2.

Literature Review

2.1 . Internal Combustion Engines

The inner combustion (IC) engine could be a lesson of heat engine wherein the chemical
energy of fuel is changed into shaft work. It is so named because combustion happens
interior a combustion chamber that’s an integral portion of the working liquid stream
circuit. The two essential components of an IC motor are a stationary barrel and a motile
piston, the cylinder being pushed down by growing combustion gasses inside the cylinder,
which in succession revolves the crankshaft and by way of a equip framework within the
control train drives the vehicle.

Combustion in IC motors may be discontinuous or ceaseless. IC motors with

discontinuous combustion are begin start (SI) gasoline and compression begin (CI) diesel
motors. Most are four-stroke motors counting four unmistakable shapes, viz., admissions,
compression (and combustion), control, and deplete stroke. The qualification between SI
and CI engine comprises inside the methodology of touching off the fuel. In an SI engine,
the fuel is to begin with mixed with talk about and after that drafted into the barrel in the
midst of the confirmations plan, while in a CI engine, because it were examine is
acknowledged into the engine and compressed, after which diesel fuel is infused into the
hot compressed talk about at a suitable measured rate coming about in ignition(Heywood,
2018).
IC engines with continuous combustion include gas turbines, jet engines, and most rocket
engines. Although typically IC engines are fed with fossil fuels, the use of alternative fuels
like biodiesel in CI engines and bioethanol or methanol in SI engines is growing day by
day. Recently, hydrogen as a fuel for IC engine has also been in the experimental
application stage.

internal combustion engine Transportation. an engine in which the process of combustion

takes place in a cylinder or cylinders within the engine; the working fluid is a fuel and air
mixture, which reacts to form combustion products and is then exhausted; e.g., a gasoline
or diesel engine.

Internal combustion motor The inner combustion motor, “the” engine of the early 20th
century economy, has brought far-reaching changes to society that empowered helpful and
reasonable person transportation. The transformation of chemical energy to mechanical
work is accomplished by means of combustion of mostly hydrocarbon fuels beneath high
pressure conditions. A reciprocating piston-in-cylinder course of action is utilized to
compress air and fuel and after that this mixture is ignited. Combustion quickly produces
tall pressure and tall temperature gasses within the encased volume. This gas rapidly
accelerates the piston and mechanical work can be transferred to a turning shaft. The late
19th century designs of Nicolaus Otto and Rudolf Diesel are still the foremost commonly
utilized engine types; the spark-ignition Otto engine and the compression-ignition Diesel
engine. While substantial improvements in fuel economy and pollutant release have been

2
made, internal combustion engines are still a major source of air contamination. The
complex interaction of turbulent flow and chemical responses that happen at high but
limited rates, make it difficult to discover the in general best approach for productive and
clean combustion of fuel. In any case, progressed strategies, like fuel direct-injection, have
pushed thermal efficiencies over 40%. The utilize of catalytic converters and channels has
made a difference to remove most of the unburned hydrocarbons and nitric oxide from the
exhaust—the sources of the notorious Los Angeles exhaust cloud. Increasingly , inner
combustion engines advantage from advanced electronic controls that are utilized to
optimize execution based on actual control requests during operation.

• Ahmed AH, Ali OM, Mohammed AE, Daoud RW, Ibrahim TK. 2019Enhancement of
engine performance with high blended diesel-biodiesel fuel using iso-butanol additive. IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering ;518.

2.1.1. Anti-Knock Performance

Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) begin begin interior
combustion engines happens when combustion of many of the air/fuel mix inside interior
the barrel does not result from duplication of the fire front touched off by the plug, but
one or more pockets of air/fuel mix explode outside the envelope of the ordinary
combustion front. The fuel-air charge is suggested to be lit by the begin plug because it
were, and at a correct point interior piston’s stroke. Pound happens when the beat of the
combustion handle not happens at the perfect diminutive for the four-stroke cycle. The

3
shock wave makes the characteristic metallic “pinging” sound, and barrel weight increases
radically. Impacts of engine pounding amplify from insignificant to Totally harming..

Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition—they are two separate events.
However, pre-ignition can be followed by knocking.
The marvel of explosion was portrayed in November 1914in a lett rom Hold up Brothers
(begin plug makers, and children of Sir Oliver Hold up) settling a exchange with regard
to the cause of “Thumping” or “Pinging” in cruisers. Interior the letter they communicated
that an early start can allow rise to the gas exploding rather than the standard headway,
and the sound that’s made by the blast is the same as in case the metal parts had been
tapped with a pound.It was advance examined and depicted by Harry Ricardo amid tests
carried out between 1916 and 1919 to find the reason for disappointments in air ship
engines.

• Abdalla AN, Majeed O, Awad OI, Tao H. 2019 Wavelet analysis of an SI engine cycle-to-cycle
variations fuelled with the blending of gasoline -fusel oil at a various water content. Energy
Conversion and Management;183:746–52.

• Porpatham E, Ramesh A, Nagalingam B. 2008 Investigation on the effect of concentration of

methane in biogas when used as a fuel for a spark ignition engine. Fuel;87:1651–9.

2.1.1. Anti-Knock Performance

a mix of 80% of isooctane and 20% of n-heptane by volume is alloted the octane number
of 80 (PRF 80) in both RON and MON scales. A fuel is appraised by comparing its
thumping conduct with essential reference powers within the RON and MON tests. Thus

4
a fuel can be comparable to a PRF with 95% isooctane and 5% n-heptane, PRF 95, within
the RON test and with a PRF containing 85% isooctane and 15% n-heptane, PRF 85,
within the MON test; at that point it'll have a RON and MON of 95 and 85 separately. The
affectability,
is defined as the difference between RON and MON; S = RON - MON. By definition,
PRF have zero sensitivity while most practical fuels have S > 0.
It has long been known that RON or MON alone do not describe the knocking behaviour
of a practical fuel in an engine adequately (1,4,5,6,7). For instance, knock intensity
depends on fuel composition e.g. aromatic fuels knock with lower intensity compared to
paraffinic fuels (2,3) at a given speed, load and ignition timing for the same MON. Often
a combination of RON and MON -e.g. the anti-knock index (RON+MON)/2 in the U.S.A.
- is used to designate the anti- knock quality of fuels (e.g.1,4,5).
In this paper we consider how to define the anti-knock quality of a practical (non PRF)
fuel adequately. We use experimental results on knock intensity using different single
cylinder engines, fuels, mixture strengths, throttle settings and compression ratios. It is
shown that at a given operating condition, the anti-knock quality of a fuel is best defined
by an Octane Index, OI, which is a linear function of RON and the sensitivity, S; OI =
RON - KS. It is found that K is different at different operating conditions and can even be
negative.

for a given RON a fuel of higher sensitivity (lower MON), can have a higher OI and so
have more knock resistance. Further, we define the octane requirement, OR, of the engine
as the octane index of the fuel required to ensure that the engine is not knock limited. A
rough inverse relationship between OR and K is found.
In Part II of this paper the effect of fuel anti-knock quality on acceleration and power of
twenty-three European and Japanese vehicles equipped with knock sensors is considered

5
(8). It is found that in most of these cases K is negative; for a given RON, a fuel of lower
MON has better anti-knock quality and will lead to better performance.

• Douihit WH, Davis BC, Steinke EDL, Doherty HM 1988. performance Features of 15 %
MTBE Gasoline Blends .
• Abdel-Rahman AA, Osman MM. 997 Experimental investigation on varying the
compression ratio of SI engine working under different ethanol-gasoline fuel blends.
International Journal of Energy Research;21:31–40.

• Sheet EAE. Relative 2017 Change in SI Engine’s Emission and Performance Parameters
Using New Locally Made Octane Enhancer. Petroleum Research & Studies:9–32.
• Ertan Alptekin MC. 2017 Performance and emission characteristics of solketal-gasoline
fuel blend in a vehicle with spark ignition engine. Applied Thermal Engineering;124:504–
9.

