Motion in Two Dimensions: Onceptual Uestions

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
3
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. SOLVE (a) Surface area is a scalar; (b) position of point on Earth’s surface is a vector; (c) centripetal acceleration
is a vector; (d) the number of pages in this book is a scalar.
REFLECT Vectors require at least two numbers to specify what they represent. Position in space requires the
same number of coordinates as dimensions of the space (in the case of a position on the surface of the Earth,
3). Centripetal acceleration requires a magnitude of the acceleration and a direction that “seeks” the center. Scalars
require one, and only one number. Area and number of pages are perfect examples.
2. SOLVE (a) vector; (b) scalar; (c) scalar; (d) vector; (e) scalar; (f) scalar
REFLECT If more than two numbers are required to unambiguously specify the physical quantity, then the
quantity is a vector.
3. SOLVE The magnitude of the vector is a scalar. The direction of a vector in two dimensions is a scalar quantity.
REFLECT If only one number is required to specify the quantity then the quantity is a scalar. The length of a
vector is a scalar. In two dimensions the direction can be given with one angle (e.g., angle from the positive
x axis). In other words, it is a scalar!
4. SOLVE No. In two dimensions, speed and velocity are categorically different types of quantities. Velocity
requires both speed and direction.
REFLECT Even in one dimension, speed and velocity are categorically different. Speed can never be negative
(it is the magnitude of a vector) but to specify the velocity vector fully, not only do you need to know how fast you
are going, you also need to specify forward or reverse!
G
5. SOLVE Yes. Consider the vector v = vx iˆ + v y ˆj. The magnitude of this vector is v = vx2 + vy2 . If each component
is doubled vnew = (2 vx )2 + (2 vy )2 = 2 vx2 + vy2 = 2v.

REFLECT You see this all the time, for example, zooming into an image on a computer. If the ratio of the height
to the width of the image remains fixed, scaling the height of the image by any factor results in every part of the
image being scaled by that same factor. If that were not the case, pictures of faces would look very strange indeed
when blown up or shrunk down from the original size.
6. SOLVE Multiplying a vector by –1 (a) negates each component of a vector because multiplication is distributive
over addition, i.e., −1 × (vxiˆ + vy ˆj ) = −vxiˆ − vy ˆj ; (b) has no effect on the magnitude of the vector because
G G
| −v |= (− vx )2 + (−vy )2 = ( vx )2 + ( vy )2 =| v |; (c) reverses the direction of the vector, because the direction given
( )
vy
by θ = tan −1 v = tan −1 −v
x ( ) must be augmented based on which quadrant the vector lies in. If the vector lies in
− vy
x
the second or third quadrant, 180° must be added to the angle (Section 3.2). Negation of a vector in Q1 (quadrant
1) moves the vector to Q3, -Q2 → Q4, -Q3 → Q1 and -Q4 → Q2. In each case, the vectors differ by 180°.
REFLECT In short, negation of a vector only reverses direction and has no other effect on the vector.
7. SOLVE You cannot add a position vector to a velocity vector because they have different units.
REFLECT Vectors follow the same rules as scalars regarding units. It makes no more sense to ask the question,
“What is 4 m + 2 ms ?” than that it does to ask “what is 4 gallons + 2 feet?”.
3.1
3.2 Chapter 3
8. SOLVE An object can have constant speed and changing velocity (consider a merry-go-round: speed around the
circle is constant, but the direction of the velocity is changing). However, an object cannot have constant velocity
with changing speed.
REFLECT Velocity is both speed and direction. Constant velocity requires both speed and direction to be
constant. If either speed or direction changes, the velocity changes.
9. SOLVE An object’s average velocity over some time interval does not have to equal its instantaneous velocity at
some instant over the interval. We demonstrate by counter-example: Consider an object in uniform circular motion
G G
with period T. The average velocity over one period is v = Δr = 0 since the object returned to where it began.
T
Over this interval of time the instantaneous velocity has a constant magnitude greater than zero.
REFLECT While it is generally false that an object’s average velocity over some time interval has to equal its
instantaneous velocity at some instant over the interval, the statement is true for velocity in one dimension. The
counter-example above does not work in one dimension because periodic motion in 1-d requires reversing
direction which is impossible to do without reducing speed to zero.
10. SOLVE To throw a ball over a wall with the smallest possible launch speed, you want to reduce the x component
(horizontal) of the velocity as much as possible. The minimum required y component is set by the height of the
wall.
W
Minimm required vertical A
component is identical L
for these launch angles L
y y
x x
Larger Smaller
launch launch
speed speed
REFLECT Experience is the best guide in this problem. Imagine a small child trying to shoot a basketball. If they
can barely get the ball high enough to reach the basket, where do they stand if they want to make a shot? Right
under the basket!
11. SOLVE The horizontal distance that the projectile travels until it reaches the launch distance is called the range.
We can calculate the range by first finding the time it takes to get to the range point given initial velocity in the y
direction v0 y and noting that the velocity at the range point is vTy = −v0 y . Using equation 3.19b vy = v0 y − gt we
2 v0 y
find −2v0 y = − gT . Solving for T yields T = g
(the time it takes to reach the range point).
Given the time in transit to the range point we can calculate the range using eq. 3.18a
2 v0 y v0 x
x R = v0 xT = .
g
We assume that for any launch angle, the launch speed is the same. Encoding that sentence into an equation gives
speed S 2 = v02 x + v02 y , or equivalently: v0 y = S 2 − v02x . Finally we have an expression for the range in terms of one
variable only:
2v0 x S 2 − v02x
xR = .
g
Now we can answer the question. What is the launch angle that produces the largest range? Plotting the expression
for xr ( v0 x ) produces the figure below which informs us that there is one value of v0 x that produces an extreme
Motion in Two Dimension 3.3
value of the range. That value corresponds to the value v0 x = S

2
, which fixes the value of the
y-component of the launch velocity v0 y = S
2
. When v0 x = v0 y , the launch angle is 45°.
y 2v0x!S2 – v20x
xR =
g
Range
u
x
u = 45°
Therefore, the launch angle that maximizes the range is 45°.
REFLECT That was some work! A more qualitative explanation is that a large y-component of velocity results in
longer flight time, but smaller velocity in the x direction. Small y-component results in larger velocity in the
x-direction but less time of travel. The balance between these is when the x and y components of velocity are
equal. Equal components result in a launch angle of 45°.
12. SOLVE A car traveling at a constant speed on a circular track is experiencing a centripetal force (directed at the
center of the circular track). If the car begins to accelerate in the direction of motion, the total acceleration will no
longer be directed toward the center of the track, and its magnitude will increase (see figure below) because it is
the vector sum of the centripetal acceleration required to keep it moving in a circle and the acceleration required to
increase its speed.
!
! v
v Growing
Fixed
!
! a
a
Uniform circular motion Increasing speed

REFLECT Imagine the car when it is just starting the race. Upon pressing the gas pedal at the green light, what do
you think the driver is feeling? Pushed back in seat, or sliding to the side?
13. SOLVE All points on the blade have the same period T, so the velocity on any point of the blade is proportional to
the radius (Sec. 3.5). The centripetal acceleration is proportional to the square of the velocity and inversely
proportional to the radius, which combined leaves the centripetal acceleration proportional to the radius. Therefore
ar ( R ) = 2ar ( R2 ) , i.e., ar is twice as large on the tip than it is half way out.
REFLECT This qualitative relationship above is a sense memory for anyone who has played on a merry-go-round.
It is harder to keep yourself from flying off if you are on the edge than if you move in toward the center.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE PROBLEMS
14. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Knowing the angle the sun is above the horizon allows the construction of a right triangle
with upright 1.6-m - tall person as one side and the shadow on the ground as the perpendicular other side with the
sunlight forming the hypotenuse. We have two bits of information. The length of one side and one angle. The
tangent of the angle given is equal to the ratio of the height of the person and the shadow (as shown in figure
below) leaving tan30° = 1.60x m .
Sun
1.60
Tan 30° =
x
1.60 m
30°
Shadow = x
3.4 Chapter 3
SOLVE Solving for x in the above equation yields:

1.60 m 1.60 m
x= = = 2.77 m
tan30° 0.577
The correct answer is (c) 2.77 m.
REFLECT Now you can find the angle the sun makes with the horizontal, just by measuring your shadow.
15. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Traveling East a distance x then turning left and heading north a distance y produces a
net displacement from the origin. Since you made a 90° turn you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the
length of this displacement, i.e., the hypotenuse spanning the right angle formed by the trip yielding x 2 + y 2 = h2
where h is the net displacement from the origin.
SOLVE Replacing symbols with numbers given in the problem we have
h = (30 km) + (25 km) = 39 km

2 2
Choice (b) 39 km
REFLECT The total distance traveled was 55 km. Taking the most direct route possible (as the crow flies the
saying goes) you would shave 16 km off the trip.
16. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the components of a vector we need only appeal to Pythagoras to produce the
G
magnitude of the vector. If v = vx iˆ + vy ˆj then
v = vx2 + vy2
G
SOLVE Given r = 1.7 miˆ − 4.9 mˆj ,
r = (1.7 m)2 + (4.9 m)2 = 5.2 m
Choice (d) 5.2 m

REFLECT Seems like the Pythagorean Theorem might be useful. It would behove you to never ever forget it.
G
17. ORGANIZE AND PLAN When given a vector in component form v = vxiˆ + vy ˆj , determining the angle the vector
makes with the positive x-axis requires one step if the vector lies in the first or fourth quadrant, namely employing
v
the relationship θ = tan −1 ( vxy ). If the vector lies in the second or third quadrant then 180° must be added to the
angle determined in the same manner as the QI and QIV vectors to obtain the correct angle.
The vector in this problem lies in the third quadrant since both components are negative, hence we will have to
determine the QI,QIV angle then add 180°.
SOLVE The QI angle is θ = tan −1 ( 42..03 mm ) = 60°. Since the vector in the problem lies in the third quadrant we have
the final angle as 60° + 180° = 240°.
Choice (c) 240°
REFLECT This problem highlights dangers in applying equations without knowing where they come from. The
formula for the angle a vector makes appears straightforward, but one must always remember the 180° addition
that must be made in QII and QIII.
18. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Average velocity is a vector that represents total displacement over time (so choices a and
G
b are out as they are both scalars). The displacement vector is given by r = rxiˆ + ry ˆj yielding the average velocity
G G
v av = Δrt .
G
SOLVE The displacement vector traveled over 60 s is given in component form as r = 240 miˆ − 360 mˆj. The
average velocity is then:
G 240 m ˆ 360 m ˆ m m
v av = i− j = 4 iˆ − 6 ˆj
60 s 60 s s s
Choice (c) 4 ms iˆ − 6 m
s
ˆj
REFLECT Average speed (a scalar) would be calculated by finding the magnitude of the displacement divided by
the time. That is choice (b) 7.2 m/s. The wrong response to the question.
19. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship between speed and velocity is straightforward. Velocity is a vector and
speed is the length of the vector. The length of a vector (of any units) is given by the Pythagorean theorem:
G
v =| v |=| vx iˆ + vy ˆj |= vx2 + vy2
SOLVE The instantaneous velocity of the car is given as 11.9 m/siˆ + 19.5 m/sˆj . The speed S (magnitude of the
velocity vector) is:
S = 11.9 m/s + 19.5 m/s = 22.8 m/s
2 2
Choice (a) 22.8 m/s

