INTRODUCTION

Significance of the Communication Skills Course

The courses will equip you with necessary skills for university education. From research findings,
teaching experience and student reports, we know that students all over the world experience
major problems in coping with their studies at the postsecondary level-particularly university
level. This is due to the difference in study methods used at school and those used at the tertiary
or university level:
-You are left to your own method of study with little or no supervision from you lecturers.
-The number of students in the class will be so large that you will not get much individual
attention.
-You are expected to do a very large volume of reading compared to what you did at school.
-The texts you will read will be more difficult than those you need at school.
-There will be new subjects and new approaches to the other subjects which will be unfamiliar to
you.
 -There are many attractions and distractions hence the need to organise your time very carefully
The courses will equip you with the skills necessary for life outside the university, particularly the
job market. Such skills include reading and writing (e.g. letters, memos and reports), handling
meetings, carrying out research, public speaking, conducting interviews, conflict resolution,
planning strategies, budgeting time and resources.

TOPIC ONE: READING SKILLS

Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to arrive at meaning.
Reading is an active process of constructing meanings of words. Reading with a purpose helps
the reader to direct information towards a goal and focuses their attention. Although the reasons
for reading may vary, the primary purpose of reading is to understand the text.

Reading is the ability to understand words contained in a document and make use of the
knowledge for personal growth and development (Dadzie, 2008). This implies making meaning
out of recorded information either printed or non-printed in the life of an individual. People read
for different reasons and purposes, some of which include for pleasure, leisure, relaxation,
information and for knowledge.

Reading is the identification of the symbols and the association of appropriate meaning with
them. It requires identification and comprehension. Comprehension skills help the learner to
understand the meaning of words in isolation and in context (Palani, 2012).

Types of Reading
There are several types/ways/techniques of reading. They are previewing, skimming, scanning,
word for word reading, light reading, intensive/study/critical reading and extensive reading.
a)      Previewing

It involves looking over a text to determine its relevance and worth for a specific reading
purpose. It helps the reader to predict in a very short time, what a reading text is all about and to
determine its degree of relevance.

b)      Skimming

Used when a reader wants to get the main idea or meaning of a text within a very short time.
When skimming, you need to read the topic sentences only. The topic sentence is usually the first
in a paragraph and expresses the main idea. But sometimes a writer may choose to make the
second sentence of a paragraph the topic sentence.

c)      Scanning
It involves searching for particular items of information. You are interested in these items only
and not everything in the text.
d)     Word by word reading

This reading technique is used when one is learning how to read for the first time. You might use
this technique if you decide to learn a new language. Word for word reading means trying to
understand fully one word or phrase at a time.

e)      Light reading

This is the way most people read most of the time. There is neither an attempt to digest the
material that is read nor is there any attempt to assess it critically. This type of reading tends to
be fast and superficial. It is the type of reading most people apply when reading newspapers and
novels. This kind of reading is not recommended for study purposes but you can use the
technique when reading for leisure.

f)       Intensive reading       

Intensive reading entails content study of what is read in some detail and study of language in
which the material is written. Intensive reading calls for a deep and thorough understanding of
what is written. The concern is with detailed comprehension of short texts-typically not more
than five hundred words in length. Intensive reading implies approaching a text under the
guidance of a task (or a teacher) which forces the student to use analytical, critical and evaluative
skills.

g)      Extensive Reading
Extensive reading might be said to emphasize the process whereby a student comes to
understand a book without fully grasping every point of it, or even trying to. Strategies such as
skimming and scanning are important here, but there are also others such as recognising the
contribution of 'plot' or 'argument' to understanding a text. Extensive reading usually involves
long texts or books with many pages - or just wide reading. The objectives of extensive reading
are: to promote enjoyment of reading, to provide various experiences, and to provide wide
exposure to written English in use.

h) Subvocalized reading- combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and
comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.

i) Speed reading- is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an

unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. Methods include skimming or the
chunking of words in a body of text to increase the rate of reading. It is closely connected to
speed learning. The aim of speed-reading is basically to increase the reading speed without
compromising on the understanding or retention.

j) Proofreading- is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One can
learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high
rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely suspend
comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible words that
a suspected typographic error allows.

k) Rereading- is reading a book more than once. Cristel, Antonia (2012)) found that re-reading
offers mental health benefits because it allows for a more profound emotional connection and
self-reflection, versus the first reading, which is more focused on the events and plot.

The Reading Process

The reading process involves three stages.

The first is the pre-reading stage, which allows the reader to activate background knowledge,
preview the text, and develop a purpose for reading. A strategy for students to utilize during this
stage is to look at the title of the selection and list all the information that comes to mind about
the title.

The second stage occurs during reading, when the reader makes predictions as they read and
then confirms or revises the predictions. For example, double-entry journal enable the reader to
write the text from the reading on one side and their personal reaction on the other side.
 The final stage occurs after reading and allows the reader to retell the story, discuss the
elements of a story, answer questions and/or compare it to another text. For example, students
can create summaries, where they take a huge selection and reduce it to its main points for more
concise understanding.

The process of reading has the following characteristics:

1.                  It is both a physical and mental activity.
2.                  It requires attention and thought.
3.                  It involves the participation of the reader emotionally and intellectually.
4.                  It involves interpretation of the written (printed) symbols.

Purposes for reading

a)                  Reading for pleasure/entertainment
b)                  Acquiring knowledge and information: to be informed about the world you live in.
c)                  Reading for academic purpose
Materials that can be read for academic information are: textbooks, reference books, general and
specialist journals, magazines and special sections of newspapers.
d)                 Reading for instructions or directions: food and clothing labels, instructions on drugs,
operational manuals on machines etc.

The SQ3R reading method

Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R)
This method facilitates a very deep understanding of the matter that is being read. In fact, the
system aims to facilitate an understanding so clear that the reader should be able to teach
whatever he has learned during the process of reading. Instructors who are preparing to teach a
material without having to refer to notes during the lecture, generally use this reading method.
The process involves five different steps, which are as follows:
[i] Survey- Survey involves getting a quick idea of what the whole writing piece is about. It is a
pre-reading technique that helps you to determine what the text you are going to read is about
and how it is organised. By looking at the title, the illustrations, the table of contents, the
headings and sub-headings and the illustrations in a text, you will familiarize yourself quickly
with the organisation and content of the information material. This helps you to decide whether
the content is relevant to your reading purposes or not.

[ii] Question- is a pre-reading technique that involves coming up with questions to which your
reading should provide answers. These questions helps to keep you alert and focused as you
read. When you use this technique, you define your reading purpose and determine what you
want to remember at the end of your reading task.

[iii] Read- study reading involves more than the use of the eyes. It involves noting down or
highlighting key points, paying attention to the emphasis given by the writer through the use of
underlined words, italicized words and bolded words; marking key vocabulary, and checking
your comprehension as you proceed.

[iv] Recite- at this stage you check on your understanding of what you read by either asking
yourself questions and trying to answer them without making reference to the text, or by
mentally summarizing in your own words-what you have read. When you find there is an
important detail you cannot remember, re-read the section containing that information.

[v] Review- review involves re-reading the headings, the recall questions and the brief notes you
made during the reading stage to bring back to mind what you have read. It can be done a day or
two days after the reading. For this step to be effective you need to make brief notes but
meaningful notes from the texts you read. This will make your revision before examination less
strenuous.

