Somali National University

Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Dep’t
Course: Highway and Traffic Engineering
Chapter 6:
Highway Geometric Design
Part-II
Outlines
Highway Design Alignments
 Horizontal Alignments of Highway
Vertical Alignment of Highway
Highway Horizontal Alignment

Thedesign of the alignment depends primarily

on the design speed selected for the highway.
horizontal alignment of a highway defines its
location and orientation in plan view.
 vertical alignment of a highway deals with its shape
in profile.
Horizontal alignment of roads usually comprises of
tangent distances, that are connected by very gradual
circular curves, that may be complemented by
transitional spiral curves, to accommodate a given
design speed with comfort and safety
Horizontal alignment consists of straight sections
of the road, known as tangents, connected by
horizontal curves.
The design of the horizontal alignment contains
the determination of:
o– Minimum radius
– Length of the curve,
– Horizontal offsets from the tangents to the curve to
facilitate Locating the curve in the field
Curves Used in Horizontal Plane to connect two
straight tangent sections are called horizontal curves.
 two types are used:
i. Circular Arcs and,
ii. Spirals
Types of Horizontal Circular curves:
1) Simple
2) Compound
3) Broken back Curve
4) Reversed
According to both AASHTO Highway Design Manuals,
the following are the general design controls for
horizontal alignment:
1) Alignment is as smooth as possible;
2) When using compound curve R2 must not be more than 1.5R1;
3) Avoid using broken-back curves;
4) Avoid using reverse curves;
5) Curves should be 150 m long for ∆ = 5 deg. and increased 30
m for each one degree decrease in ∆.
1) Simple Circular Curve
- Is a Circular arc connecting two tangents
- It is the type most often used
- The curves are usually segments of circles
- A simple circular curve is described either by its
– Radius
– Degree of the curve: the angle subtended at the center by a
circular arc of 30m (100 ft) (Highway Engineering)
1) Simple Circular Curve
- There are two ways to define degree of the curve D,
based on
– 30m (100 ft) of arc length (Highway Practice)
– 30m (100 ft) chord length (Railroad Practice)
The arc definition (highway) is equal to the central
angle in degree subtended by an arc of 100 ft; the
relation between D and R is estimated by
1) Simple Circular Curve
The Chord definition (Railway) is equal to the central
angle in degree subtended by a cord of 100 ft; the relation
between D and R is estimated by
1) Simple Circular Curve
- The minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on:
– Design speed
– Super-elevation (e),
– Coefficient of side fictions (fs)
The minimum radius corresponds to the maximum
recommended super-elevation rate which depend on:
•Location of the highway
•Weather conditions (e.g., the occurrence of snow),
•Distribution of slow-moving vehicles.
Assuming that the SSD is unobstructed, then the
design of the curve is as follows
Circular Curve Stationing
Normally, an initial route survey consists of
establishing the PIs according to
oThe plan
oLaying out the Tangents
oAnd Establishing continuous stationing along them from
the start of the project, through each PI, to the end of the
job.
In metric Stationing, full stations are generally 1km
apart, but stakes may be set at 40, 30, 20, or even 10 m
apart, depending upon conditions.
Staking at the closer spacing is usually done in urban
situations, on sharp curves, or in rugged terrain, while
the stakes are placed farther apart in relatively flat or
gently rolling rural areas.
Example
The point of intersection (P.I.) of two tangent lines is
station 15+20. The radius of curvature is 275 m, and
the angle of deflection is 52o. Find the length of the
curve, the station for the P.C. and P.T., and all other
relevant characteristics of the curve (L.C., M, E).
Example
Two tangent lines meet at Station 320+15. The radius
of curvature is 360m, and the angle of deflection is
14o. Find the length of the curve, the station for the
P.C. and P.T., and all other relevant characteristics of
the curve (L.C., M, E).
Example
Solution
Example
Calculate the station of PI and PC, R, Lc, M and E for
horizontal curve with D=1.35º , ∆=21º 45′, sta.,
PT=100+93?
Solution:
2) Compound Curve
Compound curves are a series of two or more simple
circular curves with deflections in the same direction
immediately adjacent to each other.
Compound curves are used to transition into and
from a simple curve and to avoid some control or
obstacle which cannot be relocated.
3) Reversed Curve
Reverse curves usually consist of two simple curves
with equal radii turning in opposite directions with a
common tangent. They are generally used to change
the alignment of a highway.
For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be
avoided when possible. As with broken back curves,
drivers do not expect to encounter this arrangement
on typical highway geometry
Reverse curve
Solution:
4)Broken-back Curve
Broken back curve occurs when a short same tangent
exists between two curves in direction.
As in the reversed curve, this curve should be avoided
because drivers do not expect to encounter this
arrangement on typical highway geometry
Broken-back Curve
5) Transition spirals
Transition curves are placed between tangents
(straight segments) and circular curves especially
when speeds are high and curvature is sharp. Also
they are placed between two adjacent circular curves
having substantially different radii
Spiral Curve
The main advantages of transition curves are:
Providing gradual increases or decreases the radial
force.
Providing a suitable location for the super-elevation
runoff.
Facilitating the transition in width when widening is
needed.
Enhancing the appearance of the highway.
Length of Spiral Curves. If the transition curve is a spiral, the
degree of curvature between the tangent and the circular
curve varies from 0 at the tangent end (radius = ∞ at tangent)
to the degree of the circular curve D at the spiral curve end
(radius = Rc)
Curve Widening ( Widening on HC)