REFLECT Selection c is the sum of the magnitudes of the components. This is as large a value as you can get by
adding vectors together and that can only occur when the vectors are in the same direction. You can always check
your vector magnitude solution for craziness by making sure it is larger than each of the components that compose
it and smaller than the sum of the magnitudes of the components.
20. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Average acceleration is a vector and is given by:
G G
G v f − vi
a avg = .
Δt
We must determine from the English in the problem what the initial and final velocities are. Since the dog’s
velocity changes from vG1 to vG 2 , vG1 = vG i and vG 2 = vG f (this seems almost too easy to talk about but if you don’t get
this right your signs won’t be right). We are given vG i , vG f and Δt.
SOLVE Plugging in values to the average acceleration expression yields:
G (1.25 m/siˆ + 2.03 m/sˆj ) − (2.13 m/siˆ − 1.91 m /sˆj )
a avg =
Δt
combining like components yields:
G −0.88 m/s iˆ + 3.94 m/sˆj
a avg = = −0.18 m/s2 iˆ + 0.79 m/s2 ˆj
5 .0 s
Choice (b) aG avg = −0.18 m/s 2iˆ + 0.79 m/s2 ˆj
REFLECT Checking this on a component by component basis we note that the dog slows down in the î direction
(negative acceleration) and speeds up in the ĵ direction. That rules out choice (d) without calculation. We also
note at first glance that the velocity changes much more in the ĵ direction than the î direction... that rules out
choice (c). Choice (a) is just the numerical value of the change in velocity with incorrect units!
21. ORGANIZE AND PLAN To calculate the maximum range we shall require both the speed and the launch angle. The
determination of the launch angle that produces the maximum range is shown in the Conceptual Questions section
Question 10. We found that the range is given for all launch angles by
2v0 x S 2 − v02x
xR =
g
and that the maximum range is obtained for a launch angle of 45°. For a launch angle of 45°, v0 x = cos45°S = S
2
S
where S is the launch speed. Replacing v0 x with 2
in the expression for the range yields:
2S2 1 − 1 2 S2
xR = =
g g
SOLVE Given the speed of 25.5 m/s the range is
( 25.5 m / s )
2
xR = = 66.4 m
9.8 m / s2
Choice (c) xR = 66.4 m
3.6 Chapter 3
REFLECT Considering the effort that went into calculating the range, the final expression for the maximum range
could be easily memorized. It is helpful to realize that the maximum range calculation in this text overestimates the
range that could be achieved by a ball due to air resistance, and underestimates the range that could be achieved by
an airfoil, for example a Frisbee or glider.
22. ORGANIZE AND PLAN When given the launch speed and the launch angle we can break the velocity into
horizontal and vertical components. There is no acceleration in the horizontal component and the vertical
component is affected by the downward force of gravity. Upon focusing on the vertical component we reduce the
two dimensional problem to a one-dimensional problem. The vertical component of the velocity will be given by
v0y = S sin θ, where S is the launch speed (given as 10.8 m/s) and θ is the launch angle (given as 50°). With v0y in
hand we can set about determining the maximum height.
We ultimately want to know the position when the velocity in the vertical direction is reduced to zero (when the
object stops going up and starts coming down). Equation 3.19a gives the position as a function of time in the
presence of a constant gravitational acceleration. Since we don’t have the time required to use that equation we
will use equation 3.19b to find the time where vy(tapex) = 0 and plug that time into 3.19a to find the maximum Formatted: Font: Not Italic
height.
Equation 3.19b vy(t) = v0y – gt where we set vy(tapex) = 0 = v0y – gtapex. Using tapex in equation 3.19a yields: Formatted: Font: Not Italic
1 2 Formatted: Font: Not Italic
ymax = v0 y tapex − gtapex
2 Formatted: Font: Not Italic
m m
SOLVE The vertical component of the velocity is v0y = 10.8 sin 50° = 8.27 .
s s
The time it takes to reach the apex is
m
v0 y 8.27
tapex = = s = 0.844 s
g m
9.8 2
s
The distance traveled over this time is
1 2 m 1 m
gt = 8.27 × 0.844 s − 9.8 2 ( 0.844 s )apex = 3.5 m
2
ymax = v0 y tapex −
2 apex s 2 s
REFLECT Kinematic problems usually have a progression somewhat like this where the task ultimately requires
the use of one of the equations without enough given in the problem to use the equation directly. This is why a
detailed understanding of the kinematic equations, namely, under what conditions they can be used and what each
of them describes, is required to succeed in this section.
23. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Horizontally launched means that there is no initial component of the velocity in the
vertical direction. We will use the vertical component of the motion to determine the time of flight and then use the
time of flight to determine the total horizontal displacement of the motion.
Since the components of the velocity are independent from each other, we decouple the component in the direction
of the acceleration from the horizontal velocity. The vertical component of the motion is free-fall from the
building. We can determine the time it takes to hit the ground by using equation 3.19a noting that the initial
velocity in the ĵ direction is zero yielding:
1
y(t b ) = −h = − gt b2
2
2h
where h is the height of the building. Solving for tb = .
g
In the horizontal direction there is no acceleration so the kinematic equation of motion is x = v0xt. Since the projectile
was launched horizontally, v0x = S where S is the launch speed (given in the problem S = 14.0 m/s). It travels
horizontally at this rate until it hits the ground, i.e., until t = tb. Therefore the horizontal displacement will be:
xhit = Stb
SOLVE Solving for tb yields:

2 × 12.4 m
tb = = 1.59 s
9.80 m / s 2
Feeding tb into our expression for the total horizontal displacement:
m
xhit = 14.0 × 1.59 s = 22.3 m
s
REFLECT A 12.4 m tall building is about a 40 ft tall building (the roof of a 3-story building). The drop time of
1.59 s is consistent with experience which means the horizontal displacement of 22.3 m makes sense. Choice (a)
would correspond to a drop time of 2.5 seconds which seems a little too long. Choices (c) and (d) would
correspond to drop times less than a second which seems a little too short.
24. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In order to answer this question, you need to know which surface has a higher elevation.
A sand bunker that is adjacent to a green is typically at a lower elevation than the entire surface of a green.
Therefore we shall assume the ball is launched at height hi below the point at which it strikes the earth (at height
hf), i.e., hf > hi. There will be no change in the horizontal velocity vx as the ball travels from the head of the golf
club to the point of impact on the green (assuming there is no air resistance) so the horizontal component of the
velocity will not change. The vertical component, on the other hand, is being accelerated downward to the ground.
As it is launched, its vertical velocity begins to decelerate until it reaches its apex then it accelerates downward as
long as it is falling.
If hf = hi, it would have the same speed it had when it was launched. Proof: Since the time from ground to apex
would be the same as the time from apex to ground, and the acceleration is constant, the vertical component at
landing vyf would be the same magnitude it had when launched, vyi, and the horizontal has remained unchanged.
Since speed
v0 = vx2 + vyi2 = vx2 + (− vyi )2 = vx2 + ( vyf )2 = v
SOLVE If hf > hi, then the vertical component would be less than the launch velocity. Proof: If time from apex to
green is less than the time from bunker to apex then the time spent accelerating downward is less than the time
spent decelerating from vyi to vapex = 0. Therefore, vyi > vyf .
v0 = vx2 + vyi2 > vx2 + (− vyi )2 = vx2 + ( vyf )2 = s f
yielding:
v0 > v
Choice (c) v0 > v
REFLECT Recalling that a ball takes the same amount of time to go up as it does to come down and that it hits the
ground with the launch velocity is something you can rely upon to get you through these types of problems. If the
green were below the bunker it would hit the green with a larger speed than the launch speed. When playing for
rolling position out of a bunker you will be thankful you solved this problem.
25. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Centripetal acceleration as a function of radius of motion and the speed is given by
v2
equation 3.20: ar = . If we are given any two of the variables ar, v or R we can find the remaining variable. In
R
this case, we are given the radius of the track and the maximum centripetal acceleration and we are asked to find
the velocity corresponding to the maximum acceleration. Faster than this speed and the tires lose their grip on the
road and the car slides.
SOLVE Solving the for v yields:
v = Rar
with given values:

v = 875 m 3.50 m / s2 = 55.3 m / s
Choice (b) 55.3 m/s

3.8 Chapter 3
REFLECT The speed 55.3 m/s is approximately 200 km/hr which is a decent race car speed. What force would
provide this acceleration? A combination of the frictional forces between tire and road as well as the bank (or tilt)
of the racetrack.
26. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Centripetal acceleration as a function of radius of motion and the speed is given by
v2
equation 3.20: ar = . If we are given any two of the variables ar, v or R we can find the remaining variable. In
R
this case, we are not given two values directly and we have to work a little for one of them. The goal is to find the
ar. We are given the radius and the orbital period. We need the speed which can be deduced from the orbital period
and the radius. We begin by finding the speed.
It takes the Moon has an orbital period T. To insure that units are in mks, we must convert the orbital period given
in days to seconds. Assuming the orbit is circular the distance traveled over this time is one full circle around the
Earth. The circumference of a circle is 2πR. In uniform circular motion, the average speed is equal to the
dist 2 πR
instantaneous speed at any point along the circle. Average speed is given by v = = . With the velocity as
time T
well as the radius of the orbit in hand we may directly find ar using equation 3.20.
SOLVE Converting orbital period from days to seconds:
24 h 3600 s
27.3 d × × = 2.36 × 106 s
1d 1h
Substituting the expression for the speed as a function of the radius and period equation 3.20 becomes:
4 π2 R 2 4 π2 R
ar = =
RT 2 T2
Substituting values from the problem:
4 π2 × 3.84 × 108 m
ar = = 2.72 × 10 −3 m / s2
(2.36 × 106 s)2
Choice (a) 2.72 × 10 m/s
–3 2
REFLECT If the Earth was halted in its orbital motion around the Earth, this is the acceleration the Moon would
have toward the Earth. This is a relatively small acceleration compared to the acceleration due to gravity on the
surface of the Earth. The source of the acceleration is the force due to gravity between the Earth and the Moon.
The gravitational force decreases as distance increases. Hence, the large distance between the Earth and the Moon
leads to a very small acceleration compared to the objects on the surface of the Earth.
PROBLEMS
27. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The best plan to solve this triangle is to work out the labels of the angles. Since the
triangle is a right triangle, one angle is easy: 90°. The angle formed by the 4 m side and the 5 m we will call θ1.
The angle formed by the 3 m side and the 5 m will be θ2.
There are a number of ways this problem can be solved. We shall use the tangent function solely. One could
equally use the other trigonometric functions to solve the problem.
opposite
SOLVE Recall that tan θ = . Angle θ1 is adjacent to the 4 m side and opposite to the 3 m side.
adjacent
Consequently,
3m
tan θ1 =
4m
In order to isolate the angle we need to apply the inverse tangent function to both sides which yields:
3m
θ1 = arctan = 36.9°
4m
Angle θ2 is adjacent to the 3 m side and opposite to the 4 m side. Consequently,
4m
tan θ2 =
3m
Applying the inverse tangent function to both sides yields:

4m
θ2 = arctan = 53.1°
3m
REFLECT As a method of checking our answer we note that adding all interior angles of a triangle must yield
180°. As we would expect 90° + 36.9° + 53.1° = 180°!
28. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the hypotenuse and the angles we will use the trigonometric function
opposite
sin θ = to solve for each of the unknown sides. We note that the 60° is the angle opposite the long side
hypotenuse
SL because it is a wider angle and 30° is the angle opposite the short side SS.
We are interested in the unknown sides so we will use a little algebra to find that opposite = hypotenuse × sin θ.
We should also recall the sin of the common angles used in this problem (table 3.1). sin 30° = 1/2 and
sin 60° = 3 / 2.
SOLVE Applying our trigonometric relation for right triangles we find:
3
SL = 12.5 cm × sin 60°=12.5 cm = 10.8 cm
2
and
1
SS = 12.5 cm × sin 30°=12.5 cm = 6.25 cm
2
REFLECT We can check the answer by using the Pythagorean Theorem: SL2 + SS2 = (12.5 cm)2 .
29. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given one angle of a right triangle (θ = 55°), the angle adjacent to the shadow
which has a length of 1.12 m. We need a relationship between between the angle, the given length and the length
opp
of the side opposite the given angle. We recall that tan θ = . Solving this relationship for the unknown length
ad j
we obtain:
opp = tan θ × ad j
SOLVE Substituting values given in the problem into the relationship above yields:
Deleted:
opp = tan θ × ad j = 1.12 m × tan55° = 1.60 m
Height of the person is 1.60 m.
REFLECT This height corresponds to 5 ft; 3 in. A reasonable height for a human!
30. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We begin with a right triangle (we are assuming the tree grows perpendicular to the
ground), a known angle and known side adjacent to the known angle. We wish to know the side opposite the
opp
known angle. A trigonometric relationship that relates the lengths of the two sides and an angle is tan θ = .
ad j
Using this relationship to isolate for the unknown side yields:
opp = tan θ × ad j
SOLVE Substituting values given in the problem into the relationship above yields:
Opp = tan θ × ad j = 25.0 m × tan 42° = 22.5 m
REFLECT This height corresponds to 73.8 ft. A reasonable height for a tree!
31. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We know one side, S1, the hypotenuse, and h that the triangle is a right triangle. That is all
we need to find everything else we might want to know about this triangle. We first specify the names of the angles
and the sides: S2 will be the unknown side, θ1 is the angle adjacent to S2 and θ2 is the angle adjacent to S2.
We solve for θ1 using the cosine relation:
adjacent S
cos θ = = 1
hypotenuse h
Isolating for θ1 yields:
S1
θ1 = cos− 1
h
3.10 Chapter 3
With two angles in the triangle (θ1 and 90°) we can find the third by noting that the sum of all interior angles in a
triangle must add to give 180°. In other words,
θ2 = 180° – 90° – θ1
There are a few ways to find S2. We can use the Pythagorean theorem directly noting that
S12 + S22 = h 2
which, upon isolating the unknown S2 in terms of the known values, yields:
S2 = h 2 − S12
SOLVE We are given S1 = 19.8 cm and h = 25.0 cm. Substituting these values into the expression for θ1 yields:
19.8 cm
θ1 = cos− 1 = 37.6°
25.0 cm
Using θ1 and the constraint on the sum of the interior angles yields:
θ2 = 180° – 90° – 37.6° = 52.4°
Finally, the Pythagorean theorem yields:
S2 = (25.0 cm)2 − (19.8 cm)2 = 31.9 cm
REFLECT The theme in all the trig review problems is if you are given two things, two sides, one side and the
hypotenuse, an angle and a side then you can find everything else you need. This is useful because it is often easier
in practice to obtain directly some measurements and deduce others.
32. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We need to find the right triangle lurking within the problem. From where you are the
peak of the mountain is θ above the horizon. The map puts you a horizontal distance x from the peak. So you have
an angle and a side adjacent to the angle. We need to find the side opposite the angle to find the height, y above the
present elevation. The elevation will then be the elevation of the car at the point of measurement, plus the length of
the side opposite the angle.
The trigonometric function that relates the two things we know to the side we don’t is the tangent function:
y
tan θ = . Isolating for the unknown value yields:
x
y = x tan θ
SOLVE The height above the current elevation is:
y = x tan θ = 25.0 km × tab 3.1° = 1.35 km
The peak’s elevation is then 1350 m + 1580 m = 2930 m
REFLECT This elevation is a respectably sized peak, though one of the smaller ones in the Rocky Mountains.
33. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Traveling h km down a θ down-grade maps to a right triangle that makes an angle of θ
with the horizontal and has a hypotenuse of h km. We are asked to find the change in elevation of that stretch (it is
a down-grade so our change in elevation will be negative), in other words, the length (y) of the side opposite the
known angle in the problem. The trigonometric relation between the known values and the unknown value is the
y
sine function: sin θ = . Isolating for the unknown value yields:
h
y = h sin θ
SOLVE Substituting the values in the problem in the above relation yields:
y = 5.5 km sin 6° = 575 m
Therefore, the change in elevation is −575 m
REFLECT In each problem, the particular trigonometric relationships used arise out of the measurements given.
This problem is a little tricky because you have to know you are traveling along the hypotenuse of the triangle.
34. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given two lengths in this problem: the hypotenuse (the length h traveled on the
road) and the resorts elevation (y). With this information we are asked to find the inclination angle θ. In this
problem the inclination angle is the angle opposite the side y. We note that sin θ = y/h. Isolating for θ yields
⎛y⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝h⎠
SOLVE The road’s average inclination angle
⎛ 1.15 km ⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.88°
⎝ 35 km ⎠
REFLECT The average inclination angle is not the angle you would get if you were to draw a straight line from
the town to the resort. The average inclination will include switchbacks on the mountain, long level stretches and
steeper climbs. You could reduce the average inclination angle by increasing the number of switchbacks.
35. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Determining the angle a vector makes with the x-axis requires two parts. First, evaluating
⎛y⎞
for the principle value of the angle using equation 3.8b: θ = tan ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ Second, augmenting the principle value: If
–1 .
the vector lies in the second or third quadrant you must add 180° to the principal value to obtain the correct angle.
In this problem we have to convert from the cardinal directions to Cartesian coordinates. North and South will
be + ĵ and – ˆj , respectively while East and West correspond to +î and −iˆ, respectively.
SOLVE Converting the English sentence “4.5 km north and 2.3 km west” yields:
–2.3 km î + 4.5 km ĵ
This vector lies in the second quadrant with a principle angle of
−4.5
θp = tan 2.3 = –62.9°
–1
So, for part (a) θ = θp + 180° = 117°.

