of tlie job characteristics that are
important for satisfaction of employees at work and beneficial for
the organization.

Figure 2.3

Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model

High Intrinsic
Motivation

High Job
Performance

High Job
Satisfaction

Low Absenteeism
and Turnover

Hackman and Oldham's factors are similar to lower and higher

order needs of Maslow or to Herzberg's Hygiene and Motivation
factors. Hackman and Oldham (1980) has identified that a work
environment that is able to fulfill employees' personal needs is
considered to provide a positive interaction effect, which will
lead to an excellent OWL.

Keeping in view various researches on job satisfaction and

motivation, Locke (1976) has enumerated the conditions
conducive to a high OWL in organizations as the following:

Mentally challenging work with which the individual can

cope successfully

personal interest in the work itself

64
 work which is not too physically tiring

rewards for performance which are just, informative and in

line with their individual's personal aspirations

working conditions which are compatible with the

individuals physical needs and which facilitates the
accomplishment of his work goals

high self-esteem on the part of the employee

agents in the work place who help the employee to attain

job values such as interesting work activities, pay and
promotions, whose basic values are similar to his own and
which minimize role conflict and ambiguity.

There has been a continuous debate of scholars as to whether

QWL is composed of facets of satisfaction with various aspects
of an individual's job (Carnoy, 2000). Brock-Utne (2000) notes
that the most important determinants of QWL are whether an
employee finds his job interesting, has good relationships with
managers and colleagues, has a high income, is allowed to work
independently and has clearly defined career advancement
opportunities. Chan and Einstein (1990) explain that QWL reflects
a concern for people's experience at work, their relationship with
other people, their work setting and their effectiveness on the job.

In view of Mirvis and Lawler (1984) describe the "basic

elements of a good quality of work life" are safe work
environment, equitable wages, equal employment opportunities
and opportunities for advancement (similar to basic and higher
order needs)

Robbins (1989) has suggested that an organization can

support QWL if it responds to 'employee needs' by developing
mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the decisions
that design their lives at work. Lau and Bruce (1998) explain that
a good QWL environment should include job security, reward

55
systems, training and career advancement opportunities, and
participation decision mailing, all of which can guarantee
satisfaction and motivation.

For a good QWL, Lau et al. (2001) emphasize the

importance of a working environment that supports and promotes
satisfaction by providing employees with (and meeting the needs
of) rewards, job security and career growth. Drobnic et al.
(2010) suggest that employees that have secured jobs and pay
(basic needs) feel comfortable at the work place and this affects
their overall quality of life.

Therefore, in summary, there is a close association between

the organization's environment factors that may lead to job
dissatisfaction or job satisfaction and determine for an individual
employee his perception of quality of work life and motivation in
the organization. Hence organizations need to be aware
identifying individual employees needs, the fulfillment of which is
detrimental for a good QWL.

2.5 Occupational Stress, Burnout, Turnover and Quality of

Work Life

The Quality of Work Life in an organization is a crucial

determinant of 'Burnout' and 'Turnover'. Burnout in simple words
implies, a breakdown due to stress and fatigue (both mental and
physical) and T u r n o v e r ' , implies leaving a job.

In order to better understand the concept of Burnout in

relation to QWL, it is first imperative to understand the meaning
of 'Occupational Stress' in organizations.

2.5.1 Occupational Stress

Occupational stress is stress involving work. Stress, in general,

can be defined as the 'reaction of individuals to demands
(stressors) imposed upon them' (Erkutlu and Chafra, 2006: 287).
Occupational stress, in particular, is the inability to cope with the
pressures in a job (Rees, 1997). It occurs because of a poor fit
66
between one's abilities and his/her work requirements and
conditions (Holmlund, and Strandvik, 2005). Occupational stress
can occur when there is a discrepancy between the demands of
the environment/workplace and an individual's ability to carry out
and complete these demands. It challenges an individual's ability
to deal with the demands and pressures of work. It has been
described as an emotional experience associated with
nervousness, tension and strain, brought about by factors related
to work.

'Stress at work' is a ubiquitous and multifaceted

phenomenon (Lazarus, 1993) that is costly for organizations
because it contributes to expensive voluntary turnover
(Villanueva & Djurkovic, 2009). Hence work related stress has
become of growing concern for organizations and one of the
important components of the subject of organization behavior,
because excessive stress can influence one's productivity and
can have significant economic implications for the
organization. On account of the health and societal implications
that stress bring along with it, occupational stress has even
become a concern for organizational psychologists, physiologists
and management of organizations (Comish and Swindle, 1994;
Dua, 1994; Motowidio, Packard, Manning 1986; Murphy 1995;
Ross, 2005; Sullivan and Bhagat, 1992; Varca, 1999).