Travelled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves
Travelled Way Widening on Horizontal
Curves
The travelled way on horizontal curves is sometimes
widened to make operating conditions on curves
similar to those on tangents.
The added width occupied by the vehicle as it traverses
the curve as compared with the width of the travelled
way on tangent can be computed by geometry for any
combination of radius and wheelbase.
Widening is needed on certain curves for one of the
following reasons:
(1) The design vehicle (especially larger ones) occupies
a greater width because the rear wheels do not
follow precisely the same path as the front wheels
(off-tracking) when the vehicle traverses a horizontal
curve or makes a turn, or
(2) drivers experience difficulty in steering their
vehicles in the centre of the lane.
Widening Formula & Calculations
The amount of widening w of the travelled way on a
horizontal curve is the difference between the width
needed on the curve Wc and the width used on a
tangent Wn:
The travelled way width
needed on a curve (Wc)
has several components
related to operation on
curves (see the adjacent
figure)
As shown in the formula above, the travelled way width
needed on a curve (Wc) has several components related to
operation on curves, including: the track width of each
vehicle meeting or passing,
U; the lateral clearance for each vehicle,
C; width of front overhang of the vehicle occupying the inner lane or
lanes,
FA; and a width allowance for the difficulty of driving on curves, Z.
 To determine width Wc, it is necessary to select an
appropriate design vehicle.
The design vehicle should usually be a truck because
off-tracking is much greater for trucks than for
passenger cars.
WB-15 design vehicle is considered representative for
two-lane open-highway conditions
 The track width (U) for a vehicle following a curve or making a
turn, also known as the swept path width, is the sum of the
track width on tangent (u) (2.44 or 2.59 m depending on the
design vehicle) and the amount of off-tracking.
The off-tracking depends on the radius of the curve or turn,
the number and location of articulation points, and the
lengths of the wheelbases between axles. The track width
on a curve (U) is calculated using the equation:
The lateral clearance allowance, C, provides for the
clearance between the edge of the travelled way and
nearest wheel path and for the body clearance between
vehicles passing or meeting. Lateral clearance per vehicle is
assumed to be 0.6, 0.75, and 0.9 m for tangent lane widths
Wn, equal to 6.0, 6.6, and 7.2 m respectively.
 The width of the front overhang (FA) is the radial distance
between the outer edge of the tire path of the outer front wheel
and the path of the outer front edge of the vehicle body.
For curves and turning roadways, FA depends on the radius of
the curve R, the extent of the front overhang of the design vehicle
A, and the wheelbase of the unit itself L. In the case of tractor-
trailer combinations, only the wheelbase of the tractor unit is
used.
The extra width allowance (Z) is an additional radial width
of pavement to allow for the difficulty of maneuvering on a
curve and the variation in driver operation. This additional
width is an empirical value that varies with the speed of
traffic and the radius of the curve. The additional width
allowance is expressed as:
 Application of Widening.
1- On simple (unspiraled) curves, widening should be
applied on the inside edge of the travelled way only. On
curves designed with spirals , widening may be applied on
the inside edge or divided equally on either side of the
centerline. In either case, the final marked centerline and
any central longitudinal joint should be placed midway
between the edges of the widened travelled way.
 2- Curve widening should transition gradually over a
length sufficient to make the whole of the travelled way
fully usable. Preferably, widening should transition over
the super-elevation runoff length, but shorter lengths are
sometimes used. Changes in width normally should be
effected over a distance of 30 to 60 m.
WB-15 design Vehicle
Super-elevation at Horizontal Curves
Super-Elevation
Super-elevation: Definition and Justification
Super-elevation is the banking () of a roadway around
a curves to counterbalance the centripetal force of a
vehicle traversing a horizontal curve
 The provision of super-elevation - one edge of a
roadway higher than the other – will prevent vehicles
from overturning or sliding off the road.
The side friction between pavement and tires also help
in counterbalancing the centripetal (outward pull)
force.
 There are limitations for values of highway’s cross
slopes. The minimum rate of cross slope applicable to
the travelled way is determined by drainage needs. In
contrast, the maximum amount of super-elevation
should not be exceeded for preventing slow-moving
vehicle from sliding or overturning to the inside of the
curve when the road is covered with rain, snow, or ice.
According to AASHTO, the minimum rate of cross
slope, also called normal crown is (1.5 – 2)% while the
maximum amount of super-elevation is (10 – 12)%.
Minimum Radius of Circular Curve
When a vehicle is moving around a circular curve the
centripetal force will attempt to pull the vehicle outside
the curve. In flat curves (with large radii) this force can
be fully counterbalanced by the side friction.
However, for sharper curves, only side friction will not
be enough to prevent vehicles from sliding outwards
and hence super-elevation is needed.
 The minimum radius of a circular
curve R for a vehicle travelling at V
kph can be determined by considering
the equilibrium of the vehicle with
respect to its moving up or down the
incline.
If θ is the angle of inclination of the
highway, the component of the
weight down the incline is W sin θ,
and the frictional force also acting
down the incline is ƒ . W cos θ
Other forces acting on the car are its weight W and
force exerted against the wheel by the roadway surface.
These forces are the normal force N, and friction forces
F, so: F ≤ ƒ N.
Appling equilibrium by algebraic summing for forces
parallel to the roadway gives:

