Geometric Design Elements of Highways

2. Highway alignment
Contents
• Introduction
• Horizontal Alignment Elements and layout
• Types of curves and its layout
• Super-elevation
• Stability of super-elevated surface
• Widening of curves
• Sight distance Vs curve design
• Setting out a curve
 Components of Highway Design

Horizontal Alignment
Plan View

Vertical Alignment

Profile View
 Horizontal Alignment
• What is a Horizontal Curve?
– Provides a transition between two tangent lengths of roadway
• Why are Horizontal Curves Needed?
– Objective:
• To ensure Geometry of directional transition:
– Safety
– Comfort Δ
• Primary challenge
– Transition between two directions
– Horizontal curves
• Fundamentals
– Circular curves
Spring 2008

– Super-elevation
CEE 320
 Horizontal Alignment elements
• Tangent Section:-
 Straight portion of roads
 Provide better visibility & better appearance
 Limited minimum length of tangent b/n curves is greater than or equal to
6V, V is in KPH
• Curves:-
• used to provide access
• Used to prevent demolishing of important places
• Used to make transition from tangent to tangent
Tangents & Curves

Tangent

Curve

Tangent to
Circular Curve

Tangent to
Spiral Curve to
Circular Curve
Layout of a Simple Horizontal Curve
R = Radius of Circular Curve
BC = Beginning of Curve
(or PC = Point of Curvature)
EC = End of Curve
(or PT = Point of Tangency)
PI = Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length
(T = PI – BC = EC - PI)
L = Length of Curvature
(L = EC – BC)
M = Middle Ordinate
E = External Distance
C = Chord Length
Δ = Deflection Angle
 Properties of Circular Curves
Degree of Curvature
• Traditionally, the “steepness” of the curvature is defined by either the radius
(R) or the degree of curvature (D)
• In highway work we use the ARC definition
• Degree of curvature = angle subtended by an arc of length 100 feet

Highway agencies –arc definition

Railroad agencies –chord definition
• 1
 Curve Types
1. Simple curves with spirals (why spirals)
2. Broken Back – two curves same direction (avoid)
3. Compound curves: multiple curves connected directly together (use
with caution) go from large radii to smaller radii and have R(large) < 1.5
R(small)
4. Reverse curves – two curves, opposite direction (require separation
typically for super-elevation attainment)
5. Switch-Back curve
 Simple Circular Curve
 Over the years, various theoreticians have proposed a variety of
polynomials as the most desirable forms of horizontal curvature,
determined from aesthetics.
 Accident history suggests, however, that drivers have enough
providing a constant rate of change of bearing. It is recommended that
anything more complex than circular arcs should be avoided.
 Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features
influencing the efficiency and safety of a highway. Improper design
will result in lower speeds and lowering of highway capacity
 Isolated Curves
• Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed
at or near the minimum radius, result in unsafe operations, as a driver
will anticipate derivable speeds in excess of the design speed.
• Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in
such conditions.
• For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius shall be
increased by 50 percent.
• This will result, generally, in the ability to negotiate the curve at a
speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design speed
 Relations

T  R tan(  / 2)
C  2 R sin(  / 2)
L  R
E  Rsec(  / 2)  1
M  R1  cos(  / 2)

•Stations of PC, PI, and PT:

PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T
 Minimum Length of Curve
• For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius
curves.
• This improves the appearance of the road by removing rapid changes
in edge profile.
• It also reduces the tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small
radius curves.
• Providing the curve radii are sufficiently large, it may be possible to
maintain a passing zone through a curve.
• The minimum length of curve for a deflection angle of 5 degree or
less is 300 meters.
 Broken Back Curve
 When two curves in the same direction are connected with a short
tangent, this condition is referred to as a “broken back” arrangement
of curves.
 This type of alignment should be avoided except where very unusual
topographical or right-of-way conditions dictate otherwise.
 Not only are broken back curve unsightly but drivers do not recognize
the short intervene tangents.
 Highway engineers generally consider the broken back alignment to
be unpleasant and awkward and prefer spiral transitions or a
 Compound Curves
 Formed by two simple curves
having one common tangent and
one common point of tangency
 Both curves have their centers on
the same side of the tangent
 PCC-Point of Compound
Curvature
 Compound Curves
 Compound curves afford flexibility in
fitting the road to the terrain and other
ground controls; however, their use should
be avoided from interchange and
intersection areas.
 Once they are on a horizontal curve, drivers
expect the radius should be remaining the
same hence supporting a constant speed
across the length of the curve.
 A compound curve is a violation of driver
expectancy and can be expected to have a
 Reverse Compound Curves
 Formed by two simple curves having
one common tangent and one
common point of tangency
 The curves have their centers on the
opposite side of the tangent
 PRC-Point of Reverse Curvature
 Reverse Compound Curves
 Another important variation of the
circular highway curve is the use of
reverse curves, which are a
combination of two curves that curve in
opposite directions with or without
intervene short tangent.
 These curves are aesthetically pleasant
but it is important to note that the
intervening tangent must be sufficient
long to accommodate the reversal of
super-elevation between the two curves.
 successive curves
• Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain (hills/cliffs).
• Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may be reached where
successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation.
• Three cases of successive curves are
– Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction
– Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same
direction
– Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening
tangent section
• The occurrence of abrupt reverse
curves (having a short tangent between
two curves in opposite directions)
should be avoided.
• Such geometrics make it difficult for
the driver to remain within his lane.
• It is also difficult to super-elevate both
curves adequately, and this may result
in erratic operation.
• The "broken-back" arrangement of
curves (having a short tangent between
two curves in the same direction)
should be avoided except where very
unusual topographical or right-of way
conditions dictate otherwise.
•
• The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the
road to the terrain and other controls.
• Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound
curves, because the driver does not expect to be confronted
by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
• Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.
• Compound curves with large differences in curvature
introduce the same problems as are found at the transition
from a tangent to a small-radius curve.
• Where the use of compound curves cannot be avoided, the
radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e. R1
 Switchback or hairpin curves
 Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing
mountainous and escarpment terrain.
 Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they are
generally outside of the standards for all road design standards DS1-
DS10, and are
 specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards
section
 Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design
vehicles can travel through the curve.
 Transition Curves
• These curve types are used to connect curved and straight
sections of highway.
• They can also be used to ease the change between two circular
curves where the difference in radius is large.
• The purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual
introduction of centrifugal forces.
• Such forces are required in order to cause a vehicle to move
round a circular arc rather than continue in a straight line.
• Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and
hence transition curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a
limited number of situations.
• For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is
small and transition curves are not normally required.
• It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is
insufficient
• justification for the additional survey and design work required.
Another possible warrant would be to consider spirals for roads where
a significant portion of the curves has a super-elevation in excess of 60
percent of the maximum super-elevation.
• For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and
 Cont.…
• Advantages:
• Provides an easy-to-follow path so that
centrifugal force increases and decreases
gradually; lesser danger of overturning/
side-slipping
• Vehicle could keep to the middle of lane
while traversing a curve
• Is convenient for the application of super-
elevation
• Improved visual appearance, no
“kinks”(sharp curve)
 Transition Curves - Geometry
PI: Point of Intersection
TS: Tangent to spiral
SC: Spiral to Circle
CS: Circle to Spiral
ST: Spiral to tangent
Ls: Total length of spiral
Lc: Length of circular curve
qs: Central angle of spiral arc of
length Ls
∆=total deflection angle of the
curve
Ys=tangent offset at SC
Xs=
K=abscissa of shifted PC with
reference to TS
 Spiral curve computation
• ∆ is determined in the field
• R or D is given by design considerations (limited by design speed)
• Chainage of PI is determined in the field
• Length of spiral,Ls, is chosen with respect to design speed &
number of traffic lanes,
Ls= V3/Rα
• Calculate the shift
S= Ls2 /24R
 continue
• Compute tangent lengths,Ts,
Ts=(R+S)tan∆/2 + Ls/2
• Compute spiral tangent deflection
Фx=ѳx/3 = Lx2 /6RLs
Total deflection angle
Фs= ѳs/3= Ls/6R------------ ѳs in rad.
Compute length of the combined curve
∆c= ∆-2ѳs
 continue
• Length of the circular curve
Ls = ΠR∆c/180
Thus total length of the combined curve is equal to
ΠR∆c/180+2Ls
• Compute chainage of main points of the curve
• Chainage of TS=chain of PI – TS
• Chainage of SC = chain. of TS + Ls
• Chainage of CS = chain. of SC + LC
• Chainage of ST= chain. Of CS + LS
 Length of Transition Curves
1. Length required for super-elevation runoff
• Super-elevation runoff: length of highway needed to accomplish the change in
cross slope from a normal crown section to a fully super-elevated section (or,
vice versa)
• The rate of raising the outer edge above the centre line should be:
Design Speed Ratio V:H
(kph)
80 1:200
64 1:175
48 1:150
32 1:125
 Length required for super-elevation runoff
2. Length required for driver comfort
– Rate of change of radial acceleration mustn’t exceed a certain value which is
acceptable to drivers
mv 2 v2
P  ar 
R R

v  cons tan t
 rate of change of ar  1 rate of change of R
 faster change in R  faster change in radial force
 greater passenger discomfort

– Transition curve must, therefore, be long enough to ensure that the radius can
be changed at a slow rate
 ar( fro mTSS C )  v 2 R
t( fromTS  SC )  ls v
ar v 2 R v 3
rate of change of radial acc., C   
t ls v lsR
v3
ls 
cR
(0.28V ) 3 (V ) 3
ls  
cR 46.66cR
The value of c lie in the range 0.2 to 0.6m/sec3; c=0.3m/sec3 is often used.
 Super-elevation
• Along circular path, vehicle undergoes centripetal acceleration
towards center of curvature (lateral acceleration).
• Balanced by super-elevation and weight of vehicle (friction between
tire and roadway).
• Super elevation is tilting the roadway to help offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle goes around a curve.
• Super-elevation and side friction work together to offset the outward
pull of the vehicle as it traverses the horizontal curve
• Along with friction, they are what keeps a vehicle from going off the
road.
 Methods of Attaining Super-elevation
– There are various methods for transitioning pavement from
normal crown to a super-elevated section
• € Revolve traveled way with normal cross slopes about the centerline
profile
• € Revolve traveled way with normal cross slope about the inside-edge
profile
• € Revolve traveled way with normal cross slope about the outside-edge
profile
• € Revolve traveled way with straight cross slope about the outside edge
profile
– The most common method is to rotate the pavement around the
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View
CL

2% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View
CL

1.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View
CL

1% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road
Plan View
0.5% CL 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan View
View
CL 2
-0.0% %
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-0.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
-1% 2
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

-.5% CL 2
%
 Superelevation
Road Section Road Plan View
View
C
-2% 2
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View
C
-3% 3
L
%
 Super elevation
Road Section View Road Plan View
CL
-4%

4%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
-3% 3
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
-2% 2
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
- ViewC 2
L
1.5 %
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
-1% 2
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
- ViewC 2
L
0.5 %
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
- ViewC 2
L
0.0 %
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
0.5 2
L
% %
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
1% 2
L
%
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
1.5 2
L
% %
 Superelevation
Road Road
Section Plan View
View C
2% 2
L
%
 Super-elevation
• € Must be done gradually over a distance without noticeable
reduction in speed or safety
• Transition lengths are needed to change the cross slope from
normal crown to full bank and then back down to normal crown.
• In highway design, it is necessary to establish limiting values of
super-elevation (emax) based on the operational characteristics of
the facility
• The allowed maximum super-elevation rates are:
– Rural and interstates/freeways 8%
– Suburban 6%
– Urban  4%
 Superelevation Transition
Spring 2008
CEE 320

from the 2001 Caltrans Highway Design Manual

 Super-elevation
• Super-elevation Transitions Consists of
– Super-elevation Runoff and
– Tangent Runout sections
• Runoff: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside
lane cross slope from zero to full
• Runout: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside
lane cross slope from normal rate to zero
• For appearance and comfort, the length of super-elevation runoff
should be based on a maximum acceptable difference between the
longitudinal grades of the axis of rotation and the edge of pavement
 Superelevation Transition
Spring 2008
CEE 320

