NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CIV372 Hydromechanics

Chapter two
Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Lesson one
Chapter contents

• Introduction
• Dimensional Analysis
Introduction

• There are many problems of interest in the field of fluid mechanics

in the real world of design:
• the differential and integral equations
• It is often necessary to resort to experimental methods to establish
relationships between the variables of interest.
 Expensive,
 Keep the required experimentation to a minimum

• This is done using a technique called dimensional analysis, which is

based on the notion of dimensional homogeneity—that all terms in
an equation must have the same dimensions.
 Cont’d

• Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by

appealing to dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of
relevant variables.
• It is particularly useful for:
• Presenting and interpreting experimental data;
• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
• Checking equations;
• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
• Physical modelling.
 Cont’d

• For example, if we write Bernoulli’s equation in the form

• We note that the dimension of each term is length.

• Furthermore, if we factored out z1 from the left-hand side and z2
from the right-hand side, we would have
 Cont’d

• In Bernoulli’s equation, the terms are all dimensionless and the

equation is written as a combination of dimensionless parameters
• Experimental work are performed on objects that are quite large,
too large to experiment with for a reasonable cost.
• This substantially reduces the costs when compared with full-scale
studies and allows for the study of various configurations or flow
conditions
 Cont’d

• Dimension is a measure of a physical quantity, while a unit is a way

to assign a number to that dimension.

• For example, length is a dimension that is measured in units such as

microns (μm), feet (ft), centimeters (cm), meters (m), kilometers
(km), etc.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

• All non primary dimensions can be formed by some combination of

the seven primary dimensions.
• For example, force has the same dimensions as mass times
acceleration (by Newton’s second law).
• Thus, in terms of primary dimensions

• Surface tension (σs), has dimensions of force per unit length.

Dimensional Homogeneity

• Law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive term in an

equation must have the same dimensions.
• Consider, for example, the change in total energy of a simple
compressible closed system from one state and/or time (1) to
another (2), as shown in the figure
 Cont’d

• The change in total energy of the system (∆E) is given by

where E has three components: internal energy (U), kinetic energy

(KE), and potential energy (PE).
• These components can be written in terms of the system mass (m);
measurable quantities and thermodynamic properties at each of the
two states, such as speed (V), elevation (z), and specific internal
energy (u); and the known gravitational acceleration constant (g),
 Cont’d

• It is straightforward to verify that the left side of the change in

Energy equation and all three additive terms on the right side have
the same dimensions—energy.
Example

Dimensional Homogeneity of the Bernoulli Equation Probably the

most well-known equation in fluid mechanics is the Bernoulli
equation . One standard form of the Bernoulli equation for
incompressible irrotational fluid flow is

(a) Verify that each additive term in the Bernoulli equation

has the same dimensions.
(b) What are the dimensions of the constant C?
Cont’d
 Cont’d

• In water flows studies, either analytical or experimental, there are

invariably many flow and geometric parameters involved.

• The fewest possible combinations of parameters should be utilized

to save time and money.

• For example, consider the pressure drop across the slider valve of
Fig. below.

• This could be expressed as

 Cont’d

• The first step in the planning of an experiment to study this problem

would be to decide the factors, or variables, that will have an effect on
the pressure drop.
 Cont’d

• To perform the experiments in a meaningful and systematic manner,

it would be necessary to change the variable, such as the velocity,
which holding all other constant, and measure the corresponding
pressure drop.
• Difficulty to determine the functional relationship between the
pressure drop and the various facts that influence it.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

• Considering the assumption that any equation that relates a

certain set of variables, such as the one we discussed above
can be written in terms of dimensionless parameters, as

• Fortunately, there is a much simpler approach to the problem

that will eliminate the difficulties described above.