2.1.2. Octane Rating

In later car makers have been requiring or endorsing premium gasoline (a high-octane
audit of fuel) for utilize in more of their vehicle models. The refinement in costs between
premium and lower octane grades has besides extended. As a result, more people are
curious around what octane is and what those octane rating numbers on gas pumps
number. Octane evaluations are measures of fuel soundness. These appraisals are based
on the weight at which a fuel will suddenly combust (auto-ignite) in a testing motor. The
octane number is really the basic normal of two particular octane rating methods—motor
octane rating (MOR) and explore octane rating

6
(RON)—that contrast basically within the specifics of the working conditions. The higher
an octane number, the more stable the fuel. Retail gasoline stations in the United States
sell three main grades of gasoline based on the octane level:
• Regular (the lowest octane fuel–generally 87)
• Midgrade (the middle range octane fuel–generally 89–90)
• Premium (the highest octane fuel–generally 91–94)
Some companies have different names for these grades of gasoline, such as unleaded,
super, or super premium, but they all refer to the octane rating.

Of the 18 isomers of normal octane (C8H18), octane gets its name from the 2,2,4-
Trimethylpentane compound, which is highly resistant to auto-ignition. This iso-octane
has been assigned the reference value of 100 for testing purposes. The extremely unstable
normal heptane (C7H16) molecule is the 0 octane reference fuel.

How does the octane level affect my vehicle?

Engines are designed to burn fuel in a controlled combustion. A flame starts at the spark
plug and burns throughout the cylinder until all of the fuel in the cylinder is burned. In
comparison, spontaneous combustion, also called auto-ignition, detonation, or knock,
happens when rising temperature and pressure from the primary combustion causes
unburned fuel to ignite. This uncontrolled secondary combustion causes pressure in the
cylinder to spike and causes the knock to occur.

The competition between the aiming (controlled) and unintended (spontaneous)

combustion causes the energy from the burning fuel to disperse unevenly, which can cause
harm and place high pressure on the engine’s cylinder some time recently it enters the
control stroke (the portion of the cycle when the piston’s movement is creating control).

Before electric computerized ignition was widely used, this knocking commonly occurred
and could cause significant engine damage. Most modern engines have sensors to detect
7
knocking. When detected, the computer delays the initial spark, which causes the
controlled combustion to take place at a point when compression isn’t at its most elevated
point. In spite of the fact that this disposes of the knock, it can cause the engine to run less
efficiently. A comparable undesirable condition is called pre-ignition, when the fuel
ignites on its possess before the start ignites it. Modern engine computers minimize this
condition by controlling the timing of valves and fuel injection; in any case, this control
instrument can moreover come with a fuel-efficiency or emissions penalty.

How is octane measured?

The standard means of testing octane is with an octane testing engine. This test is similar
to the way the mass of an object can be determined by comparing it to objects (references)
of known mass on a balance scale. Primary Reference Fuels (PRF) of precisely known
octane are formed by combining iso-octane, heptane, and other well-known standards such
as toluene. These PRFs are utilized to bracket a given fuel test to decide the pressure at
which similar knock force are watched. This estimation is taken by altering the octane
engine’s cylinder height, which changes the compression ratio/pressure within the engine
until the knocking comes to a particular intensity level.

The (R+M)/2 you see on the label refers to the average of the research octane number
(RON) and the motor octane number (MON) ratings. To determine the RON, the fuel is
tested under engine idle conditions with a low air temperature and slow engine speed. To
determine the MON the fuel is tested under the more stressful conditions of higher air
temperature and engine speed.

Historically, RON and MON were determined on separate testing machines specifically
configured for each test. Current designs (see image below) allow the same engine to
perform both tests. Despite this flexibility, many testers still prefer to use more than one
machine with each specifically set up and calibrated to perform either RON or MON tests

8
The octane rating may be a degree of the resistance of gasoline and other powers to
explosion (motor knocking) in spark-ignition inside combustion engines. High-
performance motors ordinarily have higher compression proportions and are hence more
inclined to explosion, so they require higher octane fuel. A lower-performance engine will
not by and large perform superior with high-octane fuel, since the compression proportion
is fixed by the engine design.

The octane number of a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by comparison
with the mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane which would have the same anti-
knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in that
mixture is the octane number of the fuel. For example, gasoline with the same knocking
characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would have an octane
rating of 90. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition
has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.

The octane rating of a spark ignition engine fuel is the detonation resistance (anti-knock
rating) compared to a mixture of iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane, an isomer of octane)
and n-heptane. By definition, iso-octane is assigned an octane rating of 100 and heptane
is assigned an octane rating of zero. An 87-octane gasoline, for example, possesses the
same anti-knock rating of a mixture of 87% (by volume) iso-octane and 13% (by volume)
n-heptane. This does not mean, however, that the gasoline actually contains these
hydrocarbons in these proportions. It simply means that it has the same detonation
resistance as the described mixture.

Octane rating does not relate to the energy content of the fuel. It is only a measure of the
fuel's tendency to burn rather than explode.

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number. RON
is determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under

9
controlled conditions, and comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and
n-heptane.

There is another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number or the aviation lean
octane rating, which is a better measure of how the fuel behaves when under load. MON
testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel
mixture, a higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to further stress the fuel's
knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a modern
gasoline will be about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON. Normally fuel specifications
require both a minimum RON and a minimum MON.

In most countries (including all of Europe and Australia) the "headline" octane rating,
shown on the pump, is the RON, but in the United States, Canada and some other countries
the headline number is the average of the RON and the MON, sometimes called the Anti-
Knock Index (AKI), Road Octane Number (RdON), Pump Octane Number (PON), or
(R+M)/2. Because of the 8 to 10 point difference noted above, the octane shown in the
United States is 4 to 5 points lower than the same fuel elsewhere: 87 octane fuel, the
"regular" gasoline in the US and Canada, is 91-92 in Europe. However most European
pumps deliver 95 (RON) as "regular", equivalent to 90-91 US (R+M)/2, and some even
deliver 98 (RON) or 100 (RON).

It is possible for a fuel to have a RON greater than 100, because iso-octane is not the most
knock-resistant substance available. Racing fuels, AvGas, LPG, and alcohol fuels such as
methanol or ethanol can have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher - ethanol's RON
is 129 (MON 102, AKI 116). Typical "octane booster" gasoline additives include tetra-
ethyl lead, MTBE and toluene. Tetra-ethyl lead (the additive used in leaded gasoline) is
easily decomposed to its component radicals, which react with the radicals from the fuel
and oxygen that start the combustion, thereby delaying ignition and leading to an increased
octane number. However, tetra-ethyl lead and its byproducts are posionous and tetra-ethyl
10
lead's use creates an environmental hazards. Beginning in the 1970s, its use in the United
States and most of the industrialized world has been restricted. Its use is currently limited
to being an addative to aviation gasoline.

• Abdel-Rahman AA, Osman MM. 997 Experimental investigation on varying the

compression ratio of SI engine working under different ethanol-gasoline fuel blends.
International Journal of Energy Research;21:31–40.

2.1.3. Octane Number Sensitivity

The octane sensitivity (S), defined as the difference between the Research Octane
Number (RON) and the Motor Octane Number (MON), is of increasing interest in spark
ignition (SI) engines because of its relevance to knock resistance at boosted high-load
conditions. In this study, a set of three fuels was designed to hold RON nearly constant
(RON = 99.2–100) and to vary S(S = 0, 6.5, and 12). These fuels were operated at the
knock-limited spark advance (KLSA) at nominal engine loads of 10, 15, and
20 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) in a single cylinder SI engine with side-
mounted direct injection fueling, at λ = 1 stoichiometry. At each load condition, the intake
manifold temperature was swept from 35 °C to 95 °C to alter the temperature and pressure
history of the charge. At the 10 bar IMEP condition, knock resistance was inversely
proportional to S, with the S = 0 fuel being the most knock resistant. As load increased the
trend reversed and knock resistance became proportional to fuel S, with the S = 12 fuel
being the most knock resistant. The fuel S knock resistance reversal with load is attributed

11
to changing fuel ignition delay. At increased load, intermediate temperature heat release
(ITHR) for the S = 0 fuel was observed several crank angles prior to spark command, and
ITHR magnitude was proportional to intake temperature. As intake temperature continued
to increase, the S = 0 fuel transitioned from ITHR to low-temperature heat release (LTHR)
prior to spark command. At the highest load and intake temperature, 20 bar IMEP and
95 °C, the S = 0 fuel exhibited distinct LTHR and negative temperature
coefficient (NTC), and the intermediate S value fuel (S = 6.5) exhibited distinct ITHR
behavior several crank angles prior to spark command. However, for all tested conditions,
the S = 12 fuel exhibited neither ITHR nor LTHR. To understand the measured
trends, chemical kinetic modeling was used to elucidate the fuel-specific dependencies on
in-cylinder pressure–temperature history. An island of low temperature reactivity was
identified at temperatures between 700 K and 825 K and at pressures higher than 17 bar.
The size and magnitude of this island was found to be fuel-specific, decreasing with
increasing S. The combined findings illustrate the commonality and utility of fuel S,
ITHR, LTHR, and NTC across a wide range of conditions and the associated implications
of fuel S in boosted modern gasoline direct injection SI engines relative to the RON and
MON tests.

• Octane sensitivityOctane indexLow temperature heat releaseIntermediate

temperature heat releaseNegative temperature coefficientKnock
• Abbreviations
• aTDCfAfter firing top dead centerCACrank angleCA1Crank angle of 1% heat
releaseCA5Crank angle of 5% heat releaseCA10Crank angle of 10% heat
releaseCA50Crank angle of 50% heat releaseCRCompression ratioEGRExhaust
gas recirculationFBPFinal boiling pointHCCIHomogeneous charge compression
ignitionHoVHeat of vaporizationHTHRHigh-temperature heat releaseIBPInitial
boiling pointIMEPIndicated mean effective pressureITHRIntermediate temperature
heat releaseIVCIntake valve closingKLSAKnock-limited combustion
phasingLSPILow-speed preignitionLTHRLow-temperature heat releaseMFBMass
12
 fraction burnedMONMotor octane numberNTCNegative temperature
coefficientOEMOriginal equipment manufacturerOIOctane indexPRFPrimary
reference fuelR2Correlation coefficientRONResearch octane numberSOctane
sensitivitySISpark ignitedT10Temperature of 10% distillationT50Temperature of
50% distillationT90Temperature of 90% distillationλInverse of the equivalence
ratioμMeanσStandard deviation

2.2. Gasoline Quality Parameters

Most gasoline moves from refineries through pipelines to expansive capacity terminals
near consuming areas. From the storage terminals, gasoline is as a rule sent by truck to
smaller blending terminals for processing into finished engine gasoline, which is at that
point delivered by truck to gasoline fueling stations. Gasoline is sent through shared
pipelines where commingling happens Gasoline and other petroleum items are sent
through shared pipelines in batches. These batches are not physically isolated in pipelines,
and a few blending, or commingling, of items happens. Since this blending happens, the
gasoline and other items must be tried as they take off pipelines to see in case they still
meet required details. On the off chance that the items fall flat to meet neighborhood, state,
or government details, they are sent back to a refinery for extra preparing.

13
14
Can customers find out which country or state the gasoline at a location station comes
from?
The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) cannot identify the specific origin of
gasoline sold at fueling stations. The gasoline a company sells in its branded fueling
stations is not necessarily produced by that company.

Gasoline brands get mixed during shipment

Gasoline is sold at more than 100,000 retail outlets over the nation, and numerous are
unbranded dealers which will offer gasoline delivered by diverse companies. Branded
stations may not fundamentally offer gasoline delivered by the companies that claim the
stations. Gasoline from diverse refineries is often combined for shipment through
pipelines, and different companies that own benefit stations within the same range may
buy gasoline at the same bulk capacity and distribution terminal.

The only difference between gasoline at one company’s fueling stations and gasoline sold
by another company is the little amount of added substances that a few companies mix
into the gasoline after it takes off the pipeline and some time recently it gets to their fueling
stations. Crude oil too gets mixed at the refinery Even if EIA seem decide the origin of
the gasoline sold at fueling stations, the source of the crude oil and other fluids utilized at
refineries may change. Most refiners utilize a mix of crude oils from different domestic
and foreign sources. The mix of crude oils can alter based on the relative cost and
availability of rough oil from those sources

• Douihit WH, Davis BC, Steinke EDL, Doherty HM 1988. performance Features of 15 %
MTBE Gasoline Blends .

15
2.3. Additives (in detail)

objects by layering materials like metal, plastic, or concrete. It is a process that uses special
software and equipment.
The software will first create a design known as a Computer-Aided Design (CAD). The
equipment will then take this CAD file and strategically layer material, creating a physical
representation of the CAD.
There are seven types of additive manufacturing, each with its own processes, methods of
layering, and equipment.
WHAT ARE THE SEVEN TYPES OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING?
To clear up confusion on the different types of additive manufacturing, a set of standards
were created that categorize the different processes. These categories were created by the
International Organization for Standardization in 2010 and provided clear definitions for
additive manufacturing processes. These definitions helped improve global
communication between those who work in the industry.

16
1. VAT PHOTOPOLYMERISATION
VAT Photopolymerisation is also known as stereolithography. This type of additive
manufacturing uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin—which is how VAT
photopolymerization received its name.
A build platform is lowered from the resin’s top, moving downward, and a laser beam
draws a shape in the resin, creating a layer. The average thickness of one layer is between
0.025 and 0.5mm. After each layer of resin, it must then be cured using ultraviolet (UV)
light.
This process of photopolymerization uses motor controlled mirrors to direct the UV across
the resin surface, causing it to harden. These steps are repeated to add layers.
For increased accuracy and finish, most equipment uses blades that go over each layer to
remove defects before applying and curing the next layer. Using a liquid creates a great
deal of accuracy and detail in the finished project; however, it lacks the structural support
provided by other types of additive manufacturing. This is corrected by adding support
structures. Although the VAT photopolymerization process is quick to complete, the
clean-up and post-processing time is lengthy. VAT Photopolymerisation is used in
several industries to create parts and products ranging from hearing aids to Nike shoes.

2. MATERIAL JETTING
With material jetting, the print head is above the platform, and material is deposited onto
the surface in the form of droplets. Hundreds of micro-droplets are positioned with
charged deflection plates, providing increased control and accuracy. These droplets then
solidify, creating a layer. This is repeated, building up layers.
The droplets may be distributed continuously or individually using the Drop-on-Demand
(DOD) method. This method is similar to an inkjet printer. Material jetting can be done
with various materials, including polymers and waxes.

17
This type of additive manufacturing is precise, and you can use multiple materials for one
project. Although accurate, it is not the most efficient method as time is spent re-filling
the reservoir that depletes quickly. Material jetting is often used to create realistic models
or prototypes.

3. BINDER JETTING
This type of additive manufacturing uses a binder and a powder-based material. This
powder-based material is applied to the build platform with a roller, and then the print
head deposits the binder on top.
The binder adheres the layers together and is usually in liquid form. Following a layer, the
product is lowered on the platform. This is repeated to create more layers until the product
is finished. When using this process, you can use different materials, including polymers,
ceramics, and metals.
Binder jetting is considered one of the speediest additive manufacturing methods and
allows for customization. For example, if you require material of a specific quality, you
can change the binder-powder ratio, or if you want to create a product that has color
variation, you can do so.
One of the drawbacks of binder jetting is the increase in post-processing time, and it may
not be the best choice for creating structural parts.
Binder jetting is used in industrial applications, dental and medical devices, aerospace
components, part casting, luxury applications, and more.
4. MATERIAL EXTRUSION
Material extrusion is a type of additive manufacturing process often used in inexpensive
at-home 3D printers where the material is drawn through a nozzle, heated, and then
deposited in a continuous stream. This nozzle moves along horizontally and the platform
moves up, down, and vertically. This is how the layers are created. Because the material

18
is heated (melted) when it is applied, it fuses to the previous layer. The bonding between
layers can also be controlled through temperature and chemical agents.
Although material extrusion is often seen in inexpensive models, it has many capabilities.
Polymers and plastics can be used, which provide strong structural support. However,
there are also limitations to this additive manufacturing process.
• Accuracy is reduced because of the nozzle thickness.
• Material extrusion is also one of the slower types of additive manufacturing.
Many automotive companies use material jetting to create manufacturing devices used in
assembly lines.

5. POWDER BED FUSION

For powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, a layer of powder is applied to the
platform. A thermal energy source like an electron beam or laser fuses the powder before
a second layer is applied with a roller or blade. This layering process is then repeated.
There are slight variations within powder bed fusion, including:
• Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
Despite the differences between these variants, all powder bed fusion manufacturing
occurs in a near-vacuum, pre-heated chamber with inert gas. Metals and polymer powder
materials can be used, which act as a support structure, making it a suitable type for
prototypes and visual models.
There are some disadvantages to the powder bed fusion method as it requires more time
to complete projects; however, this additive manufacturing process is still used in various
industries, including aviation, to create parts of a jet engine.
6. SHEET LAMINATION
Sheet lamination is a process that binds layers using ultrasonic welding or an adhesive.