But, super-elevation e = tan θ.

It can be obviously noted that minimum radius of the circular curve
Rmin is occurred when applying maximum values for the rate of
super-elevation emax and coefficient of side friction ƒmax.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
A) What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable for a
roadway with a 100 km/h design speed, assuming that the
maximum allowable Super-elevation rate and the
pavement coefficient of friction are both 0.12?
B) What is the actual maximum super-elevation rate
allowable under AASHTO recommended standards for a
100 km/h design speed, if the maximum value of ƒ and
minimum curve radius allowed by AASHTO for this speed
are 0.12 and 490m respectively?
Round the answer down to the nearest whole percent.
Solution:
Vertical Alignment
in this Section:
Terrain and Grades.

Control Grades for Design.

Length of Vertical Curves.

Elevations of Vertical Curves.

Terrain and Grades
Land topography has an influence on the alignment of roads
and streets.
Topography affects both horizontal and vertical alignments. To
characterize variations in topography, engineers generally
separate it into three classifications according to terrain;
(i) Level,
(ii) Rolling and
(iii) Mountainous.
Rolling Terrain

Mountainous Terrain
Rolling terrain generates steeper grades than level
terrain, causing trucks to reduce speeds below those
of passenger cars;
mountainous terrain has even greater effects, causing
some trucks to operate at crawl speeds.
 - Roads and streets should be designed to encourage
uniform operation.
It is accepted that nearly all passenger cars can readily
negotiate longitudinal grades as steep as 4% to 5% without
an appreciable loss in speed below that normally
maintained on level roadways.
The effect of grades on trucks and recreational vehicles
speeds is much more pronounced than on speeds of
passenger cars. That is because they generally have higher
weight/power ratios.
 Control Grades for Design.
Maximum grades: Maximum longitudinal grades of about 5
percent are considered appropriate for a design speed of 110
km/h [70 mph].
For a design speed of 50 km/h [30 mph], maximum grades
generally are in the range of 7 to 12 percent, depending
on terrain.
The maximum design grade should be used only
infrequently; in most cases, grades should be less than the
maximum design grade.
 Adjacent table shows
maximum recommended
grades according to type of
terrain and design speed.
Maximum grades depend
on (Table ):
– Design speed
– Design vehicle
– Functional Classification
– Topography
 Control Grades for Design.
Minimum grades:
• Flat grades can typically be used without problem on
uncurbed highways where the cross slope is adequate to
drain the pavement surface laterally.
• With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal grades
should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
• An appropriate minimum grade is typically 0.5 percent.
Vertical Alignment Design
The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of
:
Tangent grades (straight lines in the vertical plane) and

The parabolic vertical curves that connect these

grades.

Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change

from one tangent grade to another.
– so that vehicles may run smoothly
Main assumptions:
 Parabolic in shape.