• Collecting these variables into two non-dimensional

combinations of the variables (called dimensionless product or
dimensionless groups)
 Cont’d

• A fundamental question we must answer is how many

dimensionless products are required to replace the original list of
variables ?
• The answer to this question is supplied by the basic theorem of
dimensional analysis that states
 Cont’d

• In a given physical problem the dependent variable x1 can be

expressed in terms of the independent variables as

Where: n is the total number of variables

 Cont’d

•  p is the dependent variable V, ρ, μ, and d are the independent

variables.
• The Buckingham pi-theorem, named after Edgar Buckingham states
that (n-m) dimensionless groups of variables, called phi-terms,
where m is the number of basic dimensions included in the
variables, can be related by

• where π1 includes the dependent variable and the remaining pi-

terms include only independent variables
 Cont’d
• Mathematically, we can express the functional relationship in the
equivalent form
• Mathematically, we can express the functional relationship in the
equivalent form
 Cont’d

• Several methods can be used to form the dimensionless products, or

pi term, that arise in a dimensional analysis.

• Eight steps listed below outline a recommended procedure for

determining the pi- terms.
Steps in pi-term determination

Step 1: List all the variables

• List all the dimensional variables involved.
• Keep the number of variables to a minimum, so that we can
minimize the amount of laboratory work.
• All variables must be independent.
• For example, if the cross-sectional area of a pipe is an important
variable, either the area or the pipe diameter could be used, but not
both, since they are obviously not independent.
Ex. ϒ=ρ×g, that is, ϒ,ρ, and g are not independent
 Cont’d

• Let n be the number of variables.

Example: For pressure drop per unit length, n=5.
(All variables are  p, D, μ, ρ, and V )

• Step 2 Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions

and find the number of reference dimensions.
• Select a set of fundamental (primary) dimensions.
For example: MLT, or FLT.
• Example: For pressure drop per unit length , we choose FLT.
 Cont’d

• Step 3 Determine the required number of pi terms.

• Let n be the number of variables in the problem.
• Let r be the number of reference dimensions (primary dimensions)
required to describe these variables.
• The number of pi terms is n-r
• Example: For pressure drop per unit length n=5, r = 3,
Thus, the number of pi terms is n-r=5-3=2.
 Cont’d

• Step 4 Select a number of repeating variables, where the number

required is equal to the number of reference dimensions
• Select a set of r dimensional variables that includes all the primary
dimensions (repeating variables).
• These repeating variables will all be combined with each of the
remaining parameters.
• Example: For pressure drop per unit length ( r = 3)
select ρ , V, D.
 Cont’d

• Step 5 Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating

variables by the product of the repeating variables, each raised to
an exponent that will make the combination dimensionless
• Set up dimensional equations, combining the variables selected in
Step 4 with each of the other variables (nonrepeating variables) in
turn, to form dimensionless groups or dimensionless product.
• There will be n – r equations.
• Example: For pressure drop per unit length
Cont’d
 Cont’d

Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining non-repeating

variables.
 Cont’d

Step 7 Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are
dimensionless.
• Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless.
• Example: For pressure drop per unit length .
 Cont’d

Step 8 Express the final form as a relationship among p , the pi terms,

and think about what is means.
• Express the result of the dimensional analysis.
r

• Example: For pressure drop per unit length .

 Cont’d

• The pi terms can be rearranged. For example, Π2, could be

expressed as
 Cont’d

• Consider a relatively general relationship between the pressure

drop P, a characteristic length l, a characteristic velocity V, the
density ρ, the viscosity μ, the gravity g, the surface tension σ, the
speed of sound c, and an angular frequency ω, written as
 Cont’d

• The π-theorem applied to this problem, with l, V, and ρ as repeating

variables, results in
 Cont’d

• Each of the phi-terms in this expression is a common dimensionless

parameter that appears in numerous fluid flow situations. They are
identified as follows:
Cont’d
Common dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics
Example

• A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located

so that it is normal to a moving stream of fluid. Assume that the
drag, D, that the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w, h, µ, ρ,
and V. Determine a suitable set of pi terms to study this problem
experimentally
Solution

• Drag force on a PLATE

• Step 1:List all the dimensional variables involved.