Bad Reading Habits and How to Break Them 

To really get rid of a bad habit, you should replace it with a good one. You have to want to get
rid of the bad habits, and you must practice and work at it in order to change. The following are
some of the bad habits which tend to cause people to read slowly. Ask yourself whether you are
guilty of any of the following:
A. Moving your lips when you read
Moving your lips slows you to a fast talking rate, about 150 words per minute. Put your fingers
on your lips to stop the motion.
B. Vocalizing
Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making
sounds. This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking. To check, rest your fingertips
lightly against the vocal cord area of your throat. If you feel a vibration, or if you find that your
tongue is moving, you are vocalizing.
C. Reading everything at the same speed
When reading, set your rate according to your purpose for reading and the difficulty level of the
material. Practice adjusting your rate to suit your material. The more difficult the material, the
slower the rate.
D. Regressing out of habit
Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need.
Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual,
unnecessary regressing really slows you down. Use a card or paper to cover the text after you
read it to prevent regressing.
E. Reading one word at a time
Do you think one word at a time, or in phrases? Slow readers tend to see only one word at a time.
Good readers will see several words at a time and their eyes will stop only three or four times as
they move across a page. Reading in idea-phrases speeds your reading and improves your
understanding of what you have read. Mark the phrases in the sentences of a passage, then
practice seeing more than one word at a time.

TOPIC TWO: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Introduction

Communication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill.

However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate
well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often,
we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we
sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes
place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other
interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using
pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-
verbally, but what is understood.

What is communication?

Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which
means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended
meaning to another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language.
Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to
another.

Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of
communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message
encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally
interpretation of the message by the recipient.

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. When
you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with your friend.
Communication is the process in which information or ideas are exchanged either between or
among individuals through a system or use of symbols. Communication may also be defined as
giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual
means, so that the material communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.

Characteristics of Communication
The characteristics of communication include:
1. Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to
others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).
2. Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.
3. . Communication is a complex a process.
4. Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants
not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.
5. Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.
6. Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals
7. Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled
back.
8. Communication is a system
9. Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel,
message, noise, feedback.
10. Communication can be verbal/ non-verbal or visual.
11. Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbal
Elements of communication/ Components of communication:
[a] Sender- this is the initiator of the communication process and plays the following roles in the
communication process;
[i] He/she is the source of the information being given to the receiver.
[ii] Initiates the communication process.
[iii] Encodes the information being given to the receiver by choosing appropriate symbols,
words, signs, sounds to convey the information to the intended receiver.
[iv] Evaluate the availability of the medium of communication and settles for the best alternative
to use in sending the information to the intended receiver.
[v] Meets the cost of communication.
[b] Message- this is the idea, feeling, information or an opinion that is transmitted from the
sender to the receiver. It is the physical form which the sender encodes the idea or opinion or
feelings to be able to pass it across to the receiver. Its main role in the communication process is
to bring understanding between the sender and the receiver.
[c] Encoding- It is the process through which the sender expresses his/her ideas or opinions into
words, signs, gestures to convey the message. It is a psychological process where the sender
engages his/her mind to select the appropriate words or signs to convey the message.
[d] Medium/channel- refers to the means through which information is carried or transmitted
from one place to another. Its role in the communication process is to bridge the gap between the
sender of information and the intended receiver.

[e] Receiver- this is the intended target of the information or message, he/she receives the
message or information and gives feedback as expected by the sender. If he/she fails to receive
the information as intended then breakdown occurs. Thus to facilitate decoding of the message or
information it should be encoded correctly in the intended receivers’ mind. The receiver
performs the following roles in the communication process;

[i] Receives the sent information or message.

[ii] Decodes the information or message sent i.e interpreting the message or information
accordingly.
[iii] Responds to the sender by giving an appropriate feedback.
[iv] He/she meets the cost of the feedback medium cost.
How the receiver could enhance the effectiveness of communication;
[i] Listening effectively or pay attention to the message from the communicator.
[ii] Asking questions for clarification where necessary.
[iii] Gives feedback to show that he/she has understood the message.
[iv] Should have positive attitude to the communicator.
[v] Should create a conducive environment that is being friendly, cooperative and having
courtesy to the communicator.
[f] Decoding- the process through which the receiver interprets the message in order to give
meaning and hence an appropriate feedback.
[g] Feedback- is the reaction or response of the receiver to the message or information sender.
Feedback completes the communication process and therefore brings about reversal of roles
where the initial sender becomes the receiver.
Functions of communication
Human beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must
communicate:
1. To change in behavior
2. To influence others
3. To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions.
4. It is a tool for controlling and motivating people.
5. It is a social and emotional process.
6. Communication for improving self-confidence
7. Entertain
8. Educate
9. Establish relationships
10. Inform
11. Solve problems
12. Make orders
13. Give directions
Features of good communication;
[i] Accuracy- convey accurate information to avoid inconveniences.
[ii] Completeness – give all the information that is required by the receiver to facilitate feedback.
[iii] Timely- communicate right information at the right time, this way the information will be
received positively.
[iv] Understandable- encode your message so that it is well understood by the receiver.
[v] Precise- avoid being wordy- get to the point in clear words.
[vi] Direct- define the receiver of the message clearly to facilitate communication to the right
person.
Factors to consider when choosing a medium of communication:
[i] The cost of the medium- consider how much the communication will cost in terms of the
results expected.
[ii] Availability of the medium.
[iii] Resources- consider the equipment and staff available.
[iv] Confidentiality as security levels of the medium.
[v] The urgency or speed of the message.
[vi] The nature of the message i.e if the message is too detailed then writing it is the best method
but if brief calling will be the best option.
[vii] The reliability of the medium.
[viii] The audience or the receiver of the message.

Barriers to effective communication:

A barrier in the communication process is any interference in the encoding and   the decoding
processes that reduce the clarity of a message. It can be physical, psychological, cultural, or
language retained.

(i) Physical barriers: Examples include loud sounds, distracting sights, unusual behaviour,
physical appearance etc.

(ii) Psychological barriers: Examples include worries, uncertainties or any other attitudinal or
emotional factors.
  (iii) Cultural barriers: Examples are cultural differences relating to beliefs and values.
(iv) Language barriers: e.g. mother tongue interference, inadequate vocabulary,
inappropriate register, diction, etc.

Specifically, barriers to communication are as follows:

[i] Difference perception- occurs when the sender and receiver looks at the same point from a
totally different points of view bringing about conflict in their perception. Such differences may
be caused by education status, cultural backgrounds, and level of experience.

[ii] Language barrier- when sender and receiver does not speak or understand each other’s
language used in communication.
[iii] Noise- it is any factor that disturbs or interferes with the communication process by reducing
the concentration of the sender and the receiver.
[iv] Defective channels of communication- which leads to communication breakdown.
[v] Age difference – age may create a difference in understanding or interest between the two
parties involved hence affecting the communication. This is because there is lack of shared
common experience, difference in knowledge and levels of awareness.
[vi] Attitude- the sender or receiver‘s attitude towards one another is likely to influence
communication to a higher degree positively or negatively.
[vii] Mistrust or fear- the credibility of the message is to a large extent dictated by the trust that
two parties have to one another. If the sender provides an environment of mistrust or fear any
message will be received with suspicion.
[viii] Improper delegation of the message or information sent to the receiver.
[ix] Information overload.
[x] Distortion of information sent.
[xi] Lack of knowledge on the subject matter.
[xii] Poor listening.
[xiii] Illiteracy.
[xiv] High cost of the media for sending the message or information.
[xv] Geographical barriers.
[xvi] Lack of adequate preparation by the sender.
[xvii] Distractions e.g noise.
[xviii] Unclarified assumptions made by either sender or receiver and are not clear to one of the
parties.
[xix] Poorly expressed messages due to poor choice of words.
[xx] Loss of transmission and poor retention.
[xxi] Selective perception- people perceive what they want to perceive and they hear only what
they want to hear.
[xxii] Mood – poor mood on either the sender or the receiver.

Solution to barriers to communication:

[i] Ensure the environment is noise free.