For part b: 9.9 km west and 3.4 km south translates to
–9.9 km î – 3.4 km ĵ
This vector lies in the third quadrant with a principle angle of
3.4
θp = tan 9.9 = 19°
–1
Since the vector lies in the third quadrant θ = 19° + 180° or θ = 199°
For part c: 1.2 km east and 4.0 km south translates to
1.2 km î –4.0 km ĵ
This vector lies in the fourth quadrant with a principle angle of
θp = tan −1 −4.0 = −73.3°

1.2
The principle angle equals the angle in the first and fourth quadrants so θ = –73.3° or θ = 287°
REFLECT It is important to translate the cardinal directions into the proper signed direction in the Cartesian
system. Once that is done correctly, the rest is just application of the principle angle expression and remembering
the rules for when you have to add 180° and when you don’t. It is also helpful to keep a picture of the vectors in
your mind so you will know if the angle makes sense. If the magnitude of the y component is larger than the x
component, the angle should be between 45° and 135° or between 225° and 315°.
36. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given a displacement vector in cardinal directions, the time it takes to traverse the
displacement and asked to find the displacement and the average velocity. The first part is just converting the
cardinal directions to the Cartesian form. We recall that North, South, East and West correspond to the unit vectors
iˆ, – iˆ, ĵ and – ˆj , respectively. The average velocity (which we remember is a vector) will be determined by
dividing the displacement vector by the time of traversal. We are asked to find the average velocity in units of m/s
so we will also need to convert minutes to seconds.
3.12 Chapter 3
SOLVE Mapping the cardinal directions to the Cartesian unit vectors yields displacement r in Cartesian form:
G
r = 1250 miˆ − 900 mˆj
60 s
Converting 20 min → t s we have = 1 so
1 min
60 s
20 min × = 1200 s
min
The average velocity is then:
G
r 1
= (150 miˆ − 900 mˆj ) = 1.04 m/siˆ − 0.75 m/sˆj
ΔT 1200 s
or, in cardinal directions 1.04 m/s east and 0.75 m/s south.
REFLECT This problem required two types of conversions: minutes to seconds and cardinal directions to
Cartesian form. Acquiring skill in unit conversions will be something you thank yourself for the rest of your life.
G
37. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given vector v = vx iˆ + vy ˆj the magnitude is obtained using the Pythagorean Theorem:
v = vx + vy
2 2
SOLVE
r1 = r12x + r12y = (2.39 m)2 + ( −5.07 m) 2 = 5.61 m = r1
r2 = r22x + r22y = ( −3.56 m)2 + (0.98 m) 2 = 3.69 m = r2
REFLECT One way to check the answers is to make sure the length of the vector is larger than each component.
Also we note that the sign of the component does not have an impact on the length of the whole vector since each
component is squared.
38. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Adding vectors is achieved by “combining like terms” where the unit vectors are treated as
G G G G
variables. The sum of vectors v1 and v2 is a vector given by v1 + v2 = ( v1x + v2 x )iˆ + (v1y + v2 y ) ˆj
SOLVE
G G G G
r + r = (r + r )iˆ + (r + r ) ˆj = (2.39 − 3.56) miˆ + ( −5.07 + 0.98) mˆj = −1.17 miˆ − 4.09 mˆj = r + r
1 2 1x 2x 1y 2y 1 2
REFLECT Sign is important when adding components. You can always check the answer by drawing the vectors
G G G G
then adding by placing the vectors head to tail. Note that r1 + r2 = r2 + r1
39. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Subtracting vectors is achieved by “combining like terms” where the unit vectors are
G G G G
treated as variables. The difference between vectors v1 and v2 is a vector given by v1 − v2 = ( v1x − v2 x )iˆ + ( v1y − v2 y ) ˆj
SOLVE
G G G G
r1 − r2 = (r1x − r2 x )iˆ + (r1y − r2 y ) ˆj = (2.39 + 3.56) miˆ + (−5.07 − 0.98) mˆj = 5.95 miˆ − 6.05 mˆj = r1 − r2
REFLECT Sign is important when subtracting components and sometimes can be tricky. You can always check
G G G
the answer by drawing the vectors tail to tail and obtaining r1 − r2 by drawing a vector starting at r2 and ending at
G G G G G
r1 . Unlike addition, r1 − r2 ≠ r2 − r1 so order matters.
40. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Graphical addition of vectors consists of moving the tail of one vector to the head of the
other and connecting the tail of the first vector to the head of the second one to form the vector sum. The order of
this procedure does not matter for addition.
G G
Graphical subtraction of vector 2 from vector 1, i.e., v1 − v2 requires placing the vectors tails together then drawing
a vector from the tip of vector 2 to the tip of vector 1.
SOLVE See figure below.
– 1.17mıN – 4.09m≥N 5.95mıN – 6.05m≥N
!
r2
! !
r1 + r2 !
r1 !
! ! r1
r1 – r2
!
r2
REFLECT The graphical representation compares favorably to the exact calculations performed in the previous
two examples.
41. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Obtaining the angle between the vectors can be done by taking the difference between the
G G
angles the vectors make with the x-axis. We know that r1 lies in the fourth quadrant and r2 lies in the second
quadrant.
G v
Recall the principle angle of a vector v is given as θ = arctan y and an angle in the second quadrant is obtained
vx
by adding 180° to the principle angle.
G G
SOLVE Let α1 and α2 be the angle that the vectors r1 and r2 make with the x-axis, respectively.
−5.07 m
α1 = arctan = −65° = 295°
2.39 m
−0.98m
α 2 = arctan = −180° = 165°
−3.56 m
Since α1>α2, the angle θ between the two vectors is then
α1–α2 = θ = 130°
REFLECT From the diagram in the previous problem (where vectors were laid tail-to-tail for the graphical
subtraction) the angle between the vectors is consistent with the calculated angle.
G ^ ^
42. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The negative of a vector is obtained by negating each component. So, if v = vx i + vy j then
G
−v = − vxiˆ + vy ˆj.
G
SOLVE Part (a): −r2 = 3.56 m iˆ − 0.98 m ˆj
G G
From Problem 39. r − r = 5.95 m iˆ − 6.05 m ˆj
1 2
G G
r1 + ( −r2 ) = (rx1 + ( −rx 2 ))iˆ + (ry1 + ( −ry 2 )) ˆj
Part (b):
= (2.39 + ( − − 3.56)) m iˆ + ( −5.07 + ( −0.98)) m ˆj
= 5.95 m iˆ − 6.05 m ˆj
G G
= r1 − r2 Q.E.D.
Part (c): See figure below
!
r2
! !
! r1 + (–r2) !
r1 ! ! r1
r1 – r2
!
–r2
REFLECT The “trick” of subtracting by adding the negative of a vector is actually easier to remember for some
than the procedure for graphically subtracting vectors. Tricks are always good.
43. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the magnitude and direction form (or polar form) of the vector, the component
forms can be extracted out by finding the projection of the vector on the axis using appropriate trigonometric
functions. In parts a and b the vectors lie in the first quadrant and have angle measured from the x-axis. In each
case, the y component of the vector will be given by vy = r sin θ and the x components will be vx = r cos θ where r
is the length of the vector and θ is the angle made with the x-axis.
In part c, the vector is actually given in thinly veiled component form.
SOLVE Part (a):
vy = r sin θ = 6.4 m sin 80° = 6.30 m
and
vx = r cos θ = 6.4 m cos 80° = 1.11 m
3.14 Chapter 3
JG
which yields vector A in component form:
G
A = 1.11 m iˆ + 6.30 m ˆj
Part (b):
vy = r sin θ = 13 m sin 30° = 6.5 m
and
vx = r cos θ = 13 m cos 30° = 11.3 m
JG
which yields vector B in component form:
G
B = 11.3 m iˆ + 6.5 m ˆj
JG
Part (c): There is no x-component to this vector, it is all -y so vector C in component form is
JG
C = −10 m ˆj
REFLECT Vectors in polar form are easier to imagine in space than the same vector written in Cartesian form.
However, in this course, mathematically manipulation of vectors must be done in Cartesian form. Consequently,
being able to do these conversions is crucial if you want to be able to manipulate vectors given in polar form.
44. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The vector is given in polar form and lies in the third quadrant. The x component (or x
projection) of the vector is given by rx = r cos (θ) while the y projection is ry = r sin (θ). Multiplication of a vector
by a positive number does not change the angle the vector makes with the axis since both components are scaled
by the same factor. So multiplication by a scalar is multiplication of the magnitude of the vector in polar form and
multiplication of the magnitudes of each of the components in Cartesian form. Multiplication by a negative number
just flips the direction of the vector and can be obtained by adding 180° to the angle written in polar form.
G
SOLVE (a): The components of r1 = (r1, θ1 ) −
13.0 m cos (210°) = r1x = −11.3 m
13.0 m sin (210°) = r1y = −6.5 m
(b): Components, magnitude and direction of

JG JG
r2 = (r2 , θ2 ) = −2r1 = (2r1, θ1 + 180°)
The magnitude
r2 = 2r1
The direction:
θ + 180° = 390° = θ2 = 30°
(since the angle is cyclic)
The components:
26.0 m cos (30°) = r2 x = 22.5 m
26.0 m sin (30°) = r2 y = 13.0 m
REFLECT Always make sure you have a consistent picture with your results. Vector started in the third quadrant,
negation puts it in the first quadrant (check), roots of the sums of the squares of the components should give you
back the magnitude (check).
45. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Adding the vectors graphically requires first being able to draw a scale drawing (in this
problem it is appropriate to let 1 cm = 2 m). Then addition is just moving the tail of one vector to the head of the
other and drawing a vector from the tail of one vector to the head of the other.
Adding these vectors in component form first requires a conversion from polar form to Cartesian form, then adding
of x components to get x component of the resultant and adding of y components to get y component of resultant.
Converting to Cartesian form from polar form (r, θ) → (rx, ry) yields:
rx = r cos(θ)
ry = r sin(θ)
Then, adding the vectors in component form looks like this:

G G
S + R = (S x + Rx )iˆ + (S y + Ry ) ˆj
SOLVE Graphic solution is shown in figure below

! !
S+R
!
S
!
R
Components of the vectors:
Sx = 9.0 m cos(60°) = 4.5 m
S y = 9.0 m sin(60°) = 7.8 m
Rx = 6.0 m cos(0°) = 6.0 m
Ry = 6.0 m sin(0°) = 0 m
With components in hand we can add the vectors:

G G
S + R = (S x + Rx )iˆ + ( S y + Ry ) ˆj
= (4.5 + 6.0) miˆ + (7.8) mˆj
= 10.5 miˆ + 7.8 mˆj
G
REFLECT Using the graphical method the resultant vector is 2.2 times the length of R or 13.2 m long. The
length of the calculated vector is 13.1 m long. Having multiple methods of calculating things is very valuable when
the answer is not in the back of the book!
46. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We need to convert the velocities and times into distances first. We recall that rate times
time equals distance so obtaining the distance requires multiplying the velocity by the time over which the velocity
was maintained. Units must also be consistent. We are given velocities in km/h and times in minutes. There are
different ways to do this. We shall convert the time in minutes to time in hours to obtain distance in kilometers.
Once distances are obtained in the cardinal directions we will convert the cardinal directions to the Cartesian
directions: East → î and 60° south of East is an angle of –60° with the x-axis.
To find the total displacement (a vector) we need to add the vectors corresponding to the different legs of the trip
(East then Southeast). To add vectors we need them in Cartesian form.
1 hr
SOLVE Unit conversions: 50 min = 0.83 hr and 30 min = 0.5 hr The length of the leg one displacement
60 min
km
vector is r1 = v1t1 = 85 0.83 hr = 70.8 km which yields a vector:
hr
G
r1 = 70.8 kmiˆ
km
The length of the leg two displacement vector is r2 = v2t2 = 90 0.5 hr = 45 km which yields a vector:
hr
G
r2 = 45 km cos( −60°)iˆ + 45 km sin( −60°) ˆj = 22.5 kmiˆ − 39.0 kmˆj
Adding the displacement vectors:
G G
r1 + r2 = (r1x + r2 x )iˆ + (r1y + r 2 y ) ˆj
= (70.8 + 22.5) kmiˆ − (39.0) kmˆj
= 93.3 kmiˆ − 39.0 kmˆj
G
or, in polar form: R = (101.1 km, –22.7°)
REFLECT One general thing to look at whenever you approach a problem is unit consistency. Its often helpful to
keep in mind, upon first reading a problem, if you need to do unit conversions. It is common for professionals that
have to do calculation to first convert all units that need to be converted before they even start the problem. In
3.16 Chapter 3
many cases, once the unit conversions are done, the problem itself is very straight forward. It is also helpful to
keep in mind that in textbook problems, you can almost always answer the question with the information given
(unless the authors have made a mistake!). Real life requires that you find out what you need to know all by
yourself.
47. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is solved just like all the other problems above that involve addition of
vectors. However, here we are adding 3 vectors instead of two. The procedure is the same. We write each of the
three vectors in component form, we add all the components together and we end up with the resultant vector. In
other words:
G G G
r + r + r = (r + r + r )iˆ + (r + r + r ) ˆj
1 2 3 1x 2x 3x 1y 2y 3y
As always, the components are given by:

rix = ri cos(θi )
rix = ri sin(θi )
SOLVE The angles to be used in the problem are as follows:
θ1 = –10° θ2 = 6° θ3 = 0
The individual x components are then:
rix = 26 m cos (−10°) = 25.6 m
rix = 15 m cos (6°) = 14.9 m
rix = 18 m cos (0) = 18 m
And the individual y components are:
rix = 26 m sin ( −10°) = − 4.5 m
rix = 15 m sin (6°) = 1.6 m
rix = 18 m sin (0) = 0 m
G G G
r1 + r2 + r3 = (25.6 m + 14.9 m + 18 m)iˆ + ( −4.5 m + 1.6 m + 0) ˆj = 58.5 miˆ − 2.9 mˆj
So the total displacement is. 58.5 miˆ − 2.9 mˆj.
REFLECT If you can do this for two vectors you can do it for 3 or 4 or ... as many as you want. The biggest
source of error as problems like this get more complicated is sign errors and using the right angles.
48. ORGANIZE AND PLAN There is a distinction between distance traveled and displacement. Distance traveled is the
reading on the odometer of the car (assuming it started at zero at the beginning of the race). Displacement is the
displacement vector beginning at the start and ending at the location of interest.
The distance travelled will just be the arc of a circle which is given by fractions of a circumference. The
C C
circumference of a circle is C = 2πR. One-quarter lap is corresponds to , one-half lap and one whole lap C.
4 2
G
The displacement is a vector and requires both magnitude and direction. The displacement vector d can be
G G G
obtained by calculating the difference between the final position vector and the initial position vector, d = rf − ri .
Once we have the position vectors at the start, at one-quarter lap, one-half lab and one full lap it is a straight
forward matter to calculate the vector difference.
SOLVE Distance traveled:
C πR
quarter lap: = = 393 m
4 2
C
half lap: = π R = 785 m
2
full lap: C = 2π R = 1570 m
Position vectors in component form (rx, ry) at:
start: (250 m, 0)
quarter lap: (0, 250 m)

half lap: (–250 m, 0)
full lap: (250 m, 0)
Displacement vectors from start to
quarter lap: (0,250 m) − (250 m,0) = (−250 m,250 m) = −250 miˆ + 250 mˆj
half lap: (−250 m,0) − (250 m,0) = (−500 m,0) = 500 miˆ
G
full lap: (250 m,0) − (250 m,0) = ( −0,0) = 0
REFLECT This problem reinforces the difference between distance traveled (a scalar quantity) and displacement.
The stark difference is seen between the distance traveled to go all the way around, one circumference; and the
displacement associated with ending upwhere you started, zero.
49. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The car’s speed at any point is the cars speedometer reading. We are given the time it
takes to go around the track once. In the previous problem we calculated the distance travelled over one lap. We
obtain the speed by dividing the distance by the time it takes to travel the distance.
The average velocity between two position vectors is the displacement vector divided by the time.
The instantaneous velocity has the magnitude of the speed (we are told its constant around the circle) and the
direction tangent to the trajectory.
SOLVE Obtaining the distance once around the track from last problem:
Car’s Speed = 1570 m/55 s = 29 m/s
Average velocity for half lap: We obtain the displacement vector from start to half-lap point from previous
problem:
G
d = −500 miˆ
1/ 2
Which yields an average velocity for the half lap of

G −500 m ˆ m
v1/ 2 = i = −9
55 s s
The instantaneous velocity at the end of one lap is directed in the + ĵ direction and has the magnitude equal to the
speed:
G
v = 29 msjˆ
REFLECT The moral of the story is to be careful when you read the problem. Words generally have very specific
meanings in physics. Get in the habit of using the terms speed, velocity, instantaneous velocity and average
velocity in the way physicist use them.
50. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Calculating speed when it is constant over a time interval requires knowledge of the total
distance traveled and the time it took to travel it. The total distance is twice around a 400 m track which is 800 m.
The time is given in minutes and seconds. It is best to convert these units to one unit. One can chose either minutes
or seconds. We shall use seconds and add 60 for every full minute.
The average velocity for ending up where you started is always zero!
SOLVE Time for runner to complete the race (in seconds): t = 114.3 s
Average velocity for the race is zero.
dist 800 m
The average speed of the race is = = 7.0 ms
time 114.3 s
REFLECT Checking for the appropriateness of the speed we can use a standard measure of fast running speed
1 mi
using a four-minute mile. The four-minute mile in meters per second is roughly 1610 m/mi = 6.7 ms. Of
240 s
course, one can run faster in shorter distances so half a mile at 7.0 ms is a respectable and reasonable average
speed.
3.18 Chapter 3
51. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We obtain average velocity by dividing the displacement vector by the time it takes for the
displacement. The displacement vector is given by the end coordinates since the snail began at the origin.
The average speed will just be the total distance traveled divided by the time. We will assume the snail has traveled
in a straight line.
We shall express everything in units of centimeters per minute.
G
SOLVE Displacement vector: r = 5.6 cmiˆ + 4.3 cmˆj
G
G r
Average velocity: v = = 5.6 cm/ min iˆ + 4.3 cm/ min ˆj
Δt
Average speed: r / min = 5.6 2 + 4.32 cm/min = 7.1 cm/min
REFLECT Aside from reinforcing the difference between average velocity and average speed we see in this
problem an example of the use of descriptive units. Meters per second would have been technically just as valid
but much less transparent.
52. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Here we are asked to convert the cardinal direction description of a velocity into Cartesian
component form. The velocity is given as a magnitude and a direction. We will first convert the cardinal
description to polar form then convert from polar form to the Cartesian form.
G G
SOLVE The vector v in the northwesterly direction is given in polar form as v = (810 km/hr, 45°)p. Converting
to Cartesian form yields:
G
v = v × cos45°iˆ + v × sin 45° ˆj = 573 km/hriˆ + 573 km / hrˆj
G
If the plane is traveling due south at the same speed the velocity in polar form is v = (810 km/hr, –90°)p.
Converting to Cartesian form yields:
G
v = v × cos − 90°iˆ + v × sin − 90° ˆj = −810 km/hrˆj
REFLECT Many of these conversion problems can be done in your head. However, you can always use the
trigonometric procedure.
53. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Average acceleration is determined by taking the change in velocity over time:
G G
G v − vi
aavg = f
Δt
G G
We know the initial velocity v = 573 km/hriˆ + 573 km/hrˆj , the final velocity v = −810 km/hriˆ and the time in
i f
seconds.
Because the velocities are in units of km/hr and time is given in seconds we will have to do some unit conversion.
SOLVE
G −810 km/hrˆj − (573 km/hriˆ + 573 km/hrˆj
aavg =
45 s
G 573 km/hriˆ − 1383 km/hrˆj
aavg =
45 s
We note 1 km/hr = 0.278 m/s so:
G 159 m/siˆ − 384 m/sˆj
aavg =
45 s
G
aavg = 3.53 m / s 2iˆ − 8.54 m / s2 ˆj
REFLECT The magnitude of the acceleration is comparable to the acceleration due to gravity with the largest
component in the southerly direction. To be expected from the change in trajectory.
54. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The given velocities and durations will allow us to construct the individual displacement
vectors.
The speed will be determined by taking the total distance traveled along the path and dividing by the time it took to
take the path.
The average velocity will be determined by taking the total displacement vector from the origin and dividing by the
time it took for the trip.
Note on units and directions: Since velocities are given in km/hr and times are given in minutes we need to make
2
the units consistent. 30 min = 0.5 hr and 40 min = hr. The directions are given in cardinal form. We will use
3
standard conversion to Cartesian form North → ĵ and East → î .
SOLVE First leg of trip displacement vector:
G
r1 = 100 km/hr × 0.5 hriˆ = 50 kmiˆ
Second leg:
G 2
r2 = 80 km/hr × hriˆ = 53.3 kmˆj
3
Total path length: 103.3 km
103.3 km
Average speed: s = = 88.5 km/hr
7
hr
6
G
Total displacement vector: rtot = 50 kmiˆ + 53.3 kmˆj
G
G r
Average velocity: vav = tot = 42.9 km/hriˆ + 45.7 km/hrˆj
t
55. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the time after launch and the velocity at that time. The velocity at 55 s is
given in polar coordinates and can be converted to Cartesian as done in earlier problems. The velocity in Cartesian
coordinates is given by:
G
v = v cos θiˆ + v sin θˆj
The rocket is launched from rest on the ground. The average acceleration between 0 and 55 s is found by taking the
difference between the final velocity and the initial velocity and dividing by the duration.
G G
G v − vi
aavg = f =
Δt
SOLVE The velocity is
G
v = 950 m/s cos 75°iˆ + 950 m/s sin 75° ˆj = 246 m/siˆ + 918 m/sˆj
The average acceleration of the time between launch and 55 s is:
G 246 m/siˆ + 918 m/sˆj − 0
aavg = = 4.47 m/s2iˆ + 16.7 m/s2 ˆj
55 s
REFLECT What is interesting about this question is what you do not have to know. The path the rocket took is
unknown. Under its own power there are many paths possible. However when determining the average
acceleration only the end points are required.
56. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are asked to find a change in velocity and average acceleration over a time of 2.5 s.
G G
The dog’s initial velocity vi and final velocity v f are given.
G G
G G G v f − vi
The change is velocity is simply vi – vi . This leads directly to the average acceleration aavg =
Δt
SOLVE The change is velocity is: 6.7 m/s( − ˆj ) − 6.7 m/s( + ˆj ) = 13.4 m s ( − ˆj )
13.4 m/s( − ˆj )
The average acceleration is: = 5.4 m/s2 ( − ˆj )
2.5 s
REFLECT This is a fast turn around for a dog. Roughly 0.54 x the acceleration due to gravity. You should notice
that the units are all simple and easy to relate to known experiences.
57. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We shall define the coordinate system as follows. The trajectory the ball takes to the bat
immediately before impact will be the x-axis. We shall denote movement toward the bat as the negative x direction
and away from the bat as movement in the positive directions.
3.20 Chapter 3
G G
The change in the velocity is v f − vi . The average acceleration over the contact time of 0.75 ms is obtained by
dividing the change in velocity by the contact time.
We will convert milliseconds to seconds in order to get the acceleration in a form we can use for comparison.
SOLVE Change in velocity is: 36 m/s î – 32 m/s(– î ) = 68 m/s î
G 68 m / s
The average acceleration over the contact time is: aavg = = 91,000 m / s2iˆ
0.75 × 10 −3 s
REFLECT The acceleration is roughly 9300 times the acceleration due to gravity. This large acceleration is due in
large part to the very small impact time. If it were less than the acceleration due to gravity we would know we did
something wrong!
58. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The average acceleration over an duration of time requires the difference between the
velocities at the start and end of the duration as well as the duration itself.
The velocities are obtained from the speed and direction at the beginning of the race and 1/4 of the way around the
circle. If the race starts with cars facing due north (which will call the ĵ direction) then 1/4 of the way around the
circle the car will be facing due west (which we will call the −î direction) (see figure below).
!
vf = v(–ıN )
!
vi = v≥N
Race track
The time is determined by using rate × time = distance. We can use the geometry of the problem to determine the
total distance traveled and we are given the rate of travel over this distance.
The acceleration is then just obtained by dividing the change in velocity by the time.
We also note that the units are km/h. To obtain an answer that we can compare to experience we want to convert
everything to meters and seconds.
SOLVE The difference in velocities is:
G 90 km / h × 1000 m × 1 hr ˆ ˆ
Δv = 90 km / h( −iˆ − ˆj ) = ( −i − j ) = 25 m / s( −iˆ − ˆj )
1 km × 3600 s
1 π 1.25 km
The path length d of this part of the race is 1/4 the circumference of a circle: d = 2 πR = = 1.96 km.
4 2
d 1.96 km
The time of travel is Δt = = = 0.0218 hr = 78 s
v 90 km / hr
The average acceleration is:
G
G Δv 25 m / s(−iˆ − ˆj )
aavg = = = 0.31 m/s2 ( −iˆ − ˆj )
Δt 78 s
REFLECT The average acceleration is directed toward the south-west direction which jibes with the picture and
2
the trajectory of the car around the track. The magnitude of the acceleration is 0.45 ms or about 5% the
acceleration due to gravity on the Earth.
G
59. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The acceleration is given in polar form a = (1.15 m/s2 , −7.5°). The x component is then
a x = a ∗ cos(θ) and the y component is a y = a × sin(θ)
Finding the velocity after 10.0 s undergoing the constant acceleration above is best solved in the polar form. Since
the acceleration will always be in the same direction, (the same direction of the velocity), solving this in the polar
form reduces the problem to one dimension.
Constant acceleration down the hill allows us to extract the velocity by solving for velocity in the average
G G
acceleration relationship. Δv = a avg Δt
SOLVE Acceleration written in Cartesian form is:

G G
a = a xiˆ + a y ˆj = 1.15 m / s2 cos(−7.5°)iˆ + 1.15 m/s2 sin(−7.5°) = 1.14 m/s2 i − 0.15 m/s2 ˆj
The velocity written in polar form after 10 s assuming zero initial velocity is:
G G
Δv = v f = (1.15 m/s2 , −7.5°)10 s = (11.5 m/s, −7.5°)
In Cartesian form the final velocity is:
G
v f = 11.4 m/siˆ − 1.5 m/sˆj
The speed is 11.5 m/s
REFLECT The ability to go back and forth between acceleration and velocity and from velocity to position should
start to instill in you a feeling that knowing the acceleration will allow you to find position. We are preparing you
to understand the genius of Newton.
60. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given velocity and duration for different legs of the trip. To find total displacement
we are going to have to add the displacement vectors for the individual legs. Directions are given in cardinal form
which will have to be converted to Cartesian form for ease of calculation.
The average speed will be determined by dividing the magnitude of the path length by the total duration of the trip.
We will have to deal with unit conversions in this problem since velocities are given in km/h and durations are
given in minutes.
SOLVE The displacement vector for first leg of the trip is
G 1
r1 = 75 km / hr × hr( −iˆ ) = 25 km( −iˆ ),
3
and for the second leg
G 2
r2 = 90 km / hr × hr(cos(40°)(−iˆ ) + sin(40°)( − ˆj )) = 46 km( −iˆ ) + 38.6( − ˆj ).
3
G
The total displacement rtot is the sum of the individual displacement vectors of the legs:
G G G
r = r + r = (25 + 46) km( −iˆ ) + 38.6 km(− ˆj ) = 71 km( −iˆ ) + 38.6 km( − ˆj )
tot 1 2
The average speed is the path length 25 km + 60 km = 85 km divided by the total duration of the trip 1 hr:
Savg = 85 km / hr
G G
The average velocity is the final displacement ( r tot ) minus the initial displacement ( 0 ) divided by the duration of
the trip:
G
G r
vavg = tot = 71 km / hr( −iˆ ) + 38.6 km/hr( − ˆj )
1 hr
REFLECT The average speed lies between the leg one speed and the leg two speed consistent with expectation.
The direction of the average velocity is roughly in the west-southwesterly direction consistent with what would be
approximated by the statement of the problem. These types of checks ensure that no grievous errors were made in
the calculation.
61. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Calculating the change in velocity just requires the final velocity minus the initial velocity.
The initial and final velocities are given in relation to the side cushion of the billiard table. We first need to convert
the velocities in the given form for part a to Cartesian form:
G
vi = 1.80 m / s cos45°(−iˆ ) + 1.80 m/s sin 45°(− ˆj ) = 1.27 m/s(−iˆ ) + 1.27 m/s(− ˆj ),
and the final velocity for part a is given by
G
v fa = 1.27 m/s(−iˆ ) + 1.27 m/s( + ˆj )
For the more realistic case (part b) where the speed is diminished, the final velocity is:
G
v bf = 1.6 m/s cos45°( −iˆ ) + 1.60 m/s sin 45°( ˆj ) = 1.13 m/s( −iˆ ) + 1.13 m/s(+ ˆj )
SOLVE The change in velocity for part a:

G G
v fa − vi = 2.54 m/sˆj
3.22 Chapter 3
The change in velocity for part b:

G G
v bf − vi = 0.14 m/siˆ + 2.40 m/sˆj
REFLECT The change in velocity is limited to only the direction directly away from the cushion when the speed
is unchanged after impact. When there is a speed change after impact, a component along the cushion is present
opposite the direction of the initial velocity. If considering average acceleration (which would be in the direction of
the change in velocity) interesting questions arise that will be addressed in later chapters.
62. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If the storm is moving at a constant velocity, the average velocity is the velocity along the
whole path. Determining the average velocity requires taking the difference between the final displacement vector
and the initial displacement vector and dividing that vector by the time of travel.
G G
SOLVE The initial displacement is ri = 35 km(−iˆ ) The final displacement is rf = 25 kmˆj
The average velocity (the constant velocity) is
G G
G r − r 35 kmiˆ + 25 kmˆj
vavg = f i = = 23.3 km / hriˆ + 16.7 km / hrˆj
1.5 hr 1.5 hr
REFLECT The speed of the storm is 28.7 km/hr which is a reasonable speed for a storm.
63. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the initial velocity we can use the relationships derived in question 11 to find the
range and the time of flight. The range xR is given by
2 v0 y v0 x
xR = .
g
2 v0 y
The time of flight was derived to be T = .
g
The maximum height can be determined by considering that half the time time of flight is spent going up and half
is spent going down when the launch elevation is the same as the landing elevation. When the projectile is at the
apex of the path the component of the velocity in the vertical direction is zero. Using equation 3.19a with zero
1
initial velocity in the direction of acceleration ( y = − gt 2 ) and taking the origin of the coordinate system as the
2
T
apex. The distance of the fall in t = will give us the maximum height.
2
G
Known: vi = 27 m/s(cos45°iˆ + sin 45° ˆj )
SOLVE The range is:

2 v0 y v0 x 2 × (27)2 m 2 / s2
xR = = = 74 m
g 2 × 9.8 m / s2
The time of flight is:
2 v0 y 2 × (27) m / s
T= = = 3.9 s
g 2 9.8 m / s2
The maximum height is:
1 2 1 3.9 s 2
y= gt = 9.8 m / s2 ( ) = 19 m
2 2 2
REFLECT The distance between home-plate and the outfield wall is approximately 400 ft. The range found above
is consistent with a fly-ball hit into the outfield. The time of flight is also consistent with the experience of
watching a ball game and timing the time from bat to glove of a fly-ball.
64. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Drawing a scale sketch of a parabolic trajectory is best achieved by ensuring the ratio
between the height and range of the path matches that the of the problem. In the last problem the range was 74 m
height
and the height was 19 m. The ratio between height and range is = 0.26. So once we pic how wide we make
range
the drawing, say 6 cm the height is fixed to be 6 cm × 0.26 = 1.54 cm.
SOLVE The scale drawing (see figure below).

Height
19 m 45°
Range 74 m
REFLECT Under any scale, the initial launch angle should still be 45° . Check to make sure your drawing makes
an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
65. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If we knew the time it took to hit the floor we would be able to use the time, and the initial
velocity in the vertical direction (0 in this problem), the acceleration due to gravity and equation 3.19a
1
( y = v0 y t − gt 2 ). However, we are not given the time directly, we must extract it from the information given.
2
As usual with projectile motion problems we will separate the horizontal and vertical components and treat them
independently. Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the initial velocity remains the horizontal
component of the velocity throughout the problem. The distance of travel from the base of the table, d will be
related to the time of flight t, and the velocity v0 x by v0 x × t = d. Since both v0 x and d are given, the derived value
0.15 m
of t is given by t = = 0.50 s .
0.30 m / s
If the ball rolls off the same table at a higher horizontal velocity, the time of flight will remain the same as before
since the vertical components of velocity and acceleration are unchanged from part a of the problem. Taking the
time of flight and the increased horizontal velocity and using the fact that rate times time equals distance will
produce the desired distance.
SOLVE part a: The distance the ball falls is calculated as
1 1
y = − gt 2 = − 9.8 m/s2 (0.50 s)2 = −1.2 m
2 2
Yielding a height of 1.2 m.
part b: The distance db the ball strikes with horizontal velocity of v0 x = 0.60 m/s is
db = 0.60 m/s × 0.5 s = 0.30 m
REFLECT The crucial realization in this problem is that the horizontal and vertical components are completely
independent. From that realization the solution of the problem is just a puzzle using the given information to get to
the desired information. Beyond the mathematical manipulations, it is beneficial for your understanding of physics
as well as your numerical intuition to imagine this occurring in real life (or even try it out for real) to check if the
results are consistent with your experience.
66. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the initial velocity we can use the relationships derived in question 11 to find the
range and the time of flight. The range xR is given by
2v v 2 v 2 sin θ cos θ
xR = 0 y 0 x =
g g
where θ is the launch angle from the horizontal and v is the speed.
We are asked to determine if an initial velocity and launch angle will result in a range that is less than 25 m. We
shall extract v0 y and v0 x from the given information: vi = (20 m/s,15°) to obtain whether or not the ball will be in
or out of the court.
Given a range and a launch angle, determination of the speed is just algebraic manipulation of the relationship
above:
gx R
v=
2sin θ cos θ
Preliminary calculations: v0 y = 20 m / s sin15° = 5.18 m / s and v0 x = 20 m / s cos15° = 19.3 m/s
SOLVE Proof that the ball will land in play: The range of the struck tennis ball is
2 × 5.18 m/s × 19.3 m/s
xR = = 20 m < 25 m
9.8 m/s2
3.24 Chapter 3
The maximum velocity that will result in a ball in play is:

9.8 m / s2 × 25 m
vmax = = 22 m/s
2sin15° cos15°
REFLECT Another application of the range formula. It is interesting to note that 2 m/s difference in the velocity
of the ball coming off the racket makes the different between in and out of the court. Great tennis players must
have done very well in their physics classes.
67. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Again, we treat the horizontal and vertical component separately. This ability allow us to
determine the time it takes to hit the ground the same way we would if the problem was one dimensional; namely
with equation 3.19a with no initial velocity since the object was launched horizontally and therefore has no initial
velocity component in direction of the acceleration.
1
y = − gt 2
2
Isolating for t yields:
t = −2 y / g
Knowing the time of travel allows us to calculate the horizontal displacement using the r × t = d relationship. In
this case the velocity is the initial velocity and the time is found above.
The final velocity is the vector sum of the horizontal component of the velocity with the vertical velocity. The
horizontal velocity is unchanged over the flight. The vertical component of the velocity is obtained via equation
3.19b: vy = v0 y − gt. The initial component in the y direction is zero. So the final velocity will be:
G
v = v0 x iˆ − gtjˆ
SOLVE The elapsed time is:

t = 2 × 9.50 m / 9.8 m/s2 = 1.39 s
The horizontal distance traveled is:
x = 1.39 s × 13.4 m/s = 18.7 m
The final velocity is:
G
v = v0 x iˆ − gtjˆ = 13.4 m/siˆ − 9.8 m/s2 × 1.39 sˆj = 13.4 m/siˆ − 13.6 m/sˆj
REFLECT This cliff is about the height of a 3-story building. All the results depend on the elapsed time. Aside
from checking the units, you can always ask yourself if the answers make sense. A time of 1.39 s is consistent with
experience of dropping a ball from a 3-story building.
68. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The duration of the path traveling a horizontal distance x at with a horizontal velocity vx is
given by t = x/vx.
Over this time, the downward acceleration due to gravity produces a change in y value given by eq. 3.19a:
1
y = − gt 2
2
The velocity is given in terms of cm while the velocity is given in terms of m/s. We will measure the time in
seconds so we need to convert the meters to centimeters.
6 8
Preliminary calculations: 1.2 × 10 m/s = 1.2 × 10 cm/s
SOLVE Time in flight is:
8.5 cm
t= = 7.1 × 10 −8 s
1.2 × 108 cm/s
The distance of fall over that time:
1 m
y = − 9.8 2 (7.1 × 10 −8 s)2 = 2.5 × 10 −14 m
2 s
REFLECT This distance of fall is a fraction of the diameter of a single atom. In other words, the effect of gravity
over this distance at this speed is negligible.
69. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will find the height above the tip of the hose then add the height above the ground of
the hose to obtain the height reached.
As always we will take advantage of the fact that the x and y components are independent. In this case, we only
need to consider the vertical components. We will focus our attentions on one water droplet emerging from the
hose.
The vertical component of the initial velocity is v0 y = v sin(75°) .
Ultimately we want to use equation 3.19a to find the height at the time when the droplet reaches the apex.
However, we must determine the time after emergence from the hose to the apex to use 3.19a. We can determine
this time by using 3.19b and the fact that the vertical velocity at the apex is zero so the time at apex is t m = v0 y / g
With the time in hand, we have what we need to find the max height above the tip of the hose:
1
ym = v0 y t m − gt m2
2
Subbing in tm yields:
v2
ym = 0 y
2g
Finally, the height above the ground that the stream with reach is hm = ym + yL where yL is the launch height of
1.5 m.
Preliminary calculation: v0 y = 21.3 m/s.
SOLVE Max height of stream:

v02y (21.3 m/s)2
hm = + 1.5 m = + 1.5 m = 25 m
2g 2 × 9.8 m/s2
REFLECT The firefighters could apply water to approximately the window of the 7th floor.
70. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We have developed the range equation given the horizontal and vertical components of the
velocity:
2 v0 y v0 x
xR =
g
This problem is stated in a way that allows a straightforward application of this equations.
SOLVE The range of the long jumper is:
2 × 3.85 m/s × 7.5 m/s
xR = = 5.89 m
9.8 m/s2
REFLECT The worlds record for women’s long jump in 1928 was 5.98 meters. Today is 7.52 meters. A distance
of 5.89 m is a respectable and reasonable distance.
71. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Neglecting air resistance, the maximum range is achieved for a launch angle of 45° . The
2v 2
relationship for the range in terms of the velocity is x R = cos θ sin θ . In this problem, we are given the
g
maximum range and asked to find the velocity required to achieve that range. Solving for speed (v) in the range
equation with θ = 45° yields:
v = xr × g
The shell’s flight time is obtained by noting the given range xr and the horizontal component of the velocity vx.
These quantities yield a time of flight given by
x
t= r
vx
Notes on units: Range is given in terms of km and the acceleration due to gravity is in units of m/s. We are going
to convert km to meters for unit consistency.
SOLVE The launch speed required to obtain a range of 15 km = 15,000 m is
v = 15,000 m × 9.8 m/s = 380 m/s
The horizontal component of the velocity is vx = v × cos45° = 270 m / s
3.26 Chapter 3
The time of flight is

15000 m
t= = 56 s
270 m/s
REFLECT To achieve this range with air resistance the required speed would be greater. The significant digits of
this problem would not be sufficient to ensure that the battleship could strike a ship. One would need to have, at
least, a precision of tens of meters. So, if you are tasked with actually hitting things you will have to keep more
digits!
72. ORGANIZE AND PLAN A ball launched horizontally at a velocity of vx will take time t = x/vx to travel a distance x.
1
The vertical drop under the gravitational acceleration over this time will be y = − gt 2
2
Preliminary calculation: t = 18.4 m / 45.0 m/s = 0.341 s
SOLVE The vertical drop is:
1
y = − 9.8 m/s2 × (0.341 s)2 = 0.569 m
2
REFLECT So, in actuality when the pitcher aims at the catchers glove he must actually throw at an angle that
would result in a straight line from the release point to about a half a meter above where he wants the ball to go.
2 v0 y v0 x
73. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The relationship for the range used above is x R = . Note the proportionality
g
1
relationship between the range and the gravitational acceleration x Rα . If g is doubled the range is halved. If g is
g
halved the range is doubled.
x RM g E
To compare the ranges in the different places we note: = , or
x RE g M
gE
x RM = x RE
gM
SOLVE Range on the Moon is:

gE g
x RM = x RE = 120 m × = 120 m × 6 = 720 m
gM g /6
REFLECT If you wanted to get in 18 holes on a Sunday on the Moon you better have a pretty fast golf cart!
74. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equation for the range that has been used for many problems in this section is:
2 v 2 sin θ cos θ
xR =
g
1
We recall from our trigonometry class that sin θ cos θ = sin(2θ) yielding a cleaner form for the range
2
v 2 sin 2θ
xR =
g
In the problem, we are given the speed and the range and asked to find the required launch angle. Isolating θ in the
range equation:
1 gx
θ = arcsin( 2R )
2 v
We must keep in mind that there may be multiple angles that can achieve the range.
SOLVE The principle launch angle is:
1 50.0 m × 9.8 m/s2
θ1 = arcsin( ) = 0.0777°
2 (425 m/s)2
This is the principle value of the arcsin function. One can obtain the other possible angle by
θ2 = 90° − θ1 = 89.9°
REFLECT The two possible angles that will, in principle, allow the shooter to hit the target are almost straight up
in the air and just a little above horizontal. In practice the large angle would likely never be attempted since it is
more difficult to sight such a shot rather than the rather small angle above the horizon which could be accounted
for with a scope.
75. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are asked to find the velocity required to clear a fence of known height if the launch
angle is given. The vertical component of the motion is all that matters here. Equation 3.19c gives the maximum
height when the initial velocity is given:
v2
Δy = 0 y
2g
It follows that:
v0 y = v sin θ = 2 Δyg
Isolating for the velocity is:
2 Δyg
v=
sinθ
SOLVE The minimum velocity required to clear the fence:
2 × 2.1 m × 9.8 m/s2
v= = 9.1 m/s
sin 45°
REFLECT Gazelles can easily reach speeds of 9.1 m/s (about 20 mph) so making this jump (over a tall man for
example) would be no problem.
76. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The football kicker kicks from the ground (which we will call yi = 0) and needs to clear a
yf = 3.05 m crossbar x = 45.0 m away. The launch angle is 40° and we are asked to find the minimum speed
required to make the field goal.
x
The time tf it takes to reach the horizontal distance x traveling at horizontal velocity vx is t f = .
vx
1 2
The equation of motion in the y direction is y = v0 y t − gt . At t = t f , in order for the field goal to be good, the
2
value of the height should obey the inequality y(t f ) > y f . Giving the relationship required for clearing:
2
1 2 xv0 y 1 ⎛ x ⎞
y f < v0 y t f −gt f = − g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 vx 2 ⎝ vx ⎠
Noting that vx = v × cos θ and v0 y = v × sin θ the inequality becomes.
2
1 ⎛ x ⎞
y f < x tan θ −
2 ⎜⎝ v × cos θ ⎟⎠
g
Solving for v yields:

x
v>
2
cos θ ( x × tan θ − y f )
g
The square rooting mathematically allows for a negative solution which does not have physical meaning in this
problem.
SOLVE Plugging in numbers to find minimum velocity required:
45.0 m
v> = 2.21 m/s
2
cos(40°) (45.0 m × tan(40°) − 3.05 m)
9.80 m/s2
Minimum velocity required is 22.1 m/s
REFLECT In the more challenging problems like this units can help a lot in identifying errors in derivations. The
resulting answer should be checked for consistency. Imagine the problem redefined with the velocity that you
calculated. Calculate the time it takes to travel 45 m in the x direction (2.66 s). Then calculate the y position after
that time of travel. You should come up with 3.05 m
3.28 Chapter 3
77. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is similar to problem 76. The relationship derived for the trajectory as a
function of x applies generally and can be used for this problem. Written slightly differently from problem 76 we
show y(x) as
2
1 ⎛ x ⎞
y( x ) = x tan θ −
2 ⎜⎝ v × cos θ ⎟⎠
g
The first complication in this problem is that there are two distinct ranges of angles that can result in a ball in the
net. As shown in part a in figure we see for shallow angles the ball will obviously go in the net. As the angle
increases it is generally possible that the ball can go over the net. However, further increasing the angle can also
result in a goal.
Trajectories go over goal
1 x
f(u) = x tan u – g (
2 v * cos u
– yf )
v
15
12.5
10
7.5
2.5
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
Goal No Goal Goal
20.6° 81.7°
In this problem we are given the launch velocity v = 19.8 m/s , the distance to the goal x f = 11.0 m and the height
of the goal y f = 2.44 m and we are asked to find the angles that obey the following inequality:
2
1 ⎛ xf ⎞
y f > y( f f ) = x f tan θ − g⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ v × cos θ ⎠
The difficulty here is that there is no simple way to isolate θ in the above inequality. When algebraic manipulation
fails, one can always resort to numerical methods. In this case we shall plot the function
2
1 ⎛ xf ⎞
f (θ) = x f tan θ − g⎜ ⎟ − yf
2 ⎝ v × cos θ ⎠
When f (θ) > 0 the ball will go over the net. When f (θ) < 0 the ball will either go directly into the net or bounce
into the net. The values of θ that result in f (θ) = 0 will be the boundaries of the ranges requested in the problem.
SOLVE Plotting
2
1 ⎛ 11.0 m ⎞
f (θ) = 11.0 m tan θ − 9.8 m/s2 ⎜ ⎟ − 2.44 m
2 ⎝ 19.8 m/s × cos θ ⎠
we obtain part b in figure above. The range of potential goal angles are: θ = (0°,20.6°) and θ = (81.7°,90°)
REFLECT The actual range on the field is surely θ = (0°,20.6°) since the goalie would have a lot of time to locate
and act to stop the ball on the high arcing trajectories. However, if the goalie were to pass out from the pressure,
both ranges canpotentially result in a goal.
78. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is a combination between problems 76 and 77. In problem 76 the football
player had to kick the ball over the bar and in problem 77 the soccer player had to get the ball under the bar. In this
problem the soccer player must get the ball over the goalie and under the bar. So the following two inequalities
must be satisfied:
Below the bar-
2
1 ⎛ xb ⎞
yb > xb tan θ −
2 ⎜⎝ v × cos θ ⎟⎠
g
where yb = 2.44 m and xb = 20 m. Above the goalie-

2
1 ⎛ xf ⎞
yg < xg tan θ − g⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ v × cos θ ⎠
where yb = 1.70 m and xb = 15 m. In both cases v = 18.0 m/s .
SOLVE Inequality 1 for θ = 20°
2
1 ⎛ 20 m ⎞
2.44 m > 20 m tan 20° − 9.8 m/s2 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.429
2 ⎝ 18 m/s × cos20° ⎠
Inequality 1 satisfied for θ = 20°
Inequality 2 for θ = 20°

2
1 ⎛ 15 m ⎞
1.70 m < 15 m tan 20° − 9.8 m/s2 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.61 m
2 ⎝ 18 m/s × cos20° ⎠
Inequality 2 NOT satisfied for θ = 20°
Goal is NOT scored for launch angle of θ = 20°.
2
1 ⎛ 20 m ⎞
2.44 m > 20 m tan25° − 9.8 m/s2 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.96 m
2 ⎝ 18 m/s × cos25° ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 15 m ⎞
1.70 m < 15 m tan 25° − 9.8 m s 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 2.85 m
2 ⎝ 18 m s × cos25° ⎠
Since both inequalities are satisfied, a goal is scored for launch angle of θ = 25°.
1 ⎛ 20 m ⎞
2.44 m > 20 m tan30° − 9.8 m s 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 3.48 m
2 ⎝ 18 m s × cos30° ⎠
Inequality 1 NOT satisfied for θ = 30°
Goal is NOT scored for launch angle of θ = 30°.
REFLECT There is a narrow range of angles available for the soccer player to score a goal over the goalie. In the
next problem we will see what that range is.
79. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Continuing from the previous problem and using the graphical strategy from Problem 77
we will plot two functions: The first will tell us when the ball can go into the net (black plot in figure below)
2
1 ⎛ 20.0 m ⎞
f (θ) = 20.0 m tanθ − 9.80 m s 2 × ⎜ ⎟ − 2.44 m
2 ⎝ 18 m s × cos θ ⎠
When f1 (θ) > 0 the ball will go over the net. When f1(θ) < 0 the ball will either go directly into the net or bounce
into the net. The values θ of that result in f1(θ) = 0 will be set one boundary on the range of potential angles.
The second will tell us when the ball can go over the head of the goalie (red plot in figure below)
2
1 ⎛ 15.0 m ⎞
f2 (θ) = −15.0 m tanθ + 9.8 m s 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 1.70 m
2 ⎝ 18 m s × cosθ ⎠
3.30 Chapter 3
When f2(θ) > 0 the ball will go toward the body of the goalie. When f2(θ) < 0 the ball will go over the head of the
goalie. The values of θ that result in f2(θ) = 0 will be set one boundary on the range of potential angles.
In order to score a goal the ball must go over the head of the goalie AND not go over the net. In other words, the
following two conditions must be met: f2(θ) < 0 and f1(θ) < 0. Reading the regions off the plot that obey these
conditions will define our range of launch angles that result in a potential goal.
SOLVE From figure above we identify two regions that satisfy the conditions: θgoal = (20.4°, 26.6°)
and θgoal = (70.4°, 76.1°)
f1(u)
7.5
(20.4°, 26.6°) (70.4°, 76.1°)
f2(u)
5
Goaaaaal!?
Goaaaaal!
2.5
0 u
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Hit at goalie Over the top bar ?
REFLECT Technically both ranges can result in a goal if the goalie is not paying attention. In practice the more
shallow angles are more likely to result in a goal because the time of flight is much smaller, giving the goalie less
time to react. Of course, the goal also has width which makes it harder to be a goalie and easier to score a goal.
80. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The centripetal acceleration is given by ar = v2

R
. For uniform circular motion, the velocity
2π R
is related to the period T though the relationship v = T
. So, in terms of the period the centripetal acceleration is
4π 2 R
ar = T2
.
To compare the acceleration to the acceleration due to gravity we will want to obtain the radius of the earth at the
equator in meters and convert the period of 24 hr to seconds.
Equatorial radius of the earth: RE = 6.36 × 106 m.
Seconds in a day: T = 24 h 3600
1 hr
s
= 8.64 × 10 4 s
SOLVE The centripetal acceleration at the equator is

4π 2 (6.36 × 106 m)
aceq = = 0.0336 m s 2
(8.64 × 10 4 s)2
This acceleration is approximately 0.34% of the acceleration due to gravity.
REFLECT The centripetal acceleration required to keep stuff from flying off into space is but a small fraction of
the acceleration caused by gravity. Consequently, while the effective gravitational acceleration at the equator is
technically slightly smaller on the equator than it is on the poles, this difference would be imperceptible to all but
the most sensitive observations.
81. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The point at a latitude of 38°on the earth is rotating around a circle of radius rc = RE
cos(38°) (see figure below). Once the radius is known, we can use the relationship derived above for the centripetal
4π 2rc
acceleration in terms of the period and the radius ar = . Substituting the value rc for in terms of RE.
T2
4π RE cos(38°)
2
ar = = cos(38°) × aceq
T2
Earth’s Rotation Axis
rc
38°
Re
38°
SOLVE Using the result from the previous problem, aceq = 0.0336 m s 2 . The centripetal acceleration at 38°
latitude (north or south) is:
ar = cos(38°) × 0.0336 m s 2 = 0.0265 cm s 2
REFLECT As you move closer to the poles, the centripetal acceleration reduces to zero with a maximum value at
the equator.
v2
82. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equation for the centripetal acceleration is ar = . We are given a limit on the
R
allowed value for ar < 1.0 m s 2 leading to the inequality:
v2
acmax >
R
Solving for R:
v2
R>
acmax
v2
Rmin =
acmax
Notes on units: We will standardize the units in the problem to meters and seconds.
m 1 hr
100 km hr × 1000 × = 27.8 m s
km 3600 s
v 2
(27.8 m s 2 )
SOLVE Minimum radius of curvature is Rmin = min = = 773 m
ac 1 m s2
REFLECT A larger radius of curvature can accommodate faster speeds or lower centripetal acceleration.
83. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The centripetal acceleration ar is the acceleration required to keep an object moving in a
circle. If the acceleration is greater than ar then the object will move closer to the center of the circle. At the top of
the circle, the car is at least experiencing an acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m s 2 . If this acceleration is more
than is required to keep it moving in a circle, the car will move in the direction of the center of the circle. That is
bad for the passengers of the car as the car could fall off the track. If this acceleration is less than that required to
keep the car moving in a circle, the track itself will provide whatever additional acceleration is required to keep the
desired path.
For a given radius of loop R, the minimum speed required to ensure the centripetal acceleration is at least
v2
9.8 m s 2 is determined by the equation g ≤ ar = safe . Solving for vsafe yields:
R
vsafe ≥ g R
The minimum value is when vmin = g R
SOLVE Minimum velocity to ensure car does not come off the tracks at the top of the loop is:
vmin = 9.8 m s 2 × 7.3 m = 8.5 m s
REFLECT As the loop gets smaller the minimum required velocity decreases. Larger loops require larger
velocities. Imagine if the loop were the size of the earth. Solving this problem for a loop that big will give you an
idea of the speed of satellites.
3.32 Chapter 3
4π 2 R
84. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Here is another application of the equation in problem 80: ar = . In this case the
T2
unknown is the period T. Isolating the above relationship for T and subbing in the acceleration due to gravity at the
surface of the earth yields:
R
T = 2π
g
SOLVE The period for the spaceship would be

1100 m
T = 2π = 67 s
9.8 m s2
REFLECT The next time you watch 2001: A Space Odyssey remember this question and try to deduce the radius
of the space station by it’s period of rotation.
85. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The speed of light is c = 3 × 10 5 km s . The period of the particles is determined by
2π R
T= . Given the period T and the radius R, the centripetal acceleration is
v
4π 2 R
ar =
T2
SOLVE Assuming the speed is the speed of light to two decimal places the period is
2π 1.2 km
T= = 2.5 × 10 −5 s
3 × 10 5 km s
The centripetal acceleration is
4π 21200 m
ar = = 7.6 × 1013 m s 2
(2.5 × 10 −5 s)2
REFLECT This period corresponds to 40,000 trips around the circle per second and the acceleration is roughly
13
10 times greater than the acceleration due to gravity.
86. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We need to find the orbital period and the average distance from the sun for both Venus
and Mars.
Venus: (Tv = 225days : Rv = 1.08 × 1011 m) Mars : (TM = 687days : RM = 2.28 × 1011 m)
Comparison to the centripetal acceleration of the earth requires a change in period units from days to seconds.
Tv = 1.94 × 10 7 s
TM = 5.94 × 10 7 s
4π 2 R
With the values in hand we can find the centripetal acceleration using ar =
T2
SOLVE Venus:
4π 21.08 × 1011 m
ar = = 1.13 × 10 −2 m s 2
(1.94 × 107 s)2
Mars:
4π 2 2.28 × 1011 m
ar = = 2.55 × 10 −3 m s 2
(5.94 × 10 7 s)2
Reflect The ar for the earth was calculated to be 5.96 × 10 −3 m s 2 , a value that sits between Venus’ value and
Mars’. What causes this acceleration?
87. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The information we are given is not in a form that we can directly use relationships
derived in previous problems. We do have the radius R = 46 cm = 0.46 m but we are given the number of rotations
per second, 500 rev/s, and we need the period.
1
If there are 500 rev/min the period is T = = 0.002 m = 0.12 s.
500 s−1
4π 2 R
The centripetal acceleration is ar = .
T2
4π 0.46 m
2
SOLVE Plugging in the numerical values: ar = = 1.26 × 103 m s
(0.12 s)2
REFLECT This value is roughly 140 times the acceleration due to gravity, hopefully enough to squeeze the water
out in the spin cycle.
88. ORGANIZE AND PLAN For a given radius and required centripetal acceleration we can isolate for the period just
like in Problem 84.
R 2π R
T = 2π =
γg γ g
where γ will be the multiplier on g for required acceleration:
The problem provides the value R = 10.5 m
SOLVE plugging in numbers:
γ=4
10.5 m
T =π = 3.25 s
9.8 m s 2
γ=6
2π 10.5 m
T= = 2.65 s
6 9.8 m s 2
REFLECT The speeds at this rotational period for this radius are roughly 45 mph and 55 mph, respectively.
4π 2 R
89. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given radius and rotational period we recall ar = .
T2
We want to use standard units so we convert R = 12 km = 1.2 × 104 m
SOLVE Plugging in numbers:
4π 2 × 1.2 × 10 4 m
ar = = 4.7 × 10 5 m s 2
(1.0 s)2
REFLECT This is a very large centripetal acceleration (about 50,000 g). What keeps the neutron star from
ejecting all its mass? What provides the acceleration? Stay tuned!
90. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the period of the satellite and the altitude above the Earth’s surface. We need
to determine the radius of the circle the satellite will travel in (this is not the altitude above the surface but that
altitude plus the radius of the Earth RE = 6.36 × 106 m ). As we have done so far we will also want the centripetal
2
acceleration in standard units of m/s .
2π R
The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is the same as the average speed in uniform circular motion: v =
T
4π 2 R
The centripetal acceleration will be calculated using the familiar equation: ar =
T2
Preliminary calculations:
R = RE + altitude = 6.36 × 106 m + 3.5 m × 105 m = 6.17 × 106 m
T = 91.5 min = 5490 s
SOLVE Velocity:
2 × π 6.17 × 106 m
v= = 7.69 × 103 m s
5490 s
Centripetal acceleration:
4π 2 × 6.71 × 106 m
ar = = 8.79 m s 2
(5490 s) 2
REFLECT The velocity corresponds to about 17000 mph. The centripetal acceleration is less than the acceleration
at the surface of the earth. Since the gravitational force is providing the centripetal acceleration and the
gravitational force decreases as the distance increases this jibes with expectations.
3.34 Chapter 3
91. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Some things to note about velocity and acceleration. Velocity is always tangent to the
trajectory. The change in velocity is the acceleration.
SOLVE Choice (a) is unacceptable because the velocity is not tangent to the trajectory.
Choice (b) is unacceptable because the acceleration away from the center of the circle would result in a velocity in
the next time step that was directed away from the center of the circle.
Choice (c) is unacceptable because the acceleration is co-linear with the velocity. This acceleration would result in
the bike going off the circle in a straight line with a decreasing speed.
Choice (d) is the correct choice! The acceleration directed toward the center of the circle produces a change in
velocity that turns along the circle.
Reflect We have yet to discuss the source of the acceleration but at least we know how accelerations affect
velocities. You are ready to understand the brilliance of Newton!
92. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We first draw a diagram to depict the described problem (see figure below). Since we
don’t know the dimensions of the house we will assume the distance from the house is the horizontal distance from
the apex of the roof.
y
The minimum angle desired is θmin = arctan where y is the height of the house and x the distance from the house.
x
Sun
7.20 m
u
10.5 m
SOLVE The minimum angle above the horizon is:

7.20 m
θmin = arctan = 34°
10.5 m
The range of angles above the horizon that result in you being in the sun is then
θ = (34°,180°)
REFLECT You can use what you learned in physics class to plan out a garden in your yard. You just need to
know the path of the sun across the sky.
93. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will break up the track into 4 distinct parts. The 2 curved parts and the two straight
parts. The length of one curved part is half the circumference of a circle so the length of the two curved parts is just
the circumference of a circle 2πR.
The combined length of the two straight parts is easy: 2 × L
Finding the displacement of half a lap shown in diagram will require a coordinate system. The runner will have
travelled the diameter of the semi-circle down ( ˆj ) and the length of the straight side across (iˆ ) .
SOLVE Length of a lap:

d = 2π 38.2 m + 2 × 80 m = 400 m
Displacement of half a lap beginning between straight part and curved part:
G
r = 80 miˆ − 76.4 mˆj
REFLECT The distance around the track is approximately 1/4 mi so 4 times around is a mile.
94. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We shall assume there is negligible air resistance in this problem.
The horizontal and vertical components can be treated independently. The velocity at the apex of its trajectory is
all horizontal. Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction this is the same as v0 x = v cos θ where θ is
the angle above the horizontal.
The velocity when it hits will be equal in magnitude to the launch velocity and dip the same angle below the
horizontal as it was launched above the horizontal. This is because vx = v0 x and vy = −v0 y .
The range of the ball is determined using the range equation derived in Problem 74:
v 2 sin 2θ
xR =
g
SOLVE Velocity at apex:

v0 x iˆ = 25 m s cos 32°iˆ = 21 m siˆ
Velocity when ball reaches launch altitude:
G
v = 21 m siˆ − 13 m sˆj
or in polar form:
G
v = (25 m s , −32°)
Horizontal range:
(25 m s)2 sin(2 × 32°)
xR = = 57 m
9.8 m s2
2v0 y
REFLECT We can check for consistency in this result by calculating the time of flight t = = 2.7 s and range
g
equals x R = v0 x × t = 57 m. It never hurts to calculate things in different ways.
95. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In the case where the ball is launched from a height above where the ball will land the ball
will spend a little extra time in the air while it falls the extra distance. There are a number of ways to solve this
problem. We will use equation 3.19a:
1
y(t ) = v0 y t − gt 2
2
This equation assumes an initial position at y = 0.
We are given (or are able to directly calculate) the following values:
v0 y = v × sin(32°) = 13.2 m s , y(te ) = −7.2 m
where te is the time at the end of the flight.
If we use equation 3.19a to find te by solving the quadratic equation we can use that time in equation 3.19b to find
the vertical component of the velocity at te. The time te will also be used to find the range x R = v0 y × te .
Finding the time:
1 2
gte − v0 y te + y f = 0
2
The roots of this equation are found using the solution to quadratic equation:
v0 y ± v02y − 2 gy f 13.2 m s ± (13.2 m s) 2 + 2 × 9.8 m s 2 × 7.2 m
te = =
g 9.8 m s 2
Yielding te = –0.47 s and/or te = 3.16 s. Since the golfer was on his way to striking the ball at t = –0.47 s, this choice
is not a physical solution to this problem. The time of flight is te = 3.16 s.
Vertical component of velocity when ball hits the ground:
vy (te ) = v0 y − gt e = −17.8 m s
SOLVE Velocity at apex (same as last problem):

voxiˆ = 25 m s cos32°iˆ = 21 m s iˆ
Velocity when ball reaches ground:
G
v = 21 m siˆ − 18 m sˆj
or in polar form:
G
v = (28 m s , −40°)
Horizontal range:
x R = 21 m s × 3.16 s = 66 m
REFLECT Consistent with experience, the ball goes farther when struck at elevation (10 m for this problem) and
the angle below the horizon is increased from –32° to –40°.
3.36 Chapter 3
96. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The scale is set in the picture by the 1.8 m line segment. If we graphically cut that up into
10 sub-segments, each segment will correspond to 0.18 m. We can then place segments the same size as these sub-
segments end-to-end along the path from the right hand to the left foot. The resulting path distance will be simply
the number of segments N times the represented length of each segment 0.18 m (see figure below).
G
The displacement vector ( r ) will be constructed using the same sub-segment. We will set the origin of the
G
co-ordinate system to be the right hand when constructing r .
0.09m
1.8 m
0.18m
SOLVE Path length: 11 × 0.18 m + 2 × 0.09 m = 2.2 m