D, w, h, ρ, μ V; n=6 Dimensional parameter
• Step 2:Select primary dimensions M,L, and T. Express each of the
variables in terms of basic dimensions
Solution…

Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms.

n-r=6-3=3
• Step 4:Select repeating variables w, V,ρ.
• Step 5~6:Combining the repeating variables with each of the other
variables in turn, to form dimensionless groups or dimensionless
products.
Solution..
Solution..
Solution…

• Step 7: Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are
dimensionless.
• Step 8: Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms.
Selection of Variables

• One of the most important, and difficult, steps in applying

dimensional analysis to any given problem is the selection of the
variables that are involved.
• There is no simple procedure whereby the variable can be easily
identified.
• Generally, one must rely on a good understanding of the
phenomenon involved and the governing physical laws..
• If extraneous variables are included, then too many pi terms appear
in the final solution and it may be difficult, time consuming, and
expensive to eliminate these experimentally.
 Cont’d

• If important variables are omitted, then an incorrect result will be

obtained; and again, this may prove to be costly and difficult to
ascertain.

• Most engineering problems involve certain simplifying assumptions

that have an influence on the variables to be considered.

• Usually we wish to keep the problems as simple as possible,

perhaps even if some accuracy is sacrificed.
 Cont’d

• A suitable balance between simplicity and accuracy is an desirable

goal Enrico Fermi
 Cont’d

Points should be considered in the selection of variables:

• Clearly define the problem.
• What’s the main variable of interest?
• Consider the basic laws that govern the phenomenon.

• Start the variable selection process by grouping the variables into

classes.
 Cont’d

• Consider other variables that may not fall into one the three
categories. For example, time and time dependent variables.
• Be sure to include all quantities that may be held constant (e.g., g).
• Make sure that all variables are independent.
• Look for relationships among subsets of the variables.
 Cont’d

• When to determine the number of pi terms, it is important to know

how many reference dimensions are required to describe the
variables.
• In hydromechanics, the required number of reference dimensions is
three, but in some problems only one or two are required.
• In some problems, we occasionally find the number of reference
dimensions needed to describe all variables is smaller than the
number of basic dimensions.
Uniqueness of Pi Terms

• The Pi terms obtained depend on the somewhat arbitrary selection

of repeating variables.
• For example, in the problem of studying the pressure drop in a pipe.
Cont’d
Similitude
• The study of predicting prototype conditions from model
observations.
• When an analytical or numerical solution is not practical, it is usually
advisable to perform tests on a model if testing is not practical on a
full-scale prototype, be it too large or too small.

• If it is decided that a model study is to be performed, it is necessary

to develop the means whereby a quantity measured on the model,
signified with a subscript m, can be used to predict the associated
quantity on the prototype, signified by a subscript p.

• We can develop such a means if we have similarity between model

and prototype
 Cont’d

• Model : is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine.

 models should be smaller than the prototypes
• A representation of a physical system that may be used to predict
the behavior of the system in some desired respect
• Prototype: The actual structure or machine. The physical system for
which the predictions are to be made
• Model analysis: the study of models of actual machine.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

Advantages:
• The performance of the machine can be easily predicted, in
advance.
• With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the
variables influencing a flow problem in terms of dimensional
parameters is obtained.
• This relationship helps in conducting tests on the model.
• The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of
model testing.
• The most economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.
 Cont’d

• Three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a

model and a prototype:
I. Geometric similarity
II. Kinematic similarity
III. Dynamic similarity
Geometric Similarity

• A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all

body dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear scale
ratio.

• All angles are preserved in geometric similarity.

• All flow directions are preserved.
• The orientation of model and prototype with respect to the
surroundings must be identical.
Kinematic Similarity
• Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have the
same length scale and the same time scale ratio.
• One special case is incompressible frictionless flow with no free
surface.
• These perfect-fluid flows are kinematically similar with independent
length and time scales, and no additional parameters are necessary.
 Cont’d

• the ratio of all corresponding lengths and times (and hence the
ratios of all corresponding velocities) in model and prototype are
the same
Example

• If the scale ratio between a model and its prototype is 1/25 what
velocity and discharge ratio will prevail between model and
prototype? If the prototype discharge is 3000m3/s, what is the
model discharge?
Solution
Dynamic Similarity

• Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the
same length scale ratio (i.e., geometric similarity), time scale ratio
(i.e., kinematic similarity), and force scale (or mass scale) ratio.
• Forces on model and prototype differ only by a constant scale factor
• To be ensure of identical force and pressure coefficients between
model and prototype:
• 1. Compressible flow: e and a are equal
• 2. Incompressible flow:
a. With no free surface: Re are equal
b. With a free surface: e and r are equal
c. If necessary, e and a are equal
Types of forces encountered in fluid phenomenon

• Inertia Force, FI: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in

the flowing fluid
• Viscous Force, Fμ: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to
viscosity and surface area of flow.
• Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration due
to gravity.
• Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and
cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.
• Surface Tension Force, Fσ: It is equal to product of surface tension
and length of surface of flowing fluid.
• Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of
flowing fluid.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

• Dimensionless numbers are the numbers which are obtained by

dividing the inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure
force or surface tension force or elastic force.
• As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a dimensionless
number. These are also called non dimensional parameters.
• Recognizing that there is only one basic dimension, namely force,
dimensional analysis would allow us to write as above equation the
equation above in terms of force ratios or
 Cont’d

• for practical problems it is seen that one force is most significant

compared to others and is called predominant force or most
significant force
• Thus, for practical problem only the most significant force is
considered for dynamic similarity. Hence, models are designed on
the basis of ratio of force, which is dominating in the phenomenon.
• Finally, the laws on which models are designed for dynamic
similarity are called models laws or laws of similarity. The followings
are these laws
Reynold’s model law

• It is based on Reynold’s number and states that Reynold’s number

for model must be equal to the Reynolds number for prototype.

• Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous forces are

dominant. These problems include:
Cont’d
Froude’s model law
Cont’d
 Cont’d

• Hence we could conclude that if the Reynolds number and the

Froude number are the same on the model and prototype, the Euler
number must also be the same.
• Thus dynamic similarity between model and prototype is
guaranteed by equating the Reynolds number and the Froude
number of the model to those on the prototype, respectively.
 Cont’d

• We can write the acceleration ratio as

• showing that the acceleration ratio between corresponding points

on the model and prototype is a constant provided that the mass
ratio of corresponding fluid elements is a constant.
 Cont’d
• The velocity ratio being a constant between all corresponding points
in the flow fields is the statement of kinematic similarity.
• The length ratio being constant between all corresponding points in
the flow fields is the demand of geometric similarity, which results
in the model having the same shape as the prototype.
• Hence, to ensure complete similarity between model and
prototype, we demand that:
• Geometric similarity be satisfied
• The mass ratio of corresponding fluid elements be a constant
• The appropriate dimensionless parameters are equal
 Cntn’d

• Assuming that complete similarity between model and prototype

exists, we can now predict quantities of interest on a prototype
from measurements on a model.
• If we measure a drag force FD on a model and wish to predict the
corresponding drag on the prototype, we could equate the ratio of
the drag forces to the ratio of the inertial forces

• If we measure the power input to a model and wish to predict the

power requirement of the prototype, we would recognize that
power is force times velocity and write
Example

A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of specific

gravity 0.90 and viscosity 3x10-2 poise at the rate of 3000litre/s. Tests
were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at 20oC. Find
the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
Example