[ii] Use the right channels of communications for effective delivery of messages or information.
[iii] Strive for the right attitude on the information or message being sent or received.
[iv] Plan before giving out a message or information to ensure that all principles of effective
communication are observed.
[v] Avoid assumptions on the receivers’ side.
[vi] Sufficient time for adjustment should be given.
[vii] Practice and training should be used as instruments to improve training and reading.
[viii] Conciseness should be aimed at but it should not create ambiguity.

Unethical practices in communication;

 Providing misleading information.

 Spamming- sending unsolicited messages to other people.
 Eavesdrop- spying on other people’s information or tapping other people’s phones or
websites.
 Spoofing- masquerading to be a genuine person when you are a counterfeit in
communicating the given information.
 Use of indecent language i.e using abusive language.
 Jamming loading excessive information hence congesting the system hence delaying the
delivery of the sent message or information.

Forms of Communication:

[a] Visual communication- involves passing of information through signs or images where the
receiver receives the message through the sense of sight. It includes body language, pictures,
gestures, colours, numbers etc. the body language includes facial expression, use of parts of the
body e.g winking or waving to pass across some information. All these body languages indicate
the mood, anxiety levels and the state of emotions of a person.
Advantages of visual communication

[i] Useful for those with hearing problems.

[ii] It is easier to maintain the attention of the audience by capturing the attention using gestures.
[iii] Gives a better understanding to an illiterate audience.
[iv] Creates interest among the audience through use of gestures.
[v] They help enhance clarity and presentation of the report by reinforcing with chats, figures
and tables.
Disadvantages of visual communication
[i] Cannot serve those with sight problems.
[ii] Chances of misrepresentations are high hence distorting the messages meant to carry.
[iii] Does not give illustrations especially those on still boards.
[b] Written communication – it is a form of communication that takes place through written
word, the medium used being letters, journal, memos, notices, minutes.
Advantages of written communication
[i] Provides a point of future reference.
[ii] It is a debate i.e it can accommodate more details unlike oral communication.
[iii] It is cheap over long distances.
[iv] Provides evidence of communication unlike oral communication.
[v] It allows illustration of messages through use of graphs, charts unlike oral communication.
[vi] It can be forwarded to a number of people.
Disadvantages of written communication
 It is time consuming to prepare.
 No immediate feedback unlike oral communication.
 It is expensive in terms of the materials used.
 Not suitable for illiterate individuals.
 Not confidential especially if the intended target is illiterate.
 It is difficult to make clarifications.
 Language problems can make it ineffective.
 It is mostly formal hence it lacks the personal touch enjoyed in other forms of
communication.
 The message can be misinterpreted by the receiver bringing about communication
breakdown.
 Once the information has been dispatched, it is difficult to alter it.

[c] Oral communication – it is a form of communication that takes place through the spoken
word which could either be face to face, telephone meetings, interviews.

Advantages of oral communication

[i] It is a faster form of communication.
[ii] It is accurate as one can explain the message for clarification.
[iii] It is cheap over short distances.
[iv] It is confidential because the target of the messages can be communicated to directly.
[v] There is immediate feedback.
[vi] It incorporates personal attributes that may show the weight of the messages i.e facial
expressions, the tone variations.
Disadvantages of oral communication
[i] There is no evidence of communication.
[ii] It is restrictive i.e it cannot accommodate many details as compared to written
communication.
[d] Audio visual form of communication- this takes place through sound and visual signs of
gestures. The medium commonly used is TV, videos, film, computers.
Advantages of audio visuals communication
[i] It is faster form of communication.
[ii] It is persuasive.
[iii] It can be translated into many languages.
[iv] Provides evidence of what is being talked about.
[v] Provides room for illustrations and demonstrations.
[vi] Can be followed by the deaf and blind people.
Disadvantages of audio visual communication
[i] Depends of source of power to be to use it.
[ii] Prone to signals in some places.
 [iii] Need to train use to be to use them.
[iv] It is expensive for many to afford to purchase.

[e] Non-verbal communication

This is passing of messages through lectures, body movement and facial expression. It is passing
of messages without talking.

TOPIC THREE: LISTENING SKILLS

Definitions
There are many definitions of listening. The following are some examples.
1.                  Listening is the active process of receiving audio stimuli (De Vito, 1987:26)
2.                  Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting to sounds and
includes understanding, analysing, evaluating, and responding.
3.                  Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process by which a message is received, critically
interpreted, and acted upon by a purposeful listener.

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication
process. Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively
messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message
can easily become frustrated or irritated.
If there is one communication skill you should aim to master then listening is it. Listening is so
important that many top employers provide listening skills training for their employees.  This is
not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to: better customer
satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes, increased sharing of information that in
turn can lead to more creative and innovative work. Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs
credit their success to effective listening skills.  Effective listening is a skill that underpins all
positive human relationships, spend some time thinking about and developing your listening
skills – they are the building blocks of success.
We Spend a lot of Time Listening
Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of communication, of this an
average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking, 16% reading and 9%
writing. (Adler, R. et al. 2001).
Levels/types of listening:
[i] Intensive listening- this is the highest level of listening which involves devotion of time and
energy by the receiver to the incoming messages.

Features of intensive listening:

[a] The receiver pays attention to all the verbal and non-verbal aspects which assist in decoding
the messages.
[b] Taking down the main points in a communication process.
[c] The receiver resists any noise which may interfere with the incoming messages by ensuring
that the environment is noise free.
[d] The listener is objective and open minded so as to be able to make sense out of the
information being passed over.
Where intensive listening is applied:
 Interviews, seminars and conferences.
 Teaching, learning sessions.
 Formal meetings
[ii] Entertainment/ Casual listening- this is listening where the receiver pays the least attention
in the listening process whereby he/she may or may not be interested in the full meaning of the
messages but only in some aspects such as tone, rhythm e.g when listening to music while
reading or walking.
[iii] Reflective/ Emphatic listening- this is a form of listening where the receiver attempts to
share the same feelings and emotions as the sender. It is also referred to as listening for the
feelings. It is employed when the receiver pays more attention to the verbal sounds and all the
non-verbal aspects that make the communication more real. The receiver’s response must be
specifically tailored to the sender’s feelings as he/she gives out the information. It is commonly
used in religious and counselling sessions.
[iv] Appreciative/ Relaxed listening- this is the level of listening where listener pays attention
to the information being passed across and does not give any devotion of time or energy.
[v] Discriminative/ Selective listening- it is a level of listening where the listener selects
important information and gives attention and ignores irrelevant information. The whole process
is characterised by picking relevant information and ignoring irrelevant aspects.
[vi] Critical listening- this is a level of listening where the receiver keenly analyses the
information being passed across with an intention of pointing out the weakness or the strengths
of the information. It is sometimes termed as analytical listening.
[vii] Relationship listening- the purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual
or improve the relationship between people.
[viii] Marginal listening- where the receiver spends only part of the time listening to what the
sender is saying. The receiver’s mind wanders as they listen to the incoming message.
[ix] Dialogue listening- this is listening where questions are asked and interaction is created. It
enhances sharing of ideas.
[x] Evaluation listening- involves making a judgment about the reasonableness of what a
speaker is saying. Once the listener makes an evaluation about an incoming message, he or she
hears very little else of what is said.
[xi] Non-evaluation listening- the listener tries to focus on the incoming message without trying
to simultaneously evaluate it.
[xii] Active listening- involves concentrating on the message so that all elements of the message
are received. The listener listens not only for the content of the message, but also for the
underlying feelings and for non-verbal cues that go with the message. It also requires the receiver
to ask questions for clarification to ensure understanding.
Barriers to effective listening:
 You may find that your listening is hampered by both internal and external factors. The
following are some examples of barriers to effective listening and their possible    solutions.
a) Unfamiliarity with the subject under discussion- One way of dealing with this to do. Prior
preparation for the listening activity. In a classroom situation, for example, you can read ahead of
the lecturer so that you are familiar with the material. This will help you to formulate questions,
which you expect the lecturer to answer during the lecture, Communication researchers have
found out that an unprepared listener can recall. Only 50% of a 10-minute lecture if tested
immediately after.
b) Prejudices and bias- This may be based on Culture, gender, religion, ethnic background, etc.
Separate the message from the speaker and concentrate only on the message.
c) Day dreaming and absent-mindedness- Pay attention to the speaker and make an effort of
predicting what to said next or jot down what is being said.
d) Poor view of the speaker due to obstruction- Position yourself at a vantage point where you
can maintain eye contact with the speaker
e) Poor sitting position or general discomfort- Assume an upright sitting position that can
enable you to turn freely and even take notes
f) Self-confidence and self-protectionism- self-confidence is an over trust of one’s knowledge,
ideas, opinions which makes one to see such ideas as dominant over those of other people. Self-
protectionism is fear or tendency to protect ones ideas, knowledge, values or status from being
challenged by other people’s ideas.
g) Authority difference- this mainly occurs in vertical communication which links two people
of different authority levels. It has the following effects on communication:
 Fear- where a very senior person communicates with a junior person.
 Superiority complex- if the listener is a very senior person to the speaker the tendency to pay
casual attention will come up.
h) Noise- it distracts the receiver’s attention to the speaker hence reducing the concentration
level of the listener.
i) Expectations of communication- once the expectation of what to hear is not fully addressed
by the speaker the receiver or audience may disregard the message hence pay casual attention.
j) Attitude- the attitude between the two parties influences the level of listening between the two
parties. Negative attitudes reduce the urgency of listening while a positive attitude motivates the
listener, making the reception of the information more accurate.
k) Pre-judgement.
l) Selfishness
m) Selective listening
n) Failure to prepare to listen
o) Poor delivery of the message by the source.
In conclusions, make every effort to fight against all opportunities to lose concentration.
Deliberately postpone any personal business until after the lecture or presentation.
Importance of proper listening skills:
[i] Proper listening improves accuracy and efficiency therefore undertaking of procedure is
always done with minimal wastage of time.
[ii] It ensures that the responsibilities are well attended to and in areas where delegation is
embraced then appropriate attention is given to work.
[iii] It minimises confusion and conflicts between instructors and the audience.
[iv] It provides feedback that is appropriate given that one is able to seek clarifications in areas
not familiar with.
[v] It minimises wastage of resources in communication process.
[vi] Helps people to understand what is being said.
[vii] Helps people to relate new information to old information.
[viii] Helps people to interpret information in your own words thereby enhancing understanding.
[ix] Helps people to draw conclusion from information given.
Tips for effective Listening
 Read in advance about the topic to be discussed.
 Sit or stand where you will have a good view of the speaker.
 Focus your attention on the speaker. Sit upright, avoid fidgeting and resist distractions.
 Listen for the main idea and specific details. Ignore irrelevant information.
 Make connections between the various points presented.
 Take notes as you listen.
 Work at listening instead of pretending to listen. Make an effort to understand both the
surface and deep meaning of what is being presented.
 Ask appropriate questions when given a chance to do so. Avoid interrupting the speaker
unnecessarily.
 Avoid being emotional as you listen. Be open to diverse opinions.
 Respond appropriately, including appropriate body language.
 Where necessary, repeat the instructions given to ensure that you have understood them.
The listening process;
The listening process involves the following stages:
[i] Hearing- the listener pays attention to the speaker to hear the message.
[ii] Interpretation- depends on the listener’s vocabulary, knowledge and experience. If the
listener fails to interpret the words correctly the message is misunderstood.
[iii] Evaluation- the listener decides what to do with the received information. The judgement
made at this stage is crucial to the listening process.
[iv] Response- may be in words or body language. The response lets the speaker know
whether the listener has got the message and what his or her reaction is.
[v] Remembering- is what one hears as part of listening.
Characteristics of a good listener:
A good listener;
[i] Uses eye contact appropriately.
 [ii] Is attentive and alert to a speaker’s verbal and nonverbal behavior.
[iii] Is patient and doesn’t interrupt [waits for the speaker to finish]
[iv] Is responsive using verbal and nonverbal expressions.
[v] Asks questions in a non-threatening tone.
[vi] Paraphrases, restates, or summarises what the speaker says.
[vii] Provides constructive [verbal or nonverbal] feedback.
[viii] Is empathic [works to understand the speaker]
[ix] Shows interest in the speaker as a person.
[x] Demonstrates a caring attitude and is willing to listen.
[xi] Doesn’t criticize, is nonjudgmental.
[xii] Is open minded.
Characteristics of a poor listener:
A poor listener;
[i] Interrupts the speaker [is impatient]
[ii] Doesn’t give eye contact.
[iii] Is distracted and does not pay attention to the speaker.
[iv] Is not interested in the speaker.
[v] Gives the speaker little or no feedback.
[vi] Changes the subject.
[vii] Is judgemental.
[viii] Is closed minded.
[ix] Talks too much.
[x] Is self-preoccupied.
[xi] Gives unwanted advice.
[xii] Is too busy to listen.

TOPIC FOUR: WRITING SKILLS

What is writing?
Writing is:

 A process of putting thought, ideas and concepts into words using continuous prose;
  a form of output/production because it is a demonstration of what we know, implicitly or
explicitly
 Opportunity for negotiation of meaning through peer interaction – at every stage of the
writing process

What are writing Skills?

 Ability to put sounds down on graphic form according to the conventional sound-spelling
rules.
 Ability to spell English words correctly, including using correct punctuation and
capitalization.
 Ability to do writing practice, such as dictation, grammar exercises, constructing
dialogues according to the model, simple translation exercises.
 Ability to write short compositions, including functional writing skills, such as writing
simple letters, taking notes, writing outlines and summaries.
Understanding Instructions:
Assignment titles contain instructions about how you are expected to deal with the topic.
Sometimes key instructions will appear explicitly, but at times they may well be implicit.
Whatever the case you need to identify the approach required. Below is a list of some ‘key
instructions’ which typically appear in essay questions:
ACCOUNT FOR: Give reasons for, explain.
ANALYSE: Examine and explain why
ASSESS: Decide the importance and give reasons.
COMPARE: Write about (usually) two things which have certain similarities but with some
crucial differences. There may be an element of evaluation here too.
EXAMINE: Look at carefully; and analyse
IN WHAT WAY: Explain how and say why
TO WHAT EXTENT: How far do you agree with..., How true is ...
JUSTIFY: Give good reasons for; explain satisfactorily
STATE: Express carefully, fully and clearly
OUTLINE: Give a short description of the main points
DISCUSS: Express your own view on an issue supporting it with evidence from other sources.
This is a very general term used in essay assignments and you need to be careful.

TOPIC FIVE: NOTE TAKING SKILLS

Effective note-taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study. Good
note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking. Good note-taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It
also helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how you think about those ideas.
Note taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. Note
taking includes the following:
 Taking notes in a lecture or a discussion
 Taking notes in a lecture and processing/annotating/rewriting these notes
Effective note-taking requires:
 recognising the main ideas
 identifying what information is relevant to your task
 having a system of note taking that works for you
 reducing the information to note and diagram format
 where possible, putting the information in your own words
 recording the source of the information
Note making on the other hand is taking notes from reading in some systematic way.
Studies show that people may forget:
• 50% of a lecture within 24 hours
• 80% in two weeks
• 95% within one month
If they do not take notes.
THE FIVE R'S OF NOTE TAKING
1. RECORDING- Get down the main ideas and facts.
2. REDUCING- To reduce is to summarize. Pick out key terms and concepts. You can make
from your notes what students sometimes call "bakhra." ‘mwakenya’. These are sheets that list,
usually in outline form, the bare bones of a course. You will use them in reviewing by using the
 key ideas as clues for reciting the details of what you have in your notes. On each page of notes
you take, allow room to write down these clues.
3. RECITING- Review lecture notes as soon after the lecture as possible. But you will also
want to review your notes before an exam and from time to time during the semester to keep
them fresh in your mind. Do so in your own words. That way you will know that you understand.
4. REFLECTING- Something that many students don't grasp is that ideas from college courses
are meant to be thought about. It is easy to fall into the trap of reciting ideas by repetition. One of
the main purposes of a college education is to help you think. Then too, if you reflect about what
you are learning, you won't be surprised when ideas turn up on examinations in an unexpected
form.
5. REVIEWING- One of the real secrets of successful studying is being sure when, how, and
what to review. But however you do it, reviewing is essential. Even the accomplished
performer--the pianist or the stage performer knows that a review, no matter how well he or she
may know the material, is essential to a professional performance.
When Not To Take Notes:
1.                  When the speaker tells you not to write
2.                  When the speaker hands out an outline, notes, or other material and then reads directly from the
handout. In this case you can annotate the handout for any extra details.
3.                  When it is very clear that what is being said is out of topic. For example, a poor presenter may
bring in unrelated issues especially if there is no clear plan or organisation. At other times the
speaker may notice lack of concentration among some listeners. He/she then cracks a joke to re-
establish the listening mood.
Steps towards Effective Note taking:
To take efficient notes that you can use later require that you:
1. Use full-sized 8 1/2"x11" paper. Do not use a small note tablet. You will be using the margin
space provided by the full-sized paper. In addition, on a single page of full-sized paper you will
often see ideas or groups of related ideas that might not be so easily seen when spread over
several small pages;
2. Use a ballpoint pen. This is in order to write quickly -- something that can't be done as well
with a pencil or a felt-tip pen. Don't worry about mistakes with a pen that makes marks you can't
erase. Just cross out the mistakes!;
3. Keep all the notes from each course together in a separate section of a notebook. Use either a
loose leaf binder with separate sections, or a large spiral notebook that has several sections. The
loose leaf binder, however, allows you to insert course handouts and related materials;
4. Date each day's notes and try to title the notes for each lecture;
5. Take notes on one side of the page only, leaving space at the top and on the left-hand margin.
Using only one side eliminates the bother, when you are studying, of having to flip pages over
and then flip then back to follow the development of an idea or discussion. Leaving wide
margins gives you space to add to your notes later, should you so desire.
6. Write legibly. When you prepare for a test you want to spend the time studying -- not trying
to decipher your own handwriting;
7. To save time when note-taking, abbreviate recurring terms. Place a key for these abbreviate
terms in the top margin of your notes. For example, in a biology class ch could stand for
chromosome ; in a sociology class o c could stand for operant conditioning . When the lecture is
over, you may want to go back and fill in the words you have abbreviated (again, for easier
reading when preparing for examinations).
8. Sit Where You'll Be Seen. There is a saying common among teachers that; the further in back
of the class that a student sits, the lower that student's grade. Students who sit in the back of the
classroom, starting on that first day of classes, those students who sit near the door, typically
represent the students who will have a difficult time following lectures, whose minds are not so
much on the class as it is getting through the day, who will present the most problems in terms of
attendance
Techniques used to ensure effective note-taking during lectures:
[i] Date the page on which you are taking the notes.
[ii] Record any other important information you might need e.g speaker’s name, title of
lecture/speech, venue, time.
[iii] Use symbols such as = to represent equals. This will ensure that you don’t miss any
important information.
[iv] Use abbreviations such as infn. to represent information.
[v] Use acronyms e.g KIE-Kenya Institute of Education.
[vi] Listening attentively.
[vii] Reading text carefully.
[viii] Use headings and sub-headings, numbered points, abbreviations, capitals and underlining
of main points.
[ix] Omitting unnecessary words i.e use nouns and verbs that carry meaning.
[x] Complete sentences should not be taken.
[xi] Maintain the original style.
[xii] Insert missing links to expand concise notes into a readable, coherent properly constructed
whole.
How to identify key points during a lecture:
[i] Reviews from the previous lecture
If your lecturer gives a review of the last class at the beginning of the new lecture, you will likely
see that material again on an examination or in some form of assessment.
[ii] It is on the board
Lecturers use chalkboards, whiteboards or PowerPoint slides to highlight what they think is
important in their lectures. If your lecturer wants you to visually see it, you can bet it is
important.
[iii] Emphasis
If a lecturer puts emphasis on a concept through voice inflection, spending extra time on it, or
giving examples about it, it is definitely noteworthy.
[iv] Repetition
If a lecturer repeats something in class and seems to be looking straight at you, it is a clue that
you should write it down.
[v]Use of Lists and diagrams
A great way to relay information is through lists and diagrams. If your lecturer uses lists and
diagrams to relay certain information, then you should note that he/she is providing you with
helpful ways to remember important information material.
[vi] Summarization
If there is time at the end of the lecture, the lecturer may review a few major points from the
lecture. These are likely to be important takeaway thoughts that you should make note of and
remember.
(vii) Words such as, "…it is very important, significant" etc
(viii) Gestures and facial expressions.
(ix) Words that enumerate the main points e.g. first, secondly etc.

Phases of Note-Taking
Before Class:
• Read assigned material
• Review notes from previous session
• Sit near the front of the class in the center of the room
• Begin notes for each lecture on a new page
• Date each page of your notebook as well as date and number each handout
• Identify the chapter being covered at the top of the page
During Class:
• Listen carefully at the beginning of the lecture for an overview of the main topics of the lecture
• Maintain focus to identify important information
• Your goal is NOT to write every word of the lecture in your notes. Write down supporting
information such as key points, background information, dates, key terms, definitions, examples,
formulas
• Listen carefully at the end of the lecture for a summary of the main points from the lecture
After Class
• Review, revise, or edit your notes as soon as possible
• Rewrite notes if necessary
• In your notes summarize the main points of the lecture
WHY TAKE LECTURE NOTES?
1. Taking notes aids your comprehension and retention. Researchers found that if important
information was contained in notes, it had a 34% chance of being remembered
(Howe, 1970, in Longman and Atkinson, 1999). Information not found in notes had only a 5%
chance of being remembered.
2. Lecture notes should represent a concise and complete outline of the most important points
and ideas, especially those considered most important by your professor.
3. Lecture notes can clarify ideas not fully understood in the text or elaborate on material that
the text mentions only briefly.
4. Lecture notes provide a gauge for what is important in the textbook. Lecture notes combined
with notes from textbook material are an excellent review for tests.
Note taking is not just something that you do as you sit in a class. To become an effective note
taker, you must use strategies before, during, and after a lecture.
5. Important points from readings that the lecturer wants to emphasize are presented in lectures.
6. Lectures contain material the professor has gathered from sources other than classroom
materials.
7. Within 24 hours, you will forget at least half of what was said in the lecture; forgotten
material can be relearned if it is written down.
8. Organized notes will help you identify the core of important ideas in the lecture.
9. A permanent record will help you to learn and remember later.
10. The lecture may contain information not available anywhere else. This will be your only
chance to learn it.
11. Lecture is where you learn what your instructor thinks is important, and he makes up the
exams.
12. Class assignments are usually given in the lecture.
13. The underlying organization and purpose of the lecture will become clear through note
taking.
Problem faced during lectures and how to deal with them:
[a] Whispering or whisper-then-shout lecturer:
1. Sit in the front of the classroom.
2. Discuss the speech pattern with him/her in private.
[b] Fast talker:
1. Ask lecturer to slow down or repeat.
2. Go over your notes with other students within 24 hours.
3. Use tape recorder (with instructor's permission) to supplement your notes.
[c] Rambler:
1. Leave space in your notes for additional information in case the lecturer returns to a previous
point.
2. Spend extra time reorganizing notes after class.
3. Go over notes with other students.
 4. Talk with the lecturer.
Filing
Filing refers to the arrangement of notes, papers or documents in a folder or file, in an orderly or
systematic manner for easy retrieval. You can choose to have a file for each course that you are
studying. You can file three or more courses in one file like a box file since it is very big. In this
case, you will separate the different courses with file dividers
Note:
 Write the date on each set of notes or handouts
 File the note, handouts in the order in which they are written or received.

Critical thinking
 This can be defined as disciplined thinking in accordance with given or accepted   principles. It
brings into focus problems and possibilities in learning and thereby makes learning intellectually
stimulating. A critical thinker solves problems with objectivity and maturity. Because of this, a
critical thinker makes considerable generalizations. A critical thinker sees relationships in a
given phenomenon; hence makes intelligent conclusions.

Problem-solving
 A problem is a situation which interferes with efforts to attain a goal. It could be physical,
mental, or spiritual. Problem solving is the process by which interference towards a given goal is
overcome. For effective problem solving, there is need for a methodological approach before and
during the problem solving
Before solving the problem:
(i) Make sure that you know what your goals are.
(ii) Develop a system by which you will get the intended results.
(iii) Monitor the quality and quantity of your system
(iv) Make sure that you complete the problem properly and on time.
(v) Review the objectives you set and the methods used.
During the problem solving:
(i) Formulate the problem
(ii) Interpret the problem
(iii) Construct a course of action
(iv) Make appropriate decisions
(v) Implement the actions/decisions
(vi) Evaluate your work.

TOPIC SIX: STUDY SKILLS

To succeed in your studies at the university you must study. Studying is revising the notes you
took during lectures, and reading text books with the aim of understanding better what you are
reading. Studying is the process that one uses to recall, understand, apply, analyse,
 synthesize and evaluate information. While studying, one selects information from the content
that one wants to learn. One should organise this information such that it can be learnt efficiently
and easily. This information should then be committed to memory so that it can be recalled when
it is needed. For better understanding, it is important that you as a student come up with a study
plan that works best for you.
Study Habits are the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process
of gaining information through learning. In simple terms study habits are the habits when one
study. A person with poor study habits will not be able to learn properly. It is generally
believed that a student learns effective study habits in school. So college students are generally
assumed to have effective study habits. But the environment of school and college are very
different and need of effective study habits is even more at college level as compared to
school.
Studying at university level means that much of your learning will take place independently,
using the various resources available to you. This means you will need to take much of the
responsibility for your own study. Some of the academic skills you are expected to use at
university may be new to you. You are expected to research your subject, write clear and concise
essays with correctly presented referencing, produce reports, give presentations, take exams, and
manage your time effectively.
Studying requires certain skills so that it is done effectively. These skills include work planning,
managing time and other resources, taking and making notes, filing, critical thinking and
problem solving, among others.
1. Work Planning
This involves identifying tasks, prioritizing them and allocating the time and other resources
accordingly.
When planning your study schedule, it is important to consider the time available for the work
and the amount to be done. One way of planning for work is to make a study timetable. Other
ways are choosing a suitable study time, choosing which place to study from, choosing best
methods to study and forming a group.

2. A study time table

When drawing the study time-table, the following should be considered:
(i) The number of hours for reading the topics in each course.
(ii) Personal-study hours
(iii) Discussion hours
(iv) Time for breaks, recreation, socialization, religious activities or leisure and meals.
(v) Time for personal work
A good study timetable should have the following features:
 It should have all the activities of the day/week
 It should have the period and amount of time for each activity.
 It should be reasonably flexible to allow unexpected schedules.
 There should be breaks
 For academic activities, the time table should show individual topics but not the whole
course.
 3. Time of study
It is not possible to prescribe the best time to study since it varies from person to person.
Whatever time you study, you should pay attention to the following:
(i)  Physical fitness/state of your health
(ii) Diet and sleep.
(iii) Regular breaks.
(iv) Variation of activities.
(v) Complexity or demands of the task

4. Place for studies

You should always make an effort to find a convenient place for studying. Apart from pens and
books, you will need a table, a chair, and good lighting at night. Other factors to be considered
include:
(i) A quiet place with enough air and light
(ii)  A table that is clear of distractions like a newspaper, a radio, etc
(iii) Do not sit on a sofa set or a bed. You could easily go to sleep.
(iv) If you decide to read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the people.
(v) Avoid sitting near a window since you can see what is happening outside and get distracted.

5. Method of study
For effective studying, you should carry out the following activities.
(i) Read and make study notes.
(ii) Take time to reflect on what you have read. Make an effort to recall the information.
(iii) You should try to understand and not memorize all that you learn. However, certain information
must be memorised like names, dates and formulae.
(iv) Read widely on the same subject.
(v) Draw relationships among content that you read.
(vi) Discuss with your fellow students or with your lecturers.

6. Study groups
 A study group has the following advantages.
(i) You can gain from the planning skills of one another
(ii) You are able to make use of limited resources like textbooks by sharing within the group.
(iii)  You can learn from one another as well as sort out any queries about the coursework. Ideas can also
be exchanged before writing your assignments.
(iv) You can revise faster for examinations since you can cover more work as a group than as an
individual.
Tips about organising a study group:
 Take turns in organising and presenting your work.
 Hold regular meetings.
 Always plan ahead before you leave.
 Total commitment by all members
 Remember that not all activities are suitable for a discussion group.
Perhaps the most serious problem noted in group discussions is that not all students participate.
Lack of participation is caused by:
  Shyness
 Unwillingness to begin
 Unsuitable topic
 Lack of similar interests
 Lack of group leadership e.g. chairman, secretary.

7. Managing Time and Resources

(a) Managing Time
This involves how best to use the time available for attending lectures, private study, other
activities and relaxation. Managing time is best done by making a study time table, which helps
you distribute time appropriately for all your tasks. The time table should be realistic and easy to
adhere to. The following are tips for managing time:
(i) Plan for every day by making a general schedule on things you must accomplish, and things you will
try to accomplish.
(ii) Concentrate on one task at a time
(iii) Take regular breaks. Take breaks form books and do something unrelated before going back to read.
One study session should be about two hours.
(iv) Quiet and distraction-free environments.
(v) Do not be a perfectionist. Striving for perfection leads to frustration and time wasting. Strive to
produce the best you can achieve.
(vi) Learn to say no. Tactfully but firmly decline to waste time on issues that do not help you to achieve
your goals.
(vii) Do not procrastinate. What you can do today, do not schedule for tomorrow.
(viii) Avoid time wasting. Do not participate in activities that simply waste your time e.g. idle talk and
gossip.
(ix) Delegate. Assign to others duties that they can perform, especially in group work.
(x) Do not be a workaholic. Give yourself time for socialization, and involve yourself in hobbies and
interests. Too much work may be dangerous.

(b) Managing Resources
There are many resources available to a student at the university.
These include:
(i) Books and other Academic Materials
(ii) Lecturers
(iii) Fellow students
(iv) Outsiders-people in the ministry, others
(v) Printed and Electronic Media - Newspapers, Radio, Internet, T.V.
(vi) Money, etc.
These resources can only be beneficial to the student when they are effectively managed.

8. Taking and Making Notes

    Owing to the circumstances in which they are usually taken and the purpose for which we need them,
notes are characteristically sketchy and free of such things as too much exemplification or
argumentation. A distinction may be drawn between note-taking and note-making.
Note-taking
   This refers to the short summaries made during lectures, seminars or tutorials. In order to   take
meaningful notes, you should be aware of the following.
            -Notes are a record of the speaker's MAIN IDEAS, not a word record.
            -Notes should be written in your own words as much as possible to avoid copying things
you do not understand.
            -They should be in point form with clear numbering, using headings and subheadings.
  
Note-Making
  This refers to notes made from written sources. The points above also apply. The    important
thing is to be sure you can tell what is really necessary for you to remember     later as the main
points of the author whose work you are reading. The points you may need to note as a reader
include:
 Important facts of statistical data;
 Useful definitions
 New technical terms;
 Some unsightly comments and
 Some particularly interesting arguments for or against some idea in your area of study.

Guidelines to Note-Taking
 Since it is impossible to record every word it is important for you to develop economical  
methods of putting the information you require down.
(a)    Date the page
(b)  Record any other pertinent information you might need
(i)  Speakers' name
(ii) Title of the lecture/speech
(iii) Venue
(iv) Time, etc.
(c)  Use symbols
(d) Use of abbreviations
(e)  Use acronyms (names formed from the first letters or syllables of other words)

Good Studying Behavior:

 Have a study plan.
 Study at the same time and in the same place every day.
 Use the college library.
 Participate in study groups and/or seek out a study partner.
 Be a good listener.
 Take good notes.
 Carry a dictionary.
 Use the latest technologies for effective studying.
TYPES OF STUDY PLANS
It is important to note that there are other study plans that a student can use, but we are choosing
to focus on these because we feel that they are the most applicable to our students. They can all
be used simultaneously by one student.

1. Preview
Preview is reading about the topic you are going to be lectured on before the lecture. You are
often given a course outline beforehand so that it can help you in previewing. Preview gives you
an upper hand because you will be able to follow and understand what the lecturer is talking
about. It enhances your chances of retaining what is taught. Remember knowledge starts from
known to unknown. You can also preview notes from the previous lecture so that you can
understand the link between the previous lecture and the current lecture.
2. Studying with Breaks Studying with Breaks also called spaced study is a very good
technique for studying. It involves studying for a period then taking a short break followed by
another study session. For example, you can study for 2 hours then take a 20minute break
followed by another 1 hour of study. Spaced study is good because if used well the student will
be able to lock what they are studying in their long term memory (LTM) during the breaks. The
breaks act as a reward. Humans thrive when they are rewarded. Your mind will also appreciate
the reward. During the breaks reflect on what you have studied. Do not use the breaks
negatively.
3. Group Study
Studying with a group of your friends can be both a fun and rewarding study method. For
effective studying, it is important that you choose your group members wisely and follow a few
rules.
Study groups should:

a. Not be the sole method of study and they are not for everyone
b. Be a form of ‘active learning’ – the strongest kind of learning
c. Not let one member of the group dominate
d. Meet no more than 2-3 times a week
e. Establish responsibilities for each group member
 f. Design rules dealing with respect for each member
g. Provide contact information for group members
Importance of study groups
Help you and your group members:
I. See the material from a different perspective
II. Stay motivated and commit more time to study
III. Share/compare notes and study tips
IV. Engage in discussions and debates on selected topics
V. Pick up new tips and material from your peers
VI. Quiz each other on factual material

Study habits;

Study Habits are the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process
of gaining information through learning. In simple terms study habits are the habits when one
study. A person with poor study habits will not be able to learn properly.

Poor Study Habits

The various poor study habits of students are:

 It is student’s notion to cover the easiest assignments first and keep the tougher ones for
the last ultimately resulting in insufficient time left to complete the later
assignments.
 Studying around loud noise or in distraction resulting in lower level of
concentration.
 Studying in a cluttered environment.
 Letting your thoughts wander. Studying in a distracted environment allows wandering
of thoughts here and there.
 “A tired mind is a slow mind”. So studying when tired or hungry makes the mind slow.
 Sometimes students simply copy the assignment and thus not reflecting on the
meaning of the assignment.
 Staying up late to study.
  Students sometimes just cram the material instead of understanding the concepts thus
affecting long term understanding of concepts.

TOPIC SEVEN:LIBRARY SKILLS

Library
A library is an organized collection of books and other literary material kept for reading,
study and consultation. A Library is a collection or group of collections of books and other
materials maintained for reading, study and research, organized to facilitate access by a
specific clientele and staffed by librarians and other staff, trained to meet the needs of its
users.
Library Skills
These are techniques that enable a library user to make efficient use of the library and reap
maximum benefits from it. These skills include appreciating the role of a university library,
distinguishing the library classification system, using catalogues, doing book previews, and
writing bibliographies.

Types of information resources

Information resources

These are materials that are used as resources of information for reference, research, study and
recreation.

Information resources are found in form of books, newspapers, computer disks/ tapes, listening
(radio), viewing (TV), and speaking (oral).

Books

UNESCO defines a book as a non-periodical literary publication consisting of 49 or more pages,

covers not included. A collection of leaves of paper or other material, written of printed, fastened
together in some manner with a cover.

In the USA for a publication to be called a book it must consist of 24 or more pages.

Newspapers
These are serial publications usually printed on newsprint and issues daily, semi-weekly or
weekly containing news, editorial opinion, regular columns, letters to the editor, cartoons,
advertisements and other items of current, often local interest to a general readership.

Periodicals

These are publications with distinctive titles containing articles, stories or other short works
usually written by different contributors, issued in soft cover more than once, usually at stated
intervals. Periodicals are published by scholarly societies, University presses, government
agencies, commercial publishing houses, private corporations, trade and professional
associations and other organizations.

Journals

These are periodicals devoted to disseminating current research and commentary on

developments within a specific discipline sub discipline or field of study usually published in
quarterly or bimonthly issues which Libraries bind into continuously paginated volumes. Most
journal articles are longer than five pages and include a bibliography or a list of works cited at
the end. Journal articles in science and social sciences usually include an abstract preceding the
text, which summarizes the content.

Magazines

These are popular periodicals containing articles on various topics written by different authors.
Most magazine are heavily illustrated containing advertisements and are printed on glossy paper.
Articles are usually short (less than five pages) un signed and do not include a bibliography or
list of references. Most magazines are issued monthly of weekly.

Abstracts

An abstract is a short statement of essential content of a book, article, speech, report and
dissertation. It gives the main points in the same order as the original work.

Index

An index is a list of terminologies arranged alphabetically in the last pages of a book. It has page
numbers which direct the reader to the specific page of a text on which the desired information
can be found.

Archival Sources

This is an organized collection of noncurrent records of an institution, government, organization

or corporate body. Archival sources are managed and maintained by a librarian with special
training known as an archivist.
Serial Publications

A publication in any format issued in successively numbered or dated parts or issues, appearing
at regular or irregular intervals and intended to be continued indefinitely.

Patents

A patent is an official document issued by the government in response to a formal application

process in which the applicant (usually the inventor) is granted the exclusive right to
manufacture, use, and sell an invention for a specified number of years the document is assigned
a patent number by the patent office for future reference.

Standards

Standards are any criteria established by law, agreement, or custom, according to which values,
quantities, procedure performance, etc are measured or evaluated and to which manufacturers,
practitioners, researchers, etc seek to conform in order to ensure quality and uniformity of
results.

Audio- Visual Materials

This is a term used to describe non print materials such as films, film strips, slides, video
recordings, audio recordings, CD-ROMS, machine readable data files and computer soft-ware.

Computerized Sources

CD-ROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory. It is a small plastics optical disk 4.72 inches or 12
centimeters in diameter similar to an audio compact disk. It is used for storing information in
digital format. Once information is stored it can be searched and displayed on a computer screen.
Information stored in a CD-ROM cannot be changed or erased.