19
There are two variations of sheet lamination; ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM)
and laminated object manufacturing (LOM). The difference between the two is found in
the material used and the bonding process.
• UAM uses metal that is bound together with ultrasonic welding.
• LOM uses paper that is bound together using an adhesive.
Sheet lamination is done by placing the material on a cutting bed. Layers are applied and
bonded to that material. and the shape is cut with a knife or laser. This process can bind
different materials and is relatively low cost and speedy.
Accuracy is sometimes lacking in sheet lamination and may projects that utilize this
additive manufacturing process may require post-processing. Sheet lamination is often
used for prototypes.
7. DIRECTED ENERGY DEPOSITION
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is one of the most complex types of additive
manufacturing. A four- or five-axis arm will move around, depositing melted material
around a fixed object. The material is melted by an electron beam or laser and will then
solidify.
Metal powder or wires are the most common material used with DED, but ceramics and
polymers may also be used. You can achieve a high degree of accuracy due to the ability
to repair and control grain structure in DED.
The finish varies based on the material used. In the case of metal, a powder will provide a
much better finish than wire; however, you can achieve your desired effect with wire
through post-processing.
Fermented vegetables containing benzoic and ascorbic acids as additives: benzene
formation during storage and impact of additives on quality parameters
FJ Casado, AH Sánchez, A De Castro… - Journal of agricultural …, 2011 - ACS
Publications
Chemical and sensorial changes related to the use of benzoates and ascorbic acid
as additives in packed fermented vegetables were investigated. For this, three

20
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conditions …

Ayurvedic formulations containing benzoic and ascorbic acids as additives: benzene

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P Sharma, M Maithani, V Gupta… - Journal of Complementary …, 2021 - degruyter.com
Objectives Ayurvedic formulations are becoming the prior choice of people as health
care supplements. The increasing demand for these formulations has led to
extensive development of Ayurvedic pharmaceutical industries worldwide. The reaction
between the

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MI Kord, S Maulu, TM Srour, EA Omar, AA Farag… - Aquaculture, 2022 - Elsevier
… additives could be achieved by enhancing water qualityparameters via reducing the
levels of toxic nitrogenous compounds. Therefore, the current study investigated
the impacts of different commercial probiotics used as water additives on water quality,
… of serum parameters in out with high quality in the additive manufacturing (AM)
processes and be able to offer reliable parts while innovating in the market among other
values, the ISO/TC 261 Additive … specification of quality parameters of different
processes needed for standardized test procedures; …

• HEYWOOD, J. B. "Pollutant Formation and Control in Spark-Ignition Engines," Pmg. Energy

Combust. Sci., 1,135-164 (1976).
• HEYWOOD, J. B. "Automotive Engines and Fuels: A Review of Future Options," Prog. Energy
Combust. Sci., 7, 155-184 (1981).

21
2.4.1. Octane Number

Fuel Octane Rating and Fuel Grades for Piston Engines Fuel octane rating may be a degree
of the capability of a fuel to resist compression before it spontaneously self-ignites. Hence,
fuel with the next octane numbercan withstand greater pressure interior the cylinder some
time recently lighting in this fashion. For this reason high-octane-number fuel must be
utilized in high-compression (high-performance) motors or they will suffer from motor
thumping. That aside, the concept is one that’s often misunderstood as there are a number
of diverse octane evaluations (e.g. Investigate Octane Number, RON; Engine Octane
Number, MON, etc.). These definitions are exterior the scope of this book. Fuel utilized
to control cylinder motors air ship is commonly known as avgas,
or aviation gasoline. This contrasts with mogas, or motor gasoline, which is used in cars
and some experimental and a few GA aircraft. The difference between the two is that
avgas contains a toxic chemical called tetraethyl lead (TEL), which is used to improve
the combustion properties of the fuel. The fuel octane rating is used to differentiate
between a few grades of fuel, which are offered in different colors to prevent incorrect
selection (see Table 7-3).

TABLE 7-3. Common Fuel Grades for Piston Engine Use

Fuel Color Comment

grades

80/87 Red The first number (80) is the

octane rating assuming a lean
mixture. The second number

22
Fuel Color Comment
grades

(87) indicates the rating at a

rich mixture. Used for aircraft
engines with low compression
ratios. No longer produced.