• A test is to be performed on a proposed design for a large pump that

is to deliver 1.5 m3/s of water from a 40-cm-diameter impeller with
a pressure rise of 400 kPa. A model with an 8-cm-diameter impeller
is to be used. What flow rate should be used and what pressure rise
is to be expected? The model fluid is water at the same temperature
as the water in the prototype.
Solution

• For similarity to exist in this confined incompressible flow problem,

the Reynolds numbers must be equal; that is,

• Recognizing that  m =  p if the temperatures are equal, we see that

• The ratio of flow rates is found recognizing that Q = VA:

 Cont’d

• Thus we find that

• The dimensionless pressure rise is found using the Euler number:

• Hence the pressure rise for the model is

Example

A 1:5 scale model of a large pump is used to test a proposed change.

The prototype pump produces a pressure rise of 600 kPa at a mass
flux of 800 kg/s. Determine the mass flux to be used in the model and
the expected pressure rise.
(a) Water at the same temperature is used in both model and
prototype.
(b) The water in the model study is at 30°C and the water in the
prototype is at 15°C
Solution
Example

• Drag measurements were taken for a 5-cm diameter sphere in

water at 20°C to predict the drag force of a 1-m diameter balloon
rising in air with standard temperature and pressure. Determine
A. The sphere velocity if the balloon was rising at 3 m/s
B. The drag force of the balloon if the resulting sphere drag was 10
N. Assume the drag is a function of the diameter , the velocity
, and the fluid density and kinematic viscosity .
Solution
Cont’d
Cont’d
Cont’d
Example
In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow over
the model were 2m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the velocity
and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the model size.
Confined Flows

• A confined flow is a flow that has no free surface (a liquid-gas

surface) or interface (two different liquids forming an interface).
• internal flows In pipes and conduits
• Gravity does not influence the flow pattern in confined flows
• The dominant effect is that of viscosity in incompressible confined
flows.
• Surface tension is obviously not a factor, as it would be in bubble
formation, and for steady flows there would be no unsteady effects
due to oscillations in the flow.
 Cont’d

• The three relevant forces are pressure forces, inertial forces, and
viscous forces.
• Therefore, in confined flows dynamic similarity is achieved if the
ratios of viscous forces, inertial forces, and pressure forces between
model and prototype are the same.
• This leads to the conclusion that Eu=f(Re), so that it is only
necessary to consider the Reynolds number as the dominant
dimensionless parameter in a confined incompressible flow.
Free-Surface Flows

• A free-surface flow is one in which part of the boundary involves a

pressure boundary condition.
E.g. flows in channels and spillways
• In this type flows the location of the free surface is unknown and
the velocity at the free surface is unknown; it is the pressure that
must be the same on either side of the interface.
• gravity controls both the location and the motion of the free
surface.
• This introduces the Froude number because of the influence of the
gravity forces.
 Cont’d

• In most model studies water is the only economical fluid to use; if

the prototype fluid is also water, as it often is, we would find from
the Froude numbers
Classification of models

• Undistorted or True Models: are those which are geometrically

similar to prototype or in other words if the scale ratio for linear
dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the models is
called undistorted model.
• The behavior of prototype can be easily predicted from the results
of undistorted or true model.
• Distorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not
geometrically similar to its prototype.
• For distorted models different scale ratios for linear dimension are
used.
• For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale ratio
are taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of river will
be very small which may not be measured accurately.
 Cont’d

• It is not always possible to satisfy all the known similarity

requirements.
• Models for which one or more similarity requirements are not
satisfied are called “distorted models.”
 Cont’d

• The followings are the advantages of distorted models

• The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured
• The cost of the model can be reduced
• Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained
• Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the
results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype
Scale Ratios for Distorted Models
Example
The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge through
the model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the model=1/50 the
horizontal dimension of prototype and vertical dimension of model
=1/10 the vertical dimension of prototype.
Example

A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a

horizontal scale of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/s, the
average width and depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively.
Determine the corresponding discharge in model and check the
Reynolds’ Number of the model flow.
Solution
Cont’d