Displacement vector:
G
r = 4 × 0.18 miˆ − 9 × 0.18 mˆj = 0.7 miˆ -1.6 mˆj
In polar form vecr = (1.7 m,-65°).
REFLECT Revisit conceptual question 5 to find out how this question relates to the chapter (if you don’t already
know).
97. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We use the fact that the components of the velocity can be considered independently. The
vertical component of your velocity should be the same as the vertical component of the boat you are trying to
intercept. Here “vertical” means the velocity of the boat to be intercepted perpendicular to the line connecting the
two boats.
We know the velocity of our boat v1 and the velocity of the boat we are trying to intercept v2. We are trying to
determine the heading we need to set (the angle θ in front of the ship we should point the boat toward). The
vertical componentof the velocity of our ship v1x = v1 sinθ = v2. Solving for θ yields:
⎛v ⎞
θ = arcsin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ v1 ⎠
d
The time (t) it will take to reach the ship will be the path-length (d) divided by the velocity v1 : t =
v1
The path-length is the hypotenuse of the right triangle formed by the line connecting the boats when the radar
10 km
located the boat and the path of the other boat. This gives a length of d =
cosθ
The vector representing the meeting point (assuming our current position is the origin) will be, in cardinal form
G
r = ( d , N(90° − θ)Ε) .
⎛ 25 km hr ⎞
SOLVE Heading: θ = arcsin ⎜ ⎟ = 39°, also known as N51° E
⎝ 40 km hr ⎠
Time of interception:
d 10 km
t= = = 0.32 hr = 19 min
v1 40 km hr × cos 39°
Meeting point: 13 km N51° E
REFLECT You can check the answers above by taking useful limits in the situation. Suppose you could increase
the speed of your boat. How would that effect the heading? Fast enough and you just need to head straight for the
other boat. If you could just go a little faster than the ship you are trying to intercept, in this situation you would
have to head north and slowly merge with the ship following almost parallel paths.
98. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is very similar to Problem 95 with the exception that the launch height is
below the landing height. The strategy is exactly the same however.
As always we take advantage of the fact that the individual components are independent of each other. We begin
with the vertical component to find the time of flight:
The initial vertical velocity is: v0 y = 13.5 m s × sin(55°) = 11.1 m s
Using 3.19a and the known final height ( y f = 1.50 m) and initial velocity we find:
1 2
gt f − v0 y t f + y f = 0
2
The roots of this equation are found using the solution to quadratic equation:
v0 y ± v02y − 2 gy f 11.1 m s ± (11.1 m s) 2 − 2 × 9.8 m s 2 × 1.5 m
tf = =
g 9.8 m s 2
This yields: t f = 0.143 s and or t f = 2.12 s . The first answer is when the ball passes the level of the landing point
on the way up. We don’t need that answer. The second time is the time of flight t f = 2.12 s
The range is just the flight time times the horizontal velocity vx. The horizontal velocity
is vx = 13.5 m s × cos (55°) = 7.74 m s
The speed when it strikes the ground is the magnitude of the velocity. The vertical component is found by using
equation 3.19b: v f (t f ) = v0 y − gt f = 11.1 m s − 9.8 m s 2 × 2.12 s = −9.68 m s
The speed is v = vy2 (t f ) + vx2
v 2 sin 2θ
The range on flat ground for comparison is x r = . This better be longer than our result from the trap.
g
SOLVE Horizontal range hitting from the trap: x = 7.74 m s × 2.12 s = 16.4 m
Speed when striking ground:
v = (7.74 m s) 2 + (9.68 m s) 2 = 12.4 m s
which is less than the initial speed of 13.5 m/s
Horizontal range on level ground:
v 2 sin 2θ (13.5 m s) 2 sin(2 × 55°)
xr = = = 17.5 m
g 9.8 m s
which is longer than the range obtained by hitting out of the trap.
REFLECT As always in these problems, the crucial step is separating the components. Combining the lessons
from Problems 94, 95, and 98 we learn that the range is decreased when the launch height is lower than the landing
height and increases when the launch height is higher. We learn that the landing speed is greater than the launch
speed when launch is higher than landing, the same when launch and landing are the same height and lesser
landing speed when launch is below landing height.
99. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We have discovered that the maximum range for a fixed launch speed is obtained when
v 2 sin 2θ
the launch angle is 45°. We use the equation developed in Problem 74 for the range xr = . Solving for v
g
results in the following relationship:
gx R
v= = g × xR
sin 90°
x xr
The time of flight is t = r =
vx v cos(45°)
SOLVE Minimum velocity to achieve x R = 12.8 m : vmin = 9.8 m s 212.8 m = 11.2 m s

12.8 m 2
The time of flight: t = = 1.61 s
11.2 ms
REFLECT The minimum takeoff speed (25 mph) will achieve the range if the launch angle is optimal. Large or
smaller angles will require a faster speed.
3.38 Chapter 3
100. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This equation for the range was derived in problem 74. We’ll give it another explanation.
For a given launch angle and speed the time spent in the air is determined by equation 3.19b vy = v0 y − gt. The
vertical component of the velocity upon return to the launch height is equal in magnitude to the vertical component
of the launch velocity and opposite in direction. So equation 3.19b simplifies to 2v0 y = gt f , yielding a time of flight
2 v0 y
of t f = .
g
The range is then determined by R = vx × t f
Note the following, v0 y = v0 sin θ and vx = cos θ
SOLVE The range is:
vx × 2 v0 y
v 2 × sin θcosθ
R=
= 0
g g
Recalling from hint that 2sin θcosθ = sin(2θ) we obtain desired result:
v02 sin(2θ)
R=
g
REFLECT This derived result has been useful in addressing some problems in this chapter and was derived using
the techniques that have been used over and over in these problems.
v02 sin(2θ)
101. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equation, R = , derived above allows for straightforward answers to these
g
questions.
SOLVE Maximum range is obtained for a fixed launch speed when sin(2θ) is maximum. The function sin x is
maximum when x = 90°. When 2θ = 90°, θ = 45°.
The functions in x is symmetric about x = 90°, in other words sin(90° – x) = sin(90° + x) as long as 0 < x < 90° So,
the range of a particle launched at θ = 22° is equal to the range of a particle launched at θ = 68° because 90 – x =
2 × 22° yields x = 46° and 90 + 46° = 136° = 2θ yields θ = 68°.
When the launch angle is 90°, R = 0 since sin180° = 0. This jibes with experience because if you throw something
straight up in the air it comes right back down. No horizontal component to the velocity results in no horizontal
displacement.
REFLECT Simple when you look at it that way.
102. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equation for the vertical position as a function of time is given by equation
1 2
3.19a: y(t ) = v0 y t −
gt
2
The equation for the horizontal position as a function of time is:
x (t ) = v x × t
We can, without doing anything special, find the time as a function of the horizontal displacement:
t ( x ) = x vx
SOLVE If we replace t with x/vx in the vertical position as a function of time we get:
v x gx 2
y(t ( x )) = y( x ) = 0 y − 2
vx 2 vx
Again we note the following, v0 y = v0 sin θ and vx = cos θ, which simplifies y(x):
v0 sin θ gx 2 ⎛ g ⎞ 2
y(t ( x )) = y( x ) = x− 2 = (tan θ) x − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ x
v0 cos θ 2 v0 cos2 (θ) ⎝ 0
2 v cos 2
( θ) ⎠
The desired result!
REFLECT This is the type of function you need to actually visualize the trajectory in two dimensions. This
function was used to generate part a of the figure in Problem 77.
103. ORGANIZE AND PLAN What is a parabola? The standard form for a parabola is
2
y = ax + bx + c
Does the equation derived in problem 102 fit this form?
⎛ g ⎞
SLOVE Yes it does. The standard form value for a = – ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ , b = tan θ and c = 0 reflecting the fact that
⎝ 2 v0 cos (θ ) ⎠
2 ⎟
our base equations assumed the trajectory began at the origin.
REFLECT Now you can impress your friends at parties. In your most stuffy voice, say, “The trajectory of a
particle under constant vertical acceleration downward is parabolic. Of course, you must neglect air resistance.
Any fool knows that.”
104. ORGANIZE AND PLAN With Problem 102 we obtained y as a function of x, the path taken in space of a particle
under constant vertical velocity g. That equation can be solved for the initial speed as follows:
x g
v0 =
cosθ 2 ( x tan θ − y )
In this problem, if we assume the origin is located where the ball is launched, x = 6.33 m, y = 3.05 m – 2.00 m =
1.05 m and θ = 30°.
SOLVE Plugging in values the initial velocity required to make the basket with given parameters:
6.33 m 9.8 m/s 2
v0 = = 10.0 m/s
cos30D 2 ( 6.33 m × tan30D −1.05 m )
If x was increased by 40 cm to x = 6.73 m.
6.73 m 9.8 m/s2
v0 = = 10.2 m/s
cos30 2 ( 6.73 m × tan30D −1.05 m )
D
REFLECT The difference between making a shot and a total air ball just beyond the three point line (international
rules) is 2% margin of error in the velocity. In actuality this is even more difficult because the angle is variable for
the player as well. So,in basketball as in physics, perfect practice is the only hope to make perfect.
105. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the period T, and the radius R of the assumed uniform circular motion. With
this given information the form of centripetal acceleration that we will use is:
4π 2 R
ar =
T2
2
The period is given in terms of days. As we have all chapter, we would like the acceleration in units of m/s .
Converting
T = 27.3 days × 24 hr/day × 3600 s/hr = 2.36 × 10 s
6
and
R = 3.84 × 10 km = 3.84 × 10 m
5 8
SOLVE Centripetal acceleration of the moon required to keep it in orbit:

4π 2 × 3.84 × 108 m
ar = = 2.72 × 10 −3 m/s2 = 0.000278 g
( 2.36 × 106 s )
2
1
REFLECT The centripetal acceleration of the Moon is about of the gravitational acceleration on the
3600
surface of the Earth. When you find out where that acceleration originates from (psst... it’s gravity) you must
conclude that the gravitational pull of the Earth depends inversely on distance.
106. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is a generalization of Problem 97. If the release of the arrow from the bow
occurs at the same time the apple is released from the tree, the same thing happens to both of them: They both start
accelerating downward. To determine whether the arrow will hit the apple we need to find the time it takes to
travel the horizontal distance. If the y position of the arrow at this time is the same as the y position of the apple
then the arrow will strike the apple.
3.40 Chapter 3
d
The time it takes to traverse the horizontal distance is t = . We will assume that the arrow begins at height
vx
y = y1 and x = 0 and the apple begins at height y2 and x = d.
The height of the arrow at x = d will be given by
v d g
yarrow = y1 + 0 y − 2 d 2
vx 2 vx
d g
The height of the apple when t = v is yapple = y2 − 2 d 2
x 2v x
If yarrow = yapple then the arrow will hit the apple.

SOLVE Algebraic manipulation of the expression for the height of the arrow yields:
g 2
yarrow = y1 + tan ( θ ) × d − d
2 vx2
y2 − y1
But tan ( θ ) = as long as the arrow is pointed at the apple when it is released. The geometry yields:
d
g 2 g
yarrow = y1 + y2 − y1 − d = y2 − 2 d 2 = yapple
2 vx2 2vx
So, the arrow will indeed hit the apple if it can cover the horizontal distance before the apple hits the ground.
REFLECT What is remarkable about this fact is that, at no point did we have to specify what y1 or y2 were. We did
not even have to specify which one was bigger. Furthermore, this fact would be true under any value of the vertical
acceleration. This fact could even be used to help you determine how high above the apple you would have to aim
if the apple was fixed. Just imagine how long you would think it would take for your arrow to arrive at the target,
imagine how far something would drop over that time interval under the influence of gravity and aim that far
above the object.
107. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the number of revolutions per minute and the centripetal acceleration from
which we are to determine the radius of the uniform circular motion in units of the gravitational acceleration g. We
can convert the revolutions per minute to a rotational period and use the equation:
4π 2 R
ar = 2
T
Isolating for R yields:
ar ×T 2
R=
4π 2
Preliminary calculations:
If there are 3380 revolutions per minute each revolution takes
1 60 s
T= min × =1.775 × 10 −2 s.
3380 1 min
The centripetal acceleration is ar = 1600 g = 1600 × 9.8 m/s = 1.568 × 10 m/s .
2 4 2
SOLVE Radius of the test tubes is:

1.568 × 10 4 m/s2 × (1.775 × 10 −2 s )
2
R= = 0.1251 m =12.51 cm
4π 2
REFLECT This result is consistent with the dimensions of a tabletop centrifuge. At these rotational periods the
centrifuges must be balanced carefully to prevent damage to the machine.

Motion in Two Dimensions: Onceptual Uestions

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Motion in Two Dimensions: Onceptual Uestions

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MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

is doubled vnew = (2 vx )2 + (2 vy )2 = 2 vx2 + vy2 = 2v.

value of the range. That value corresponds to the value v0 x = S

Uniform circular motion Increasing speed

SOLVE Solving for x in the above equation yields:

h = (30 km) + (25 km) = 39 km

Choice (d) 5.2 m

Choice (a) 22.8 m/s

SOLVE Solving for tb yields:

with given values:

Choice (b) 55.3 m/s

Applying the inverse tangent function to both sides yields:

So, for part (a) θ = θp + 180° = 117°.

θp = tan −1 −4.0 = −73.3°

(b): Components, magnitude and direction of

Then, adding the vectors in component form looks like this:

SOLVE Graphic solution is shown in figure below

With components in hand we can add the vectors:

As always, the components are given by:

quarter lap: (0, 250 m)

Which yields an average velocity for the half lap of

SOLVE Acceleration written in Cartesian form is:

SOLVE The change in velocity for part a:

The change in velocity for part b:

SOLVE The range is:

SOLVE The scale drawing (see figure below).

The maximum velocity that will result in a ball in play is:

SOLVE The elapsed time is:

SOLVE Max height of stream:

The time of flight is

SOLVE Range on the Moon is:

Solving for v yields:

where yb = 2.44 m and xb = 20 m. Above the goalie-

Inequality 2 for θ = 20°

80. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The centripetal acceleration is given by ar = v2

SOLVE The centripetal acceleration at the equator is

SOLVE The period for the spaceship would be

SOLVE The minimum angle above the horizon is:

SOLVE Length of a lap:

SOLVE Velocity at apex:

SOLVE Velocity at apex (same as last problem):

SOLVE Path length: 11 × 0.18 m + 2 × 0.09 m = 2.2 m

SOLVE Minimum velocity to achieve x R = 12.8 m : vmin = 9.8 m s 212.8 m = 11.2 m s

SOLVE Centripetal acceleration of the moon required to keep it in orbit:

If yarrow = yapple then the arrow will hit the apple.

SOLVE Radius of the test tubes is:

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