X is measure in the horizontal direction

The curve is symmetrical around VPI.

 Types of Vertical Curves.
(I) Crest Vertical Curve

(II) Sag Vertical Curve

The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves:

Selection of suitable grades for the tangent sections and

the appropriate length of vertical curves.

Length of Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves based on sight
distance criteria generally are satisfactory for
o Safety ,

o Comfort , and

o appearance.
 Two conditions exist for the minimum length of crest
vertical curves:
1) the sight distance is greater than the length of the curve,

2) the sight distance is less than the length of the Vertical

curve.
The figure shows these two possible scenarios that could
control the design length.
The basic equations for minimum length of a crest
vertical curve as follow (AASHTO):`
Design control - Stopping sight distance:
h1= 1080 mm and
h2 = 600 mm
Design control - Passing sight distance:
h1= 1080 mm and
h2 = 1080 mm
Design values of crest vertical curves for passing sight distance differ
from those for SSD because of the different sight distance and object
height criteria. The previous general equations apply, but with 1,080
mm height of object (h2):
 Hints regarding the application of the curve length
formulas:
Computing SSD and PSD and choosing the largest. PSD
only for 2-lane 2-way highways.
For the SSD, choose the largest road grade with negative
sign.
The start of solution can be by initially assuming that S<L
or S>L and then applying the corresponding equation and
finally validating the initial assumption. Or it could be
simply by applying both equations and them choosing the
largest L value.
According to
AASHTO, for
convenience a short
formula
L=K.A is used
as shown in this figure.
The design controls for SSD
and PSD for crest and sag
curves can be shown in the
following tables.
Length of Sag Vertical Curves
The AASHTO policy mentions four different criteria for
establishing lengths of sag vertical curves are recognized to
some extent. These are :
(1) headlight sight distance,

(2) passenger comfort,

(3) drainage control, and

(4) general appearance

 Minimum Length based on SSD Criterion.
Headlight sight distance has been used directly as the basis
for determining the minimum recommended length of sag
vertical curves.
When a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve at night, the
portion of highway lighted ahead is dependent on the
position of the headlights and the direction of the light
beam.
A headlight height of 600 mm and a 1-degree upward
divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of
the vehicle is commonly assumed
The following equations show the relationships between S,
L, and A, using S as the distance between the vehicle and
point where the 1-degree upward angle of the light beam
intersects the surface of the roadway.
For overall safety on highways, a sag vertical curve should
be long enough that the light beam distance is nearly the
same as the stopping sight distance.
Accordingly, it is appropriate to use stopping sight
distances SSD for different design speeds as the value of S in
the above equations
Minimum Length based on Comfort Criterion.
The comfort criterion is based on the fact that when a vehicle
travels on a sag vertical curve, both the gravitational and
centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater
effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act in
opposition to each other.
Minimum Length of Curve based on Appearance
Criterion.
The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied
by assuring that the minimum length (m) of the sag curve is
not less than expressed by the following equation:
Minimum Length based on Drainage Criterion.
The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be
considered when the road is curbed.
This criterion is different from the others in that there is a
maximum length requirement rather than a minimum
length.
Sight Distance at Under-crossings
Sight distance on the highway through a grade separation
should be at least as long as the minimum stopping sight
distance and preferably longer.
Design of the vertical alignment is the same as at any other
point on the highway except in some cases of sag vertical
curves under-passing a structure illustrated in the exhibit
below. The structure fascia may cut the line of sight and
limit the sight distance to less that otherwise is attainable.
 Using an eye height of 2.4 m (h1) for a truck driver and
an object height of 0.6 m (h2) for the taillights of a vehicle,
the following equations can be derived for computing the
minimum length for sag vertical curve at under-crossings:

- The minimum vertical clearance for highways should be at

least 5.20m
 Elevation of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Vertical tangents with different grades are joined by
vertical curves such as the one shown in the figure below.
Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about
the point of intersection (PVI) of the vertical tangents they
join.
Hence, the method used for computing elevations of
points on the vertical curve relies on the properties of the
parabola (2nd order algebraic equation).
Depending on the estimated curve length and the
properties of parabola, elevations are determined.
The length of the vertical curve is the horizontal projection
of the curve and not the length along the curve

The location of the high point of the crest vertical curve is

frequently of interest to the designer because of drainage
requirements.
 For sag curves the equations are the same as crest curves.

The offset Y is added to the appropriate tangent elevation

to obtain the curve elevation
 The following steps are followed to determine the
elevations on vertical curves: