The

Endocrine System
 The Endocrine System

• Ductless glands that secretes

regulatory chemicals called
hormones into the blood

• The blood transports these

hormones to specific sites
called target cells
 The Endocrine System

• Functions closely with the

nervous system in regulating
and integrating body processes
and maintaining homeostasis

• Regulates body activities

through the action of
electrochemical impulses that
are transmitted by means of
neurons, resulting in rapid but
usually brief response
 The Endocrine System

• Hormonal action have a slow

but relatively long-lasting
effect (seconds to days)

• Nervous and endocrine systems

are closely coordinated in
automatically controlling the
functions of the body
 Glands of the
Endocrine System

• Pituitary, hypothalamus and

pineal glands - cranial cavity

• Thyroid and parathyroid glands

- neck

• Adrenal gland and pancreas -

abdominal region

• Gonads – pelvic cavity (ovaries,

female), scrotum (testes,
males)
 Glands of the
Endocrine System

• Minor glands

✓Thymus – neck region

✓Stomach, kidneys, mucosal

cells of the duodenum and
placenta - fetus
Hormones and Their Actions

• Specific organic substances that

act as the chemical messengers
of the endocrine system

• 3 basic kinds of hormones:

✓Protein
✓Steroids
✓Amines

• Derived either from amino acids

or cholesterol
Hormones and Their Actions

• Proteins:
✓Composed of amino acid
bonded together in peptide
chains

✓Pituitary hormones,
pancreatic hormones,
parathyroid hormones and
calcitonin from the thyroid
gland

✓Intravenous, intramuscular
or subcutaneous
Hormones and Their Actions
• Steroid:
✓Lipids synthesized from
cholesterol
✓Exist as complex rings of
carbon or hydrogen atoms
✓Cortisol, cortisone,
estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone
✓Sex hormones and hormones
from adrenal cortex

✓Orall, intravenous,
intramuscular
Hormones and Their Actions
• Amines:
✓Produced from amino acids
but do not contain peptide
bonds
✓Contain carbon, hydrogen
and nitrogen and always
have an amine group (-
NH2)
✓Thyroxine from thyroid
gland, adrenaline from
adrenal gland and melatonin
from the pineal gland
✓Orall, intravenous,
 Control of Hormone
Secretion
• The rate of secretion of a
particular hormone and
the rate of usage by the
target cells are closely
balanced

• The stability of hormone

levels is maintained by a
negative feedback system
and autonomic neural
impulse
 Control of Hormone
Secretion
• Negative Feedback:
✓Homeostatic mechanism that
maintain the status quo of
supply and demand between
the normal level and the
needs of the target cells

✓This chemical feedback

information signals the
endocrine gland to inhibit
secretion
 Control of Hormone
Secretion
• Autonomic neural impulse:
✓Cause certain endocrine
glands to secrete hormones

✓Specialized kind of neural

impulse - Neurosecretory
cells in the hypothalamus
called releasing factors
influence specific target
cells in the pituitary gland to
secrete specific hormones
 Pituitary Gland

• Neurohypophysis releases
hormones produced by the
hypothalamus

• Adenohypophysis secretes its

own hormones in response to
regulation from hypothalamic
hormones
 Pituitary Gland

• Cerebral hypophysis

• Located on the inferior aspect

of the brain – diencephalon

• Attached to the brain by a

stalk-like structure called the
pituitary stalk

• Infundibulum – portion of the

pituitary stalk that connects the
hypothalamus to the posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland
 Pituitary Gland

• Rounded, pea-shaped gland

measuring about 1.3 cm in
diameter

• Covered by the dura mater and

is supported by the cells of the
sella tunica of the sphenoid
bone
 Pituitary Gland

• The cerebral arterial circle

surrounds the highly vascular
pituitary gland providing it with
rich blood supply

• Structurally and functionally

divided into an anterior
(adenohypophysis) and
posterior (neurohypophysis)
lobe
 Pituitary Gland

• Adenohypophysis: 3 parts

✓Pars distal – bulbar portion

✓Pars tuberalis – thin extension in

contact with the infundibulum

✓Pars intermedia – between the

anterior and posterior parts of
the pituitary
 Pituitary Gland

• Neurohypophysis:

✓Neural part of the pituitary gland

✓Consist of the bulbar lobus

nervosa which is in contact with
the pars intermedia and the pars
distalis

✓Infundibulum, connecting stalk to

the hypothalamus
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Growth Hormone (GH) or

Somatotropin
✓Regulated by the Growth
hormone releasing factor (GRF)
and growth hormone release-
inhibiting factor (GR-IH) from the
hypothalamus
✓Regulates mitotic activity and
growth of body cells
✓Promotes movement of amino
acids through cell membranes
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) or Thyrotropin

✓Regulated by the Thyrotropin

releasing factor (TRF) from the
hypothalamus

✓Regulates hormonal activity of

the thyroid gland
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)

✓Regulated by the corticotropin

releasing factor (CRF) from the
hypothalamus

✓Controls secretion of certain

hormones from the adrenal cortex

✓Assists in the breakdown of fats

 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH)

✓Regulated by the Gonadotrophin-

releasing hormone (GnRH) from
the hypothalamus

✓In males, stimulates production of

sperm cells

✓In females, regulates follicle

development in ovary and
stimulates secretion of estrogen
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) or
ICSH in males
✓Regulated by the Gonadotrophin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) from
the hypothalamus
✓Promotes secretion of sex
hormones
✓In females, plays a role in the
release of ovum and stimulates
formation of corpus luteum and
production of progesterone

✓In males, stimulates testosterone

secretion
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) or
ICSH in males
✓Regulated by the Gonadotrophin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) from
the hypothalamus
✓Promotes secretion of sex
hormones
✓In females, plays a role in the
release of ovum and stimulates
formation of corpus luteum and
production of progesterone

✓In males, stimulates testosterone

secretion
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Prolactin:

✓Regulated by the hypothalamus

through the production of
prolactin release-inhibiting factor
(PR-IH)

✓Promotes secretion of milk from

mammary glands (lactation)
 Pituitary Hormones
(Adenohypophysis)

• Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH)
✓Regulated by the melanocyte-
stimulating hormone releasing
factor (MRF) and melanocyte-
stimulating hormone inhibiting
factor (MIF), both from the
hypothalamus

✓Stimulates pigmentation within

the melanocytes of the skin
 Pituitary Hormones
(Neurohypophysis)

• Oxytocin:
✓Regulated by the hypothalamus in
response to stretch in uterine
walls and stimulation of breasts

✓Stimulates contractions of
muscles in uterine wall

✓Causes contraction of muscles in

mammary glands
 Pituitary Hormones
(Neurohypophysis)

• Antidiuretic hormone:
✓Regulated by the hypothalamus in
response to changes in water
concentration in the blood

✓Reduces water loss from kidneys

✓Elevates blood presure

 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands
• Secretes thyroxine and
triiodothyronine which function
in the regulation of energy
metabolism
• Hormones are critically
important for proper growth
and development
• Thyroid also secretes calcitonin
which may antagonize the
action of parathyroid hormone
in the regulation of calcium and
phosphate balance
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands

• Below the larynx

• Consists of 2 lobes positioned

on either lateral side of the
trachea and connected
anteriorly by a broad isthmus

• Largest and weighs between 20

to 25g.
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands

• Microscopically, it consists of
many spherical hollow sacs
called thyroid follicles

• Follicles are lined with a simple

cuboidal epithelium composed
of follicular cells that
synthesize the two principal
thyroid hormones
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands

• Interior of follicles contains

colloid, a protein-rich fluid

• Between the follicles are

epithelial cells called
parafollicular cells that produce
a h0rmone called calcitonin (or
thyrocalcitonin)
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands

• Small and flattened

• Embedded in the posterior
surfaces of the lateral lobes of
the thyroid gland
• 4 parathyroid glands: a superior
pair and an inferior pair
• Small yellowish brown body
measuring 3-8mm in length,
2-5mm in width, 1.5mm in
depth
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Glands

• Microscopically, composed of
two types of epithelial cells

• Principal cells – synthesize

parathyroid hormone

• Oxyphil cells – supports the

principal cells and are believed
to produce reserve quantities of
parathyroid hormone
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Hormones

• Thyroxine
✓Regulated by the hypothalamus
and release of TSH from
adenohypophysis of the pituitary
gland
✓Increases rate of protein synthesis
and rate of energy release from
carbohydrates
✓Regulates rate of growth
✓Stimulates maturity of nervous
system
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Hormones

• Triiodothyronine (T3)
✓Same as Thyroxine
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Hormones

• Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin)
✓Regulated by calcium levels in
blood
✓Lower blood calcium by inhibiting
the release of calcium from bone
tissue
 Thyroid & Parathyroid
Hormones

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

✓Promotes a rise in blood calcium
levels by acting on the bones,
kidneys and large intestines