The occupational stress process originates with exposure to

stressors that are elements within a workplace environment that
cause stress and can be either 'physical' or 'psychosocial'. The
tension within the individual on account of stress may lead to
consequences like "Burnout' Mental Health problems, or intent to
leave or 'Turnover', eventually (figure 2.4).

67
 Figure: 2.4

Occupational Stress Factors and Consequences

Workplace Factors Consequences

Structural Burnout
Cultural Stress Metal Health
Workflow . Issues
Policies Intent to leave
Tiirnnvpr

From another perspective, stress at work can be a

combination of 'work related factors' and 'individual personality
cliaracteristics' being described by Antoniou et al. (2006) under
'exogenous' (i.e. unfavorable occupational conditions, excessive
workload, lack of collaboration, etc.) or 'endogenous pressures'
(i.e. individual personality characteristics, etc) respectively.
Research on workplace stress shows that stress is positively
correlated with high job demands and low job control (Shain,
2000). Stress is also found to be associated with a perceived lack
of 'work-life balance' and there is evidence suggesting that
people entering the workforce today are highly concerned with the
importance of work-life balance more than their predecessors
(Smola & Sutton, 2002).

Through various studies on stress, broadly the nature of

stressors has been indentified and presented in Table 2.3.

Often a 'stressor' can lead the body to have a physiological

reaction that can strain a person physically as well as mentally.

68
 Table 2.3
Types of Stressors at Work

^ ^ ^ ppe
e of Stressors Examples

Work factors Excessive work hours

Work Overload
Unreasonable performance demands
Lack of resources to perform work
Poor chances for advancement
Insecurity in job

Physical environment Noise and overcrowding

Health and safety risks
Lighting, air quality
Nature of equipment

Organizational practices Lack of autonomy

Poor communication
Unclear roles and responsibilities
Unfair practices
Restrictive behaviour

Relationships Office politics, competition and

conflicts
Poor relationships with superiors
Bullying or harassment

A variety of factors contribute to workplace stress such as

excessive workload, isolation, extensive hours worked, toxic work
environments, lack of autonomy, difficult relationships among
coworkers and management, bullying or harassment by
management and lack of opportunities or motivation to advance.

Consequences of Stress

Stress has a great impact on one's performance. While to a

certain extent, a degree of stress level can be positive and can
motivate people to work, on the other hand, excessive stress
after reaching a saturation level can become negative and starts
becoming damaging for the individual and organization.

69
 The consequences of stress for the individual and the
organization can be explained as follows:

For the Individual

• Unwanted feelings and behaviors - such as feeling of job

dissatisfaction, low motivation, low morale, less
organizational commitment, absenteeism, intention or
thoughts to leave the job, inability to make sound
decisions, alienation, and instances of using stress
relievers as smoking and alcohol.

• Physiological diseases (poor physical health) - such as

increased blood pressure and pulse rate, heart diseases,
insomnia, suppressed immune system, injuries, and
fatigue.

• Psychological diseases (poor emotional/mental health) -

psychological distress, depression, anxiety,
passiveness/aggressiveness, boredom, lose of self-
confidence and self-esteem, loss of concentration,
feelings of futility, disregard for social norms and values,
dissatisfaction with life, loss of contact with reality, and
emotional fatigue.

For the Organization

• Poor Productivity - decreased quantity and quality of work,
technical errors, failure to meet deadlines, wastage of
resources, failure to reach expected output, reduced
customer satisfaction.
• High Turnover - Increased absenteeism, sabotage and work
stoppage, technical errors, increasing conflicts and frequent
switching of jobs by employees.

2.5.1.1 QWL and Stress

QWL and Stress have a mutual relationship. One effects the
other. It is believed that an environment that has a good quality

70
of work life is stress free, and on the other hand, reduced stress
can lead to good 'quality of work life'. Therefore in the interest of
both the Individual employee and organizational welfare it
becomes a paramount duty of the management of the
organizations to monitor the emergence of stress, and introduce
measure to reduce or remove the same form the workplace.
Managers should try to identify and reduce sources of stress
(Blake et al., 1996), in order to increase employee satisfaction,
increases productivity of the workforce and reduce negative
consequences of stress that may be problematic for the
organization.

QWL in an organization can be assessed by combining the

'amount and the degree of stress' and the 'degree of satisfaction'
experienced by the individual within his/her occupational role.
Chronic job-dissatisfaction is a powerful source of job stress .The
employee may see no satisfactory short term solution to escaping
this type of stress. An employee trapped in a dissatisfying job
may withdraw by such means as high absenteeism and tardiness,
or the employee may quit. Hence QWL and Stress have a mutual
bearing on each other. While QWL may determine satisfaction,
dissatisfaction, or stress level; stress itself may be the main
parameter for evaluating the QWL. Based on this, with regard to
stress at work, QWL includes an employee's job-related well-
being, to the extent that work experiences are rewarding and
fulfilling and 'also devoid of any stress or negative personal
consequences' (Rose et al., 2006:61).

While stress related factors are a common area of research

in organizations, another interest of research is the study of
difference of stress levels experienced by male and female
employees in work settings (Galanakis et al. 2009,Matuszek,
Nelson and Quick, 1995, Olorunsola, 2012, Yu-Chi and Keng-Yu,
2010). Usually in organizations the assumption is that women are
more stress prone and when working outside home in paid

71
employment, there are doing a 'double day' In addition to required
home chores, that makes their lives very demanding and
stressful. Ganster and Schaubroeck (1991) point that v\/omen
experience a greater level of stress as they are more vulnerable
to the demands of 'work', to the extent that they often have more
'non-work' demands than men. Gregory (1990) has noted that for
the female professional, gender stereotyping in the workplace ads
to the role conflict stress experience.

Like other industries, in the Tourism and Hospitality

Industry, employee stress has been recognized as a significant
issue (Rees, 1997; Ross, 1995; Travel Impact Newswire, 2011),
that leads to several problems and is costly for both employers
and employees (O.Neill and Davis, 2011).Work stress among
hospitality industry employees can be understood as both having
a 'psychological' and a 'physical dimension', that typically results
from a perceived threat. It can result in workers becoming
exhausted and cynical (Kim, 2008). However, even within the
hospitality sector, research is particularly still lacking, on the
relationship between QWL and stress, in the highly demanding
hotel industry that keeps its employees on their feet 24/7.

2.5.2 Quality of Work Life Burnout , Turnover

Related to the association between Stress and QWL, it is seen

that a poor QWL may lead to 'Stress', followed by 'Burnout', and
finally leading to 'Turnover'.

2.5.2.1 QWL and Burnout

'Burnout syndrome' is a rising complex phenomenon related to

stressful working environment. It was first described in the mid-
1970s by Freudenberger, and ever since, it has been the subject
of discussion in many studies. Freudenberger (1974, 1980) a
psychologist, got interested in the concept of 'burnout' after
observing instances of illicit and excessive drug use in New York,

72
way back in 1970s. He explained 'burnout' as a state of fatigue or
frustration brought about by devotion to a cause, a way of life, or
a relationship that failed to produce the expected reward. It is a
state of physical and emotional depletion resulting from
conditions of work. The symptoms include a feeling of emotional
and physical exhaustion; a sense of alienation, cynicism,
impatience or negativism; feelings of detachment; and resentment
of work and colleagues.

By the late 1980s, researchers and practitioners began to

recognize that burnout occurred in human services, for instance,
among managers, entrepreneurs, and white- and blue collar
workers.

Maslach's research following in the late 1970s is seen as a

major contribution to the concept. In 1996, she defined burnout
as "...a state of exhaustion in which one is cynical about the
value of one's occupation and doubtful of one's capacity to
perform" (Maslach et al., 1996, p. 20), that would lead to
'depersonalization', and reduced personal accomplishment
(Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Maslach et al., 2 0 0 1 ; Maslach et al.
2008). Burnout has been characterized as a three-dimensional
syndrome of: a), emotional exhaustion(i.e., depletion of emotional
resources owing to demands of interpersonal contacts),b).
depersonalization (i.e., cynical attitudes toward one's job), and
c). lack of personal accomplishment (i.e., tendency to evaluate
one's work negatively).

The concept of burnout has stimulated research on job

stress, particularly for the reason of helping employees. The
causes of burnout and the instances of burnout on a job may
become visible on account of the following:

• A work environment that is stressful, hostile or unpleasant

• Long hours, often late at night, resulting in a lack of sleep

or rest

73
 Meeting tight schedules

A job that is monotonous, repetitive or boring

The pressure of constantly trying to please everyone

Lack of communication with coworkers, supervisors and

management

Being assigned job responsibilities without receiving the

proper support and guidance

Not having a job description or clearly defined expectations

Feeling as if there is not a sense of balance between work

and home life

Working in a position with responsibilities where one feels

over or under qualified

Job demands that become overwhelming

Stressful interactions with customers

All these aspects of a job lead to burnout and also directly reflect
upon a poor Quality of Work Life.

Burnout syndrome is a frequent occurrence in certain

specific professional categories, particularly the service sector,
which demands high interaction with people/work with human
recipients of services. Hence tourism and hospitality industry
based on 'people to people' interaction for provision of services
can be an interesting sector for study of burnout.

Burnout may have serious consequences for the employee

and the organization (Gonzales, et al. 2006; Schaufeli & Bakker,
2004).For the 'individual employee' in general, his/her job tasks,
and responsibilities are adversely affected by burnout. Personal
dysfunctions, such as physical exhaustion, insomnia, and
increased drug or alcohol usage, can also be a result of burnout
(Jacobs & Dodd, 2003). Further indicators of individual burnout

74
are reflected through lower motivation, dissatisfaction, social
conflicts, and lower efficacy (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1997).

For the 'organization', burnout may lead to poor

productivity, low job commitment and dearth of employees due to
turnover, thereby increasing continuing organizational costs on
recruitment and training of employees. In the hospitality industry,
with respect to organization citizenship behavior (OCB) and
commitment, burnout has become an important topic of study
(Merritt, 2001).

Thereafter, furthering the association between QWL, Stress

and Burnout, the related problem of 'Turnover' needs attention
as it has implications for the organization.

2.5.2.2 QWL and Turnover

Employee 'Turnover' has started attracting much attention in

research in the hotel industry where turnover is a major problem
(Bonn and Forbingerm 1992; Cheng and Brown, 1998; Hogan,
1992).'Turnover' can be understood as a major and final
employee response to poor QWL in an organization. It is process
in which an employee 'leaves' the organization (and has to be
replaced). It is seen as a major problem in organizations where
the employees perceive a poor QWL. Like absenteeism, turnover
is related to the problem of job dissatisfaction, stress and
burnout. Excessive turnover can be a very costly problem, one
with a major impact on productivity of the organization. Besides
cost, lengthy training times, interrupted schedules, additional
overtime from limited manpower, and lack of knowledgeable
employees in the organization are other problems associated with
excessive turnover.

There are two types of Turnover

Voluntary: Voluntary turnover occurs when an employee leaves

by his 'willing choice'. It can be a result of many factors that
include lack of challenge, better opportunity elsewhere,

75
dissatisfaction in present job, or need to relocate geographically,
etc.

Involuntary: The involuntary turnover occurs when an employee

is 'forced' to leave is job by the management (e.g. being fired, lay
off).

Studies have increasingly recognized the importance of

Quality of Work Life (QWL) in relation to reducing turnover (Boyar
et al. 2003; Karatape and Uludag, 2008; Kossek and Ozeki, 1998;
Mulvaney et al. 2006; Wiley 1987).However not all turnover is
negative for the organization. At times workforce losses are quite
desirable, especially if those workers who leave are lower
performing and less reliable employees seen as a liability to the
organization.

QWL, Stress, Burnout and Turnover and in the Hospitality

Industry has gained a lot of research attention recently (Nadiri
and Tanova, 2010).Research conducted by Kim, Shin, and
Umbreit (2007) illustrates that burnout exists among hotel
employees. With regard to turnover in hotels, Cleveland, et al.,
(2007) have identified that the high turnover rate in the hospitality
industry is influenced by the magnitude of challenges involved in
the lives of the people. Studies have found out that the problem
of high turnover is on account of poor management, low wages
and / or, a bad working environment (Haven-Tang & Jones, 2012;
Kusluvan et al., 2010)

Turnover in the hotel industry has been investigated in

many studies (e.g.AIBattat, 2013; Bidir, 2002;Deery and Jago,
2009; Deery and Shaw, 1997, Denvir, and McMahon, 1992).
Wasmuth and Davis, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c), while exploring the
high rates of turnover in Australian hotel industry, have
discovered that hotel industry particularly is characterized as
having a "turnover culture", which has become a prevalent,
longstanding concern for hotel businesses.

76
 Zopiatis and Constanti (2007) have investigated specific
human resources issues that challenge managerial level
employees of the Cypriot hospitality industry, particularly
concentrating on the aspect of motivation. Their study of burnout
and turnover intention in the hotel business indicates that
managers with high level of customer contact are more likely to
experience burnout and turnover.

Other studies in hotels have been carried out to examine

which level of management of hotel employees are more likely to
have burnout. Buick and Thomas (2001) found that 'middle hotel
managers' suffer from burnout. Kuruuzum et al. (2008) have also
examined the effects of job satisfaction, job characteristics and
demographics on levels of burnout among middle managers in the
Turkish hospitality industry. Their findings state that job
satisfaction and job characteristics are main predictors of burnout
but burnout levels of the middle managers are found to be
moderate. Besides, burnout levels among managers of 'food and
beverage' and 'front-office operations' are found to be greater
than those of other middle managers. In a recent study, Jung,
Yung and Kin (2012) have studied the effects of culinary
employees' role stress on burnout and turnover intention in hotel
industry.

Therefore literature reveals that the main causes of

turnover intent or actual turnover in hotel industry are related with
employee dissatisfaction arising from a poor working environment
leading to emotional exhaustion (Karatepe and Uludag,2007) and
to experiencing a poor QWL. Therefore, to assess the QWL, the
management of an organization needs to pay serious attention to
consider all factors that contribute to job satisfaction, motivation,
job commitment and burnout and turnover, that are all extremely
vital for QWL in an organization.

77
2.6 Quality of Work Life in the Hotel Industry

When employees experience a good Quality of Work Life, any

accommodation establishment can expect various long-term
advantages, such as higher employee productivity, lower turnover
and absenteeism, increased loyalty and commitment towards the
establishment and increased overall profitability. Studies reveal
that 'employee satisfaction' is paramount to assure that
employees will work with commitment and be instrumental in
bringing about 'customer satisfaction', which is very crucial in the
hotel as a hospitality sector.

It is a generally known fact that accommodation

establishments are labor intensive and therefore totally
dependent on their employees' performance (Hinkin &Tracey,
2010). It Is also true that hotels, as commercial accommodation
establishments employ a large manpower and it is true that hotel
workplaces frequently draw workers from the most vulnerable
segments of the labour market (Tufts, 2007). In the hotel industry,
job satisfaction of employees is fundamental as it helps to ensure
that employees will treat their guests with utmost respect. Guest
satisfaction is especially important because it encourages repeat
businesses and fosters word-of-mouth advertising (Spinelli and
Canvas, 2000).

Hotel working environment is particularly characterized by

the usual 'not so pleasant' working conditions of the service
industry. However, despite the fact that hotels have the 'most
stressful work environments' (Karatepe and Kilic, 2007) it is
surprising that little research has been carried out in the
hospitality industry with regard to QWL compared to other
industries (Lucas and Deery, 2004).

The few studies in hotels have only recently begun in the

last decade (2000s) investigating aspects like job satisfaction,
burnout and turnover. While these studies have concentrated on

78
discovering the working conditions of employees and measuring
their stress levels and satisfaction from within work, the concept
of the 'balance between work and home life' has started gaining
increased attention as a significantly important measure of QWL
(Wong & Ko, 2009). Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) defined the
construct of work-family conflict as a specific form of inter-role
conflict where the obligations associated with work and family
roles are mutually incompatible and where participation in one
role is made more difficult or stressful because of participation in
the other role.

It is also seen that in the limited studies carried out on

studying aspects of QWL related to hotels employees, till date, it
is only 'Front Line' employees of hotels who have attracted more
attention of researchers, as they are supposed be under
continuous contact with customers and are subject to the most
demanding interactions and work in the hotel. The Front Line
employees include reservation agents, front-desk agents,
concierges, bell and door attendants and all employees who have
initial contact with guests and are the main contact points with
guests during their entire visit (Baum & Devine, 2005). These
employees have the main functions of greeting guests, providing
them with information, processing their departure and receiving
their payments. Deery and Jago (2009) believe that tourism
industry employees, especially those working in frontline
positions of 24/7 operations, experience continuous difficulty in
maintaining a healthy lifestyle, due to long working hours and
challenging interactions with customers. Karatepe and Uludag
(2007) have found out that front-line employees in the hotel
industry have difficulty in spending time with their family and/or
social commitments as a result of their job-related
responsibilities and are more susceptible to elevated levels of
emotional exhaustion.

79
 o t h e r research has studied aspects relevant for QWL like,
job satisfaction, stress, working conditions in hotels and needs of
providing an enriching environment for hotel employees, to keep
them motivated and committed. The studies of Katz, Kochan and
Weber (1985) and of Cascio (2010) have confirmed the belief that
an increased QWL has a positive effect on the overall running of
an accommodation establishment, especially when viewed from
the perspective of economic performance, productivity and
organizational effectiveness.

With respect to job satisfaction in the hotel industry,

studying hotel employees, Liu and Yang (2009) assert that job
satisfaction employee job satisfaction directly affects customer
satisfaction. Hence job satisfaction of hotel employees reflects
upon their motivation and how the employees perceive their QWL
(Chang 2006; Chelte, 1983; Chatles and Marshall, 1992; Frye and
Mount, 2007; Hope and Muhlemann, 1998; Pavesic and Brymer,
1990; Spinelli and Canvas, 2000).

As early as 2 0 0 1 , Davies et al. (2001), in their study carried

out on Western Australian accommodation industry, have
identified that performance appraisals, remunerations and
trainingas important human resource practices in Australian
hotels. They have asserted that employee commitment to an
organization could be improved by adopting a suitable Human
resource system; improving good labor relations and thereby
resulting in quality of service. Similarly Chiang, Back, and
Deborah (2005) in their study on impact of employee training and
their intention to stay in hotels have found that training can
contribute positively to job satisfaction and intention to stay long
term on the job, as employees feel confident and see their
positive growth at work.

Kumar, Kumar and Sumegh (2007) in their study of hotel

employees however, have found that it is 'monetary benefits' are
most important for job satisfaction for hotel employees in India.

80
Recent research has started delving into investigating gender
differences in job satisfaction and QWL perception of employees
for the reason that women employment in the hotel industry
continues to grow, and there is an assumption that women are
subjected to discrimination in the hotel industry, particularly in
terms of wages. Harris et al (2011) suggests that traditionally
women are employed in roles that are considered representative
of their domestic roles, using the same skills base."Hunter Powell
and Watson (2006) argue that employers take advantage of the
social and domestic skills acquired by women through gender role
socialization and hire women for jobs involving cleaning, serving
on people and nurturing children. In hotels therefore the jobs
more in demand of women are housekeeping, public relations and
front office operations as receptionists.

While studying if there is any relationship between gender

and job satisfaction of hotel employees, Kara et al. (2012) in their
study of gender differences in job satisfaction of employees of
five star hotel in Turkey have found that the level of employee job
satisfaction is determined by four factors: "management
conditions", "personal fulfillment", "using ability in the job", and
"job conditions". The study results show that significant gender
differences exist with regard to the factor of "using ability in the
job" dimension of job satisfaction. Kara (2012) has also
discovered that male employees report significantly different
mean scores in health and safety needs, actualization needs and
knowledge needs in quality of working life indicators.

Frye (2012) has examined job satisfaction of hotel front

office managers with an aim to explore the extent of the
relationship among various extrinsic, intrinsic, and general
motivational factors, and overall job satisfaction of hotel front
office managers. The study finds that corporate culture and self-
actualization issues have the greatest impact on the job
satisfaction of the front office managers. Hotels that can permit

81
high levels of creativity, empowerment, and ability utilization
while removing or overcoming inflexible barriers that tend to
hinder such achievements are likely to achieve higher levels of
satisfaction from their front office managers.

Examining the impacts of job satisfaction on employee

turnover within the Amari Hotels in Thailand (Ronra &Chaisawat,
2010), research has observed the relationship between employee
satisfaction and their overall satisfaction, with the aim of giving
suggestions to help reduce the turnover rate.

In the Indian context research in QWL in the hotel industry

has started emerging only recently (Chauhan and Khanna,
2005;Kandasamy and Ancheri, 2009).Studies have tried to
investigate the factors in the working environment that have a
strong bearing on QWL. Manjunath, and Kurian (2011) have
studied the impact of Quality Work Life on hotel employees in
customer satisfaction in Star category hotels of Bangalore. The
study finds that hotels should give more importance to work
quality and retention of employees in order to optimize
satisfaction and productivity.

Another study carried out by Sheeba Hamid examines the

working conditions of female hotel employees in Delhi (Travel
Impact Newswire, 2011) The study finds that a large female
workforce is employed in hotels and that heavy schedules and
tight deadlines both at the hotel and at home, make particular
female employees prone to health problems. The study also finds
that 'women are largely visible at non-managerial positions' as
opposed to managerial positions in star hotels at Delhi.

Examining the causes of high turnover in the hotels industry

in India, Panwar, Dalai and Kaushik (2012) have identified that it
is largely the 'low salaries' and even the 'unpaid work' beyond
working hours that is the main cause of dissatisfaction of hotel
employees in India which eventually leads to turnover. Besides,

82
they have identified that other factors like, extended worl<ing
hours, neglected social life and slow career growth reflect upon a
poor QWL of hotel employees in India. Anbazhanag,
Soundarrajan and Ravichandran (2013) in their study of work
stress of hotel employees in Puducherry have found that largely
hotel employees experience a middle level of stress.

Some studies also report that hotel graduates do not want

to enter the hotel industry in India and prefer going abroad to
work in hotels of cruise ships attracted by higher remuneration
and better working conditions as compared to hotels in India.
Thus salary remains a major issue in Indian hotels. Moreover in
India there still remains a taboo associated with working in the
hotel industry as a job looked down upon by the wider society and
this issue is a major concern particularly for females employees.
Therefore as there are several problems associated with quality
of work life in hotels, more research is needed to address the
issues from the perspective of employees.

2.7 Conclusion

The literature review thus concludes that QWL has become an

important dimension of an individual employee's existence,
regardless of the industry he or she is working in, and is closely
related to factors like of job satisfaction, motivation, stress,
burnout and turnover.

Studies have identified certain common underlying value

and beliefs that shape the overall QWL movement, and these
include as follows:

Employees should be treated with dignity and respect,

which they deserve as human beings in any situation.

Employees should be supported in what they do and in what

they are trying to create.

83
 Employees have the need to learn and grow within and with
the organization and should be afforded this opportunity.

Employees wish to understand how their organization

functions and how their efforts contribute to the whole.

People also tend to act more responsibly when they are

treated as adults (Kotze , 2005).

As regards the service sector, the QWL of manpower becomes

more pertinent as the service industry is highly labour intensive
and completely reliant on manpower for its survival. Thus having
a 'happy workforce' is crucial in the tourism and hospitality
sector. However as observed by the International Labour
Organization (ILO, 2001) wages in the tourism sector are at least
'20 per cent lower' than in other service industries, and jobs are
often typified by 'relatively poor working conditions'(Meyer,
2008), which makes QWL poor for its employees and creates
challenges for organizations to deal with the contentment and
commitment of their workforce.

The service industry and, more specifically, the hospitality

industry also has frequent occurrences of negative experiences
such as work stress, work-life imbalance, work overload and
emotional labour. The success of the sector depends on staff
commitment, loyalty and efficiency, all of which can be achieved
by granting them the opportunities of dignity and growth in the
organization. As in service interaction the satisfaction of
employees with their working conditions can be easily visible and
detrimental to nature of interaction with guests, it is imperative
for organizations to create satisfactory working conditions for
their employees, which can be instrumental in bringing about
customer satisfaction and business success.

The management in an organization therefore has an

important role in identifying the QWL factors in the organization
and adopt measures to improve them. Emphasizing the

84
importance of good quality of work, Lowe (2000) suggest, that a
"high quality work" is work that is respectable, meaningful and
life-enhancing, and, therefore, worker-centred. A good QWL
should be seen as a 'human resource development initiative with
the goals of improving overall business performance' (May et al.,
1999:3). Hence there is an urgent need to address the issues of
QWL at work in relation to satisfaction at work, which alone can
be a preventive measure of reducing mental stress, burnout and
turnover, and can provide some motivation to employees in order
to encourage commitment to the organization.

In view of the fact that tourism and hospitality jobs are

highly stressful, the organizations can make use of the approach
suggested by Curtis & Upchurch, (2008) for improving working
conditions of employees. As suggested by Curtis and Upchurch
people typically wish to experience their workplace as a 'fun'
place to work at. Ttiey state that certain workplace factors would
lead to overall positive benefits to the business. These factors
include the following:

Humour (jokes, emails and funny messages from

management)

Opportunities for personal development (exercise or craft

classes which are not

work related)

Public celebrations of professional achievements (award

banquets, celebrated

employees)

Entertainment (music skits)

Games (company athletic teams, bingo)

Fun social events (parties and picnics)

Recognition of personal milestones (birthdays,

anniversaries of employment)
85
 Opportunities to engage in community volunteerism
(community service)

Stress release activities (casual dress day, massages)

Friendly competitions among employees (sales contests,

attendance awards) (p.131).

In summary, the review leads to the following conclusions:

Quality of work life is a crucial dimension for employee

satisfaction and commitment to his work.

Quality of work life is related to both 'intrinsic' job factors

like, working conditions, salary, interpersonal relations, etc
and 'extrinsic' factors like balance between work and home
life.

Quality of work life, particularly in the tourism and

hospitality industry is perceived as 'poor', due to low
wages, temporary nature of jobs, and 24/7 demanding
nature of business.

In the tourism business, particularly in the manpower

intensive hotel industry, a good QWL is rare to find, but an
important requirement to ensure employee loyalty and
reduced turnover.

Stress related burnout is on the growth in the hotel sector

and is an issue of concern for its negative consequences for
the individual employee and the organization.

In the hotel industry, as revealed by literature review, there

is a difference between genders on perception of QWL.

2.8 Identification of Research gap

On the basis of the reviewed literature, it can be assessed that

there still remains a wide gap in research in the field of study of
Quality of Work Life with respect to hotel industry. While in the
western world, studies have been initiated in early 2000s, in India

86
the literature on QWL in hotels is still scant and a recent topic of
research that further needs elaborate study. However, overall,
studies are lacking both internationally and in India.

The follov\/ing research gap is identified

In studies till date, it is largely the factors of job satisfaction

that have been identified as detrimental for QWL and the
critical factors of 'home work interface' and 'work life
balance' have been ignored.

Work related stress has often been ignored as a measure of

QWL.

In the service sector, particularly studies on QWL in the

manpower intensive 'hotel industry' are lacking.

The little research on QWL in hotels till date, has

concentrated more on QWL of 'Front Line' employees,
ignoring the employees engaged in other demanding tasks
of food and beverages, and housekeeping departments.

There is dearth of 'comparative research' between male and

female hotel employees on the perception of QWL.

There is also lack of comparative research between QWL of

various star category of hotels.

The hotel industry still lacks studies on the relationship

between QWL and turnover and between QWL and
organizational commitment.

2.9 Direction of Present Research

The tourism and hospitality industry is a fast flourishing business

worldwide. Tourism itself has given an impetus to the hotel sector
increasing employability of a major share of manpower in this
labor intensive service sector, the pillar of which is the

87
'manpower' itself. Yet, the sector has a reputation of poor working
conditions due to a number of factors and is considered as a
fragmented industry with a majority of employers categorized
under 'small and medium sized enterprises' with work
characterized by low wages and low levels of skill requirements,
shift and night work and seasonality.

However the fact remains that employees form the heart of

the service industry and without them or their dedication, all
money spent organizational effectiveness is futile. Therefore
keeping the manpower happy with quality working conditions is a
prime necessity particularly for all manpower intensive
businesses. Keeping in view the importance of employees and
their QWL in the "people oriented" tourism and hospitality service
sector, particularly the' manpower intensive hotel industry" that is
characterized by high turnover due to poor working conditions,
there is need to have an in-depth study into the factors pertinent
to QWL of hotel employees.

In India the hotel industry is fast flourishing on account of

increased domestic and international tourism. There has been a
significant growth in room inventory across categories of hotels
in India, from upscale luxury to limited services and, boutique
and budget hotels. According to a recent report by global
database and research service for hotel construction projects,
India has the second largest number of hotels (ranking next to
China) under construction with 292 first class and luxury hotels
coming up in the in near future, with several International
projects of hotels companies like, Accor, Carlson Rezidor Hotel
Group, Fairmont Raffles Hotels International, Hilton Worldwide,
Hyatt Hotels Corp. etc. It is noted that hotel companies are
betting big on India's growing, well-off middle class with 350-500
million people having spare money to spend on travel. There is
thus a great demand for jobs in hotels. Already about 5.3 crore
people are in the hotel industry in India, accounting for 9.24

88
percent of total employment in the country (Economic Times,
2012)

With bright prospects for the hotel industry in India and the
continuing astounding growth of the sector, hotels will continue
to attract a large number of people for jobs in this sector that still
faces a manpower crisis on account of poor working conditions,
remuneration and quality of work life. Such a scenario, rightly
calls for addressing the critical issue of quality of work life in
hotel industry. While the entry of international hotel chains in
India, though several concepts like limited work hours and the
six day offs are being introduced and the compensation is getting
better, there's still a long way to go to introduce more measure
to improve the quality of work life for the hotel employees. The
Indian hotel industry still needs to look at and introduce best
practices from other industries to ensure attracting the best
manpower and retaining the same for its success.

Thus in view of the demand for jobs in the hotel sector, this
study sets out to explore the dimensions that effect the QWL of
hotel employees and tries to investigate if there is any difference
between QWL of employees of 3, 4, and 5 star category hotels in
the country. Further, the study is also aimed at finding out if
there is any difference between QWL of male and female hotels
employees. The study is an attempt to provide insight to
management and human resources departments of hotels to
review, address and introduce measures to improve the quality of
work life in this sector, to ensure a happy, satisfied, committed
and long serving manpower, that can hold the key to success or
failure of the tourism business and tourism industry of the
country. The study can also help the management of hotels to
come out with strategies to alleviate the serious issue of
turnover, ensuring a level of organizational stability, customer
credibility and long term competitiveness of hotel business.

89
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