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

• Locating a portion of the runoff on the tangent, in advance of the
PC, is preferable, since this tends to minimize the peak lateral
acceleration and resulting side friction demand
– 0.7*Runoff occurs before the PC and after the PT
– 0.3*Runoff occurs on the curve (right after the PC and right before the PT)
• For non-spiral curves, places 2/3 of the runoff on the tangent, and
1/3 of the runoff on the curve.
• Placing a larger portion of the runoff length on the approach
tangent is desirable.
• It decreases lateral velocity in an outward direction, which can lead
to undesirable side friction due to corrective steer by the driver
• Runout
– Determined by the amount of adverse cross slope to be removed and the rate
at which is removed.
– To effect a smooth edge of pavement profile, the rate of removal should
equal the relative gradient used to define the super-elevation runoff length
• Rout=(Roff*NC)/e
• NC is normal crown (usually 2%)
• e is the super-elevation rate (%)
Basics
PS Normal crown

PSC

Tangent
Circular Arc
Runout
Spiral Spiral curve
Full Runoff
Superelevation

PC
Runoff

Tangent
Runout Tangent to curve

Normal crown
 Superelevation W p  F f  Fcp

Rv

≈
Fc
α
F cn
F cp
α e
W 1 ft
Wn Ff

Ff Wp
α

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s W cos   sin    cos 
Spring 2008

gRv  gRv
CEE 320


 Stability of a VEH
To avoid overturning
2 2
mV h / R  mgb  V h / R  gb
To avoid side slip
2 2
mV / R  mg  V / R  g mV 2 / R

h
F
mg R’
b
a=radial acceleration; m=mass of vehicle;
V=speed of vehicle; R=Radius of
curvature; F=Frictional Resistance; v
R’=Reaction
a
When road has no camber and the
vehicle is on the verge of overturning
R  mg
F  mV 2 / R mV 2 / R

  F / R coefficient of friction h
F
mg R’
Stability on Super-elevated Surface
Forces & Equilibrium

Resolving the Forces // and |to the road

(// to the road)

e Wv 2
1 F  WSin   Cos
gR

W (| to the road)
Wv 2
Wv 2 F WCos  Sin   N
gR gR
q

N Frictional force, F=mN

 Relations (cont.)
Wv 2
N  Cos  WSin 
gR
Wv 2  Wv 2
 Sin   WCos   Cos  WSin 
 gR  gR
 v 2   v2 
Sin    1  Cos   
 gR   gR 
v2
 v 2
Tan  
gR But the term gR has a very small value and could
v 2 be ignored for all practical purposes. Check
1
gR using typical values like V=50km/hr; m=0.16;
and R=100m.
 Relations (cont.)
v2
Thus, Tan    e V=Km/hr
gR R=m
v 2 V 3.6 
2
e=m/m
 e  
gR 9.81R m=dimensionless

V2
Rmin  Fundamental equation of
127e    designing curves
 Maximum Degree of Curvature
• minimum radius for safety (veh. stability)
• Limiting value for a given design speed (given emax & mmax)
V2
Rmin 
127e   
• The respective maximum Degree of Curvature is:
1145 .92 1145 .92 143240e   
D max   2 
Rmin V 127e    V2

• Sharper Curve might justify use of e>emax or a higher dependence

on tyre friction or both
 Selection of e and fs

• Practical limits on superelevation (e)

– Climate
– Constructability
– Adjacent land use
• Side friction factor (fs) variations
– Vehicle speed
– Pavement texture
– Tire condition
Spring 2008
CEE 320
 Widening of Highway Curves
Need
– Rear wheels don’t follow front wheels,
– Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels
– To have adequate sight-distances
– Drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming
from the opposite direction and might thus move out of a
lane when traversing a curve
 Amount of Extra Widening
Let
R1=radius of inner rear-wheel on a curved truck (m)
R2=radius of outer front-wheel (m)
B=width of vehicle 2
R1  B  R2  L2  R2  f
f=widening (m)
L=Length of vehicle (m) 2
R2  L2  R2  f
 R2  L2  R2  f   R2  2 R2 f  f 2
2 2 2