82UL Purple UL stands for unleaded.

Similar to mogas, but without
automotive additives. Intended
for low-compression engines
such as those common in
experimental aircraft and
aircraft that have STCs
permitting the use of mogas.
No longer produced.

91/96 Brown UL stands for unleaded. Avgas

91/96UL is often intended for military
use (e.g. UAVs). Produced
today by the Swedish fuel
manufacturer Hjelmco in a
clear color.

100LL Blue LL stands for low lead. The

most common avgas in use
today. The fuel can be used

23
Fuel Color Comment
grades

with engines designed for

80/87.

100/130 Green Also called avgas 100. Has

been superseded by 100LL,
although still available in
limited quantities.

115/145 Purple Leaded fuel produced for

warbirds and the supercharged
radial engines used to power
the passenger planes of the
1940s–1960s. Now produced
in limited quantities for air
races. This fuel is necessary in
order to obtain rated power in
such engines.

Scientific Bases for the Preparation of Heterogeneous Catalysts

Márton Kollár, ... József Valyon, in Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 2010
.3.2 n-Heptane hydroconversion
Isoalkanes are clean high-octane fuels that can be produced from straight chain alkanes by
hydroisomerization over catalysts having both acid and metal active sites. The activity of
the Ni,H-form preparations, characterized in Table 1, were compared in the
hydroisomerization of n-C7.

24
The yield vs. space time plots permit to distinguish primary and secondary products. The
formation of dimethylpentanes was found to speed up as space time was increased (not
shown). At low conversions (space times) the formation rates of the mono-branched
C7 isomers and the cracking products (propane and iso-butane) were independent of the
space time as shown by the linear plots in Fig. 3. These results suggest that multi-branched
C7isomers were obtained from the primary product methylhexanes and 3-
ethylpenthane [7]. Neither hydrogenolysis products, such as methane and ethane, nor
>C7 alkanes, were formed under the applied conditions.

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Fig. 3. Yields of mono-branched isomers (A) and cracking products (B) as a function

of space time. To get the Ni/H-catalysts the Ni,H-forms were pre-reduced in situ in the

reactor in a 150 cm3 min-1 H2flow of at 450 °C for 2 hours.

The metal to acid site ratio strongly influences the hydroconversion activity and
selectivity .. TEM and XRD results suggested that Ni has high dispersion in each of our

25
catalyst preparation. By doubling the Ni-content of the Ni,H-MCM-22 more than twofold
increase was obtained in the rate of mono-branched C7 formation (Fig. 3A), whereas the
rate of cracking decreased to a small extent only (Fig. 3B). Regarding the rate of the mono-
branched C7 formation the activity of the Ni/H-dl-MCM-22/MCM-41 catalyst was
between the activities of the Ni,H-MCM-22 catalysts (Fig. 3). An important finding of the
present study is that the composite catalyst has a significantly lower cracking activity than
any of the reference Ni,H-zeolite catalysts (Fig. 3B). The Ni/H+ ratio of the composite
must be higher than the Ni/IEC ratio. It can be near to 0.5. Nevertheless, the low cracking
activity of the composite catalyst can neither be accounted for its lower zeolite content nor
for its higher Ni/H+ ratio. The lower rate of cracking in the micro/mesoporous composite
relative to the microporous zeolite can be explained by the shorter residence time of the
C7+ carbenium ions and C7 products in the mesoporous particles having lower diffusion
resistance. If the residence time was equalized by adjusting the space time to get similar
conversions the selectivity difference of the catalysts disappeared.

• HOULT, D. P., and WONG, V. W. "The Generation of Turbulence in an Internal

Combustion Engine," in Combustion Modeling in Reciprocating Engines, J. N. Mattavi and
C. A. Amann, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 131-160 (1980).
• JOHNSON, G. M., and SMITH, M. Y. "Emissions of Nitrogen Dioxide from a Large Gas-
Turbine Power Station," Combust. Sci. Technol., 19, 67-70 (1978).
• JONES, R. E. "Gas Turbine Emissions-Problems, Progress, and Future," Prog. Energy
COIII- bust. Sci.,

26
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