UNISA HMPYC80 Assignment 7

Student number: 14280396 Unique: 563684

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Proposal

October 2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
2. Literature overview .................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Memory ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Aging ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Relevant theoretical perspectives ................................................................................ 7
2.4 Empirical research results .................................................................................................. 8
3. Proposed method and research design ............................................................................ 9
3.1 Sampling ........................................................................................................................ 10
4. Data Collection and Procedure ........................................................................................ 11
5. Validity and reliability ........................................................................................................ 12
6. Ethics ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................... 13
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 13
Plagiarism Declaration ................................................................................................................. 16

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 Research proposal title:
A quantitative study of the influence of age on short-term memory performance

ABSTRACT
Within the field of cognitive psychology and neuroscience, human memory is a
widely disputed and multifaceted concept especially when being discussed in
relation to age-related changes. The fascinating research findings have led to my
hypothesis that age negatively impacts memory processes. This in turn has resulted
in the need for a research report to investigate this topic of interest, hence this
research proposal has come into being. The quantitative study would investigate the
research problem, namely the potential impact of age on short-term memory
performance. Three key research questions will be addressed by investigating
whether older adults perform poorly in short-term memory tasks when compared to
younger adults, if there is evidence of memory decline in the older group and
whether different age groups rely on different techniques to recall information. To do
this, two age groups (ages 20-40 and 50-70) will be tested on two memory tasks
containing digits and words which they will need to recall to the best of their ability.
Regarding the sample strategy, the participants will be taken from a convenience
sample due to the restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the test-takers
will be my family members, friends, neighbors, and university colleagues. The
participants’ short-term memory capabilities will be tested using first the Word Span
Task and then the Digit Span Task. I, the researcher, would real aloud the stimuli in
the word test and upon reaching the end of the list, instruct the participant to write
down what they could recall, in no particular order. Once completed, the Digit Span
Task would begin in a similar manner however the order would be important in this
test. I would read out loud a sequence of numbers and the participant would have to
write down the length of digits that they could recall, in order. The data will be
collected in the form of data entry sheets pertaining to the Word Span Task and Digit
Span Task answers which will then be entered into Microsoft Excel for storage and
analysis purposes. The researcher will use single factor ANOVA testing to analyze
and compare the mean scores that the two groups acquired from the memory tasks.
I as the researcher would closely analyze the results of both groups for evidence of
memory enhancement methods such as recency or primacy effects and the

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“chunking” method. I anticipate that there would be an age-related difference
between the two groups' performances on the memory tasks, with the younger group
outperforming the older group, as this conclusion would correlate with the findings of
present research relating to age and memory fun. Should the analysis of results
uncover significant statistical differences between the performances of the younger
and older group, the hypothesis that age affects short-term memory performance will
be accepted.

Keywords: short-term memory, chunking, primacy and recency effects, age,

quantitative study

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1. Introduction

This research report will aim to investigate whether age influences cognitive
processes and memory capacity by conducting a memory experiment on two age
groups. The research problem in this study relates to the potential effects of aging on
short-term memory performance. I will use a combination of empirical and theoretical
knowledge on the concept of memory and aging in biological psychology,
neuroscience, and cognitive psychology. By conducting a memory experiment
relating to the recollection of stimuli involving digits and words, I will ascertain
whether there are differences in the short-term memory performance of healthy
subjects from two separate age groups.

Understanding the relationship between aging and human memory is important

because research in this area has encouraged the development of medically sound
methods designed to help senior members of the population acclimate to age-related
changes. Another explanation for why we need to explore aging and memory is that
obtaining knowledge regarding memory assists scientists with recognizing and
knowing the differences between typical symptoms of aging and the more severe
indications of pathology or debilitating cognitive decline (Goldstein, 2011). This
qualification is significant for psychologists, neuroscientists, and other qualified
professionals as it provides the knowledge-based foundations for the efficient
treatment of the effects of cognitive deterioration such as dementia.

Relevant role players in a study such as this would include myself, the researcher,
and young, healthy adults between the ages of 20 and 40 years. This sample would
represent normal, healthy short-term memory functioning who should theoretically be
performing at optimal level. An older population sample of individuals between the
ages of 50 and 70 years would be considered affected parties, consisting of
individuals who, according to theoretical evidence, should not be able to perform as
optimally as the younger group when participating in recall tasks. The findings of this
result would affect interest groups such as neuroscientists, cognitive and biological
psychologists, practitioners, and the families of older members of the population.

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2. Literature overview

In this review of literature, I aim to provide a succinct definition of memory and

discuss the evidence linked to age-related memory deterioration. I will consider the
evidence resulting from empirical and theoretical research whilst investigating the
underlying causes of age-related changes in memory functioning.

2.1 Memory
Memory may be defined as “the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using
information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original
information is no longer present”, according to Goldstein (2010).
Encoding, storage, and retrieval are the three key processes associated with
memory. Encoding occurs when sensory input changes into mental representations
that can be stored. Storage involves encoded information becoming absorbed in
memory. Retrieval is the process which involves retrieving that stored information
(Goldstein, 2010).

2.2 Aging

Whilst ageing may be accompanied with growing wisdom, it also unfortunately is

accompanied by cognitive decline and memory loss. This is not usually accompanied
by lower-level functioning on a day-to-day basis, possibly due to various factors such
as fewer instances requiring the individual to perform at maximum functioning level
or a reliance on gained knowledge that do not decline with age instead of novel
problem solving (Salthouse,2012).

Aging is often the source of anxiety and embarrassment for many individuals. In
most cultures, it is even considered impolite to ask an adult how old they are. This is
ironic because, when we are young, this is usually one of the first questions we hear
during a first meeting.

Age is a significant component of one’s identity, yet as time passes people try to
distance themselves from their age, and the changes that come with it. The
interpretation of the society in which an individual grows up determines what “old”
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 constitutes. Being considered old is therefore quite subjective. Perhaps the warning
signs begin at the point when one feels offended about being asked their age.

Normal, or natural, aging is accompanied by various physiological symptoms such

as reduced motor activity, a slight decline in cognition and a shorter sleep duration.
These changes are considered a natural part of life and are often referred to as “pure
aging”. However, cognitive changes that are characterized by rapid decline are a
sign of a more severe problem, such as dementia (Besdine,2019).

Considering the fact that age is such an emotionally charged subject and has a
significant impact on physiological and mental functioning, it is unsurprising that an
abundance of research has been invested into the subject, especially regarding its
relationship to human memory.

Many research projects have been conducted investigating age-related differences

in memory performance. These studies have shown that aging results in
deteriorating cognitive capabilities which results in poor performance on tasks which
rely on memory. The consequences of memory problems can range from mildly
irritating or embarrassing to completely debilitating, impairing daily functioning in
important areas of life such as social or occupational (Cherry, 2020). This is why it is
highly important that more research is conducted to effectively prevent and treat
disorders such as dementia.

2.3 Relevant theoretical perspectives

The factors which cause age-related differences in memory performances may be

investigated and discussed using several theoretical perspectives. According to
those in favor of the biological perspective, a decline in memory performance may be
attributed to slowed processing speed in the human mind, much like the
malfunctioning software within an aged computer. This decline in processing speed
accelerates loss of memory in healthy, older adults and lessens the availability of
acetylcholine which is the most essential neurotransmitter related to memory
functions (Braverman,2011). According to Hammond (2019), a lack of acetylcholine
can be associated with neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
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Furthermore, another important neurotransmitter known as GABA plays a significant
role in memory processes- changed levels of GABA have been found in patients
suffering from neurological disorders, mood disorders and those merely experiencing
natural, or pure, aging (Millar, 2019).

Biochemist Christian de Vuve introduced the term “autophagy” to define the

important process whereby cellular matter (organelles and proteins) in the brain are
transported via vesicles to the lysosome, which is an organelle containing digestive
enzymes (Stachowiak,Al Mamun, Tzvetkov, Takeda, Atanasov, Bergantin, Abdel-
Daim, & Stankiewicz, 2018). Research has shown that there is a strong link between
autophagy processes and neurological disorders.

Aside from biological influences, lifestyle and health also play a significant role in
memory performance over time. Diabetes, smoking,
depression, mental inactivity, a sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy eating are
associated with “increased risk of cognitive decline, AD, or both” whilst “cognitive,
social and intellectual activity jointly with higher education and occupational
attainment” have resulted in lessening cognitive deterioration due to increased
cognitive reserve, “the capacity of the brain to resist the effects of neuropathological
damage” (Crous-Bou, Minguillon & Gramunt, 2017). With this information in mind, it
will be important to cancel out any mitigating risk factors in the research report by
devising a carefully planned, valid and reliable sample strategy which considers
lifestyle factors which may influence performance in recall tasks, skewing the
accuracy of results.

A vitamin B12 deficiency has also been linked to neurological disorders in adults
over the age of 60 however it is not irreversible (Hereema, 2019).

2.4 Empirical research results

Cross-sectional behavioral studies discovered rapid deterioration with age in the
ability to form new episodic memories, slowed information processing and declining
ability to carry out executive processes (Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004).

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Although it is true that ageing can have devastating effects on memory performance
and daily functioning, it is not necessarily all bad news. Behavioral studies have
displayed evidence that supports the idea that age-related changes result in both the
deterioration and preservation of “selective cognitive abilities” (Goh & Park,2009).
According to Goh et al (2009), age results in greater neuroplasticity to alleviate the
negative accompanying symptoms.

The findings of this study suggest that an alternative hypothesis may emerge,
namely that aging may cause changes in cognitive functioning which are not
necessarily maladaptive.

A study by Horn, Kennedy, and Rodrigue found that subjective complaints of

memory issues compared with observed performance over a long period were an
especially solid indicator of performance in recall tests with most reports coming from
men with higher beta-amyloid deposits, demonstrating that subjective reports may be
a marker for higher risk of developing Alzheimer's (Issue Highlights, 2020).

This indicates that subjective complaints should be taken notice of, as they may be
warning signs of a future neurological disorder. It also indicates that increased beta-
amyloid deposition may be associated with cognitive decline.

Proposed method and research design

The quantitative research study will aim to determine whether there is a statistically
significant relationship between the independent variable, namely age, and the
dependent variable, namely short-term memory performance. The survey research
design that will be used is either t-tests or ANOVA using Microsoft Excel in nature,
as the research was carried out at a specific point.
Hypothesis testing will be applicable in this study as it involves designs that test for
group differences with the aid of ttests, Anova, F-tests, Manova, and

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other inferential statistics. Data entry sheets containing the stimuli (words and digits)
will be used to collect the data and various research hypotheses will be developed
and tested, arising from the findings of the literature review.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) will be used to carry out
the statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics would then include measures of central
tendency, including means, medians, standard deviations, and skewness.

Sampling

I will recruit 15 participants from an age group of 20 to 40 years and another 15

participants within the 50-70 age bracket. The total sample population size will thus
be 30 participants. I will use a convenience sample therefore the subjects will be my
family members, friends, neighbors, and university colleagues. To control any
confounding variables, I will ensure that those interviewed are either employed or
studying as a student, as such individuals would be accustomed to test
environments and actively use their short-term memory as part of their everyday
lives. This decision is based on my research findings from an article which portrayed
evidence that lifestyle factors influence short-term memory (Brickman & Stern,
2009).

Furthermore, all participants will be native English speakers and South African
citizens, to ensure language barriers and cultural differences (and subsequent
deviations in understanding) do not skew the results. None of the subjects must
suffer from any health problems or cognitive disabilities which would hinder their
performance in the tests. To ensure a representative and valid sample will be
obtained, I will also ensure that I interview a relatively even division of males and
females in the groups (for example, 7 males and 8 females per group, or vice versa).
Each test-taker will be given a consent form to sign before participating. The
strengths of this sample strategy will include the fact that the participants were
chosen specifically to mitigate any risk factors. There are naturally limitations to this
sample strategy, regardless. As I am a student researcher, I do not have all the
necessary resources to ensure this report will be of optimal quality, valid and reliable
across contexts. Furthermore, since this report will be conducted during the
pandemic, many of the interviews will occur virtually which may lead to technical
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issues, misunderstandings and a noisy or distracting environment in which the
participant cannot focus (as this is something I will not be able to control in an online
setting). It should also be noted that this sample size is very small, taken from a
convenience sample of friends and family who live in a similar location. The future
findings of this report will therefore not be reliably used to make inferences about the
population at large, regarding memory and aging. Lastly, due to the pandemic
situation, some participants may be experiencing heightened stress levels which will
negatively affect their recall test performance.

Data Collection and Procedure

I will interview each interviewee in a quiet location where they feel comfortable. It is
to be noted that the environment may be out of my control if I conduct the interviews
virtually (due to COVID-19). After all other ethical considerations are carried out, I
will give the participant a pen and paper (or request that they use their own in the
case of virtual meetings), before stating that I will read the stimuli out loud, and when
I signal for them to begin writing, they must write as many words or digits as they can
possibly recall. I will conduct the Word Span Task first, before moving on the Digit
Span Task. During the former task, I will read a list of 20 simple words out, pausing
for a few seconds between each word.

Once complete, I will wait a few more seconds before signaling for the participant to
proceed with writing down as much as they can possibly recall. Once completed, I
will begin the latter task by reading aloud a sequence of digits, pausing, and then
signaling for the participant to write down what they recall, in the order the digits
were spoken. I will continue like this until we reach the end of the list. Then the
participant will give me their written answers which I will write in the stimulus data
sheet (marking with an X where error points occurred) before coding into Microsoft
Excel for storage and later analysis. I will record three types of results and analyze
them using ANOVA (one tailed test): firstly, the number of correctly recalled words;
secondly, the number of falsely recalled words and lastly, the longest length of digits
recalled up until an error occurred.

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Validity and reliability

To ensure the reliability of the research techniques, I will use the scale reliability
coefficients to obtain the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and compare the score with
previous research findings.

To ensure the proposed data collection, code and analysis methodologies will be
valid, internal validity of measures should be investigated.
The content used in the stimuli recall tasks will be appropriate to the research
question because they will pertain to the concept of memory and aging by testing
two different age groups’ short-term memory capacity, thereby giving the study face
validity.

The variables selected will be considered appropriate as the variables, age, and
short-term memory performance, directly link to the research problem, thereby
fulfilling the requirement of criterion validity. External validity will be achieved by
ensuring the findings of the research report can be applicable to different
contexts(generalized) which will be due to the sample strategy used. However, due
to the reasons listed under “sampling-limitations”, external validity may not be
achieved for this report. Construct validity will be obtained in this study by ensuring
the constructs selected will be convergent with each other.

I as the researcher will demonstrate complete objectivity by remaining neutral,

scientifically objective, and unbiased by my hypotheses throughout the process.

To ensure the data was kept safely, ethically, and professionally, I would capture the
data in a password-locked spreadsheet. However, it should be noted that for the
purposes of this study, only the participants’ age and gender will be needed so there
will be total anonymity maintained throughout the research process.

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Ethics

The ethical prescription of non-malevolence and avoidance of harm will be complied

with. All participants will be provided with consent forms to sign prior to the tests, and
they will be given a thorough overview of the purposes of the study and what will be
expected of them. As the report will only need to consider the test-takers’ age and
gender, the ethical imperatives of privacy, confidentiality and anonymity will be
complied with. All subjects will be asked if their participation is volunteered, and they
will be informed that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time. The
research proposal will be in adherence to institutional research policies, guidelines
and procedures and it will be submitted to institutional ethics review panels for
ethical oversight in order to obtain written permission to conduct the research.

Conclusion
It may be concluded that a research report pertaining to the influence of age on
memory would be highly beneficial. This report would focus on the findings of
theoretical and empirical research in order to investigate the hypothesis “Older
people are outperformed by younger individuals in recall tests due to age-related
cognitive decline”.

LIST OF REFERENCES
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Braverman, E.R. (2011). Younger brain, sharper mind. New York: Rodale Books.

Esther Heerema, MSW. (2019)“ Is It Alzheimer's Disease or Vitamin B12

Deficiency?” Verywell Health, 12 Nov. 2019, www.verywellhealth.com/is-it-
alzheimers-disease- or-vitamin-b12-deficiency-98738

Goldstein, E. (2010). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and

everyday experience: Nelson Education.

Goh, J. O., & Park, D. C. (2009). Neuroplasticity and cognitive aging: the scaffolding
theory of aging and cognition. Restorative neurology and neuroscience, 27(5), 391–
403. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2009-0493

Hedden, T., Gabrieli, J.D. (2004) Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive
neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 5(2):87-96. doi: 10.1038/nrn1323

Issue Highlights. (2020). AORN Journal,

112(3).https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/issue-112

Kalat, J.W. (2019). Learning, memory and intelligence. Biological psychology (13th
ed., pp.404-405). Cengage.

Millar, Abi. (2019)“Using GABA-Targetting Drugs to Reverse Memory Loss.”

Pharmaceutical Technology, www.pharmaceutical-
technology.com/features/memoryloss-drugs

Uddin, M.S., Stachowiak, A., Al Mamun, A., Tzvetkov, N. T, Takeda, S., Atanasov,
A.G, Bergantin, L.B, Abdel-Daim, M.M, & Stankiewicz, A.M. (2018). Autophagy and
alzheimer’s disease: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic implications.

Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 10(4), pp. 1-18. DOI:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00004

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In text: (Stachowiak, Al Mamun, Tzvetkov, Takeda, Atanasov, Bergantin, Abdel-
Daim, & Stankiewicz, 2018)

Salthouse, T. (2012). Consequences of age-related cognitive declines. Annual

review of psychology, 63, pp. 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-
120710-100328

Crous-Bou, M., Minguillón, C., Gramunt, N. et al. (2017). Alzheimer’s disease

prevention:from risk factors to early intervention. Alzheimer's Research & Therapy,
9(71), pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-017-0297-z

Steele, J. W., Fan, E., Kelahmetoglu, Y., Tian, Y., & Bustos, V. (2013). Modulation of
autophagy as a therapeutic target for alzheimer's disease. Postdoc Journal, 1(2), pp.
21–34.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5342246/

Jia, C. W., Ismafairus, A.H.A., & Malin, A.J. (2018). Working memory from the
psychological and neurosciences perspectives: a review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.
Doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401

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Plagiarism Declaration

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