2 2
2
 L  f (2 R2  f )  f  L  L
2 R2  f 2 R2
 Empirical formulas
for Amt. of Widening
• Vorshell w  0.07 D  0.462 D

• Barnett 
wn R R L 
V
2

R
2

• Hickerson w  1 0.1D
 Widening - Methods
• On a simple curve (i.e. with no spirals) widening should be applied on the
inside edge of a pavement only. For curves with spirals, widening could be
applied on the inside (only) or could be equally divided b/n the inside and
outside
• Widening should be attained gradually over the s.e. runoff length but shorter
lengths are sometimes used (usually this length is 30 – 60m).
• Widening is costly and very little is gained from a small amount of
widening.
 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal
Curve Design
• Adequate stopping sight
distance must also be
provided in the design of
horizontal curves.
• Sight distance restrictions on
horizontal curves occur
when obstructions are
present.
• Such obstructions are
frequently encountered in
highway design due to the
cost of right of way
 Horizontal Alignment Vs Sight Distance
Spring 2008
CEE 320
 Cont.…
• When such an obstruction exists, the stopping sight distance is
measured along the horizontal curve from the center of the
traveled lane.
• For a specified stopping sight distance, some distance, Ms, must
be visually cleared, so that the line of sight is such that sufficient
stopping sight distance is available.
• Equations for computing SSD relationships for horizontal curves
can be derived by first determining the central angle, s, for an
arc equal to the required stopping sight distance
 Cont.…
• Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds
the required SSD, we have

• Combining the above equation with following

• we get;
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve:
Minimum sight distance (for safety) should
be equal to the safe stopping distance

Sight Distance

Highway Centerline

PC M
PT
Line of sight

Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane

R R
Setting out a Simple Horizontal Curve by
deflection angles
X
To locate B
• <XAB=d/2 d/2
q/2
• Measure AB from A A
B
C
• Align B with the theodolite
To Locate C
• <XAC=d/2 + q/2
q
• Measure AC from A d

• Align C with the theodolite

 In General
 Horizontal alignments should be as directional as possible, but
consistent with topography
 Poor horizontal alignments look bad, decrease capacity, and cost
money/time
 Keep the number of curves down to a minimum
 Meet the design criteria
 Alignment should be consistent
 Considerations
• Horizontal Alignment  Avoid curves on high fills
Considerations  Avoid compound & reverse
○ Radius curves
○ Design Speed  Correlate horizontal/vertical
○ Side Friction Factor alignments
○ Superelevation  In actual design of a horizontal
• Runoff curve, the engineer must select
• Runout appropriate values of e and fs
 Considerations
 Super-elevation value ‘e’ is critical since
 high rates of super-elevation can cause vehicle steering problems at exits on horizontal
curves
 and in cold climates, ice on road ways can reduce fs and vehicles are forced inwardly off
the curve by gravitational forces.
 Values of ‘e’ and ‘fs’ can be obtained from standards
 For connecting straight tangent sections of roadway with a curve,
several options are available.
 The most obvious is the simple curve, which is just a standard curve
with a single, constant radius
 Considerations
 Other options include;
 compound curve, which consists of two or more simple curves in succession ,
 and spiral curves which are continuously changing radius curves
 Predicting speeds for tangent and horizontal segments is different
 May actually be easier to predict speeds on curves than tangents
 Speeds on curves are restricted to a few well defined variables (e.g. radius,
super-elevation)
 Speeds on tangents are not as restricted by design variables (e.g. driver
attitude)
 Considerations
 Design Considerations
 € Safety
 Economically Practical
 For the most part, Design Speed is used as the overall design control
 Radius
 Design of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate
relationship between design speed and curvature and on their
joint relationships with super-elevation and side friction
 Example
Given: A 2-lane road, each with width 4m, crown slope = 3%, design
speed = 80kph, rate of super-elevation, e=0.1m/m.
Find the length of transition curve if full super-elevation is going to be achieved by
rotation about the inner edge of the carriage way

4m L
C 4m

3% 3%