Online information resources

These are information resources accessed through the internet. In libraries we have the Online
Public Access Catalogue. It consists of bibliographic records in machine readable format. These
records can be accessed from different computers through the library website.

The Internet

This is a network which inter connects computers of all types through out the world. It enables
users to communicate via email, transfer of data and program files. The internet also enables
users to find information on the World Wide Web and access computer systems such as
catalogues and electronic databases.

Types of libraries
Libraries are categorized by the purposes they serve. The main types are summarized as follows.
1.                  Public
They serve the general public at all levels. Their aim is to provide information over the whole
range of human knowledge, promote culture and play a positive part in encouraging an active use
of leisure and recreational time. Examples of public libraries are the Kenya National Library
Services (KNLS) and the Macmillan Library.
2.                  Academic Libraries
They are found in various institutions of learning but with similar aims. In institutions of higher
learning such as the universities, colleges and polytechnics, their main aim is to support learning,
teaching and research activities, In primary, and secondary schools they form the basis for wide
reading and references. The purposes, services, equipment and other physical facilities of these
libraries are determined by the nature of the curriculum and size of the faculty and students.
3.                  National Libraries
Their main function is to ensure that all the publications of a particular country are acquired and
preserved for posterity. The law requires that publishers deposit copies of all materials published
in the country with the national library, National libraries also purchase books published in other
countries. Other functions of a national library include:
 Production of a current bibliography
 Compile union catalogues
 Provision of national reference service
 Publishing
 Research and development in librarianship and information studies.

Examples of national libraries are the British library, Library of Congress and the Kenya
National Library Services. The Kenya National Library Services serves both as a public as well
as national library.
4.     Special Libraries
These are libraries that serve specific subject fields. They include libraries in government
ministries, parastatals, research institutes, industrial and commercial concerns and international
bodies. Examples include ICIPE, ILARD, KIE, ICRAF, AMREF, UNESCO and Bankers’
Institute Libraries.
5.                  Digital Libraries
These are mainly accessed through computers with internet facilities. They store up to date
information of diversified fields. Organized academic institutions provide such facilities but
some charge a fee for the services. At Kenyatta University, such services are provided at the
Kenyatta Virtual University (KVU) and the Cyber Café.

SECTIONS OF THE LIBRARY:

1.                  Lending, General circulation section
Contains books arranged on shelves in a given order. These books may be borrowed or read
within. If borrowed, the borrower must use a borrower’s card and has to keep the book for a
maximum of a specified period of time. He may renew a book after the expiry of a given period
 if in case it is not needed by another borrower. These books may also be read within the library
and must be left on reading tables for re-shelving by the library staff. If a borrower wishes to
borrow a book that has been borrowed, he/she should get a reservation from the attendant and
you will be informed as soon as the book is returned to the library. However, if you urgently
need that book, then it can be recalled.
2.                  Short Loan Section
Contains books in short supply but on high demand. Such books can be given out for a limited
period of time and must be read within the library. Apart from books, this section also contains
past papers, publications and selected handouts.
3.                  Reference Section
This section contains books on general reference or specific references. These are read within the
room and cannot be taken out of the room. Reference books include encyclopedias, dictionaries,
atlases, etc.
4.                  Periodicals Section
These are of two types:
i)   Current/loose periodical section
Contains materials that are published at periodical intervals e.g. daily, weekly, fortnightly,
monthly, and bi-annually. These include newspapers, magazines, journals, abstracts, etc.
ii)      Bound periodical section
Contains periodicals that have been bound for the purpose of durability. Binding may be of two
types:-Time and Series
Newspapers and magazines are usually bound on the basis of time while journals and abstracts
are usually bound by series.
5.  Africana Section/National Collection
This section is normally used by lecturers and post-graduate students. It contains rare books,
theses or dissertations.
   6.   Children’s section
      This section stocks books that are relevant to the needs of the children.
7.   Acquisition Section
This is where new books, magazines are received, title cards or catalogue cards are also made
here.

Classification of Library information resources

All information resources in the library are classified and assigned a call number. A call number
is an ordinal number assigned to a book to represent its subject coverage and position on the
book shelf. It is also a notation that uniquely identifies an information material housed in an
information centre.

Functions of a call number:

[a] Enable librarian to locate the document immediately when a user requests for it.
[b] Assist for the document to be put in its proper position on return after use.
[c] Help in the arrangement of books in the shelves.
[d] It is used in classified catalogue where catalogues are arranged by class number.
[e] Assist in classifying and putting into its proper position a new document acquired in the
library.

Levels of a Call Number

HA- Represents the main class of the information material [H- Social Sciences] and subdivision
of the main class [HA- Economic statistics].
29- Represents the specific topic covered by the information material [introduction to economic
statistics].
.K4- Represents geographical subdivision of the subject or further subdivision of the subject.
M56 – represents the cutter number representation which comes out of the surname of the author
of the information material or title of the information material in case of edited or information
material by more than three authors.
2010- Represents the year of publication which indicates when the information material was
published.
V.1- Represents the volume number of the information material in case of information materials
produced in volumes or series.
C.1- represents the copy number which indicates how many titles of that particular information
material are existing in the library.
The two main classification schemes used in classifying information resources in libraries are the
Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme and the Library of Congress Classification scheme.

(a) Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme [DDC]

History traced to 1876 when 1st edition was published by Melvin Dewey. It is the most common
widely used classification scheme in the world where over 200,000 libraries in 135 countries use
it and has been translated to over 30 languages. DDC scheme has divided knowledge into ten
main classes, 100 divisions and 1000 subdivisions and it uses only Arabic numerals in giving call
numbers to information materials. This scheme is used is commonly used in public libraries to
classify information materials. The following is the general outline of DDC scheme:

000 -Main class for Computer science, knowledge & general works
100- Main class for Philosophy and psychology
200- Main class for Religion
300 -Main class for Social sciences, sociology & anthropology
400 -Main class for Languages
500 -Main class for Sciences
600 -Main class for Technology
700 -Main class for Arts and recreation
800 -Main class for Literature, rhetoric & criticism
900 -Main class for History and biography
(b) Library of Congress Classification Scheme [LC]
LC uses the letters of alphabets A-Z in classifying information materials except I, O, X, W,
and Y which are empty for future expansion in addition to use of Arabic numeral numbers.
It has 20 main classes and one class for generalities. It is commonly used in classifying
information materials in all academic libraries because it caters for all information
materials and allows for future expansion.

Below is the general outline of LC scheme:

Class A – General Works

Class B – Philosophy, Psychology, Religion

Class C – Auxiliary Sciences of History (General)

Class D – World History (Except American History)

Class E – American History

Class F – Local History of the United States

Class G – Geography, Anthropology, Recreation

Class H – Social Sciences

Class J – Political Science

Class K – Law

Class L – Education

Class M – Music

Class N – Fine Arts

Class P – Language and Literature

Class Q – Science

Class R – Medicine

Class S – Agriculture

Class T – Technology

Class U – Military Science

Class V – Naval Science

Class Z – Bibliography, Library Science

Library Catalogue
A library catalogue is an organized set of records containing bibliographically description
of information resources found within a library. A library catalogue serves four main
functions which are as follows:
[i] Locative function- it enables a user to find an item of which either the author, title or
subject is known.
[ii] Collocative function- it shows the user what items the library has by a given author, on
a given subject and in a given type of document.
[iii] Informative function- it assists the user to make a choice of the item he/she requires in
the library collection without necessarily browsing the shelves.
[iv] Inventory function- it helps the library staff in their administrative work e.g to avoid
duplication of work.
Types of Library Catalogues:
The following are the major types of library catalogues and they are as follows:
[i] Author Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, bibliographic details of information
materials are alphabetically according to the surname of the author. This type informs users
which information materials the library has by a given author and their location. Here the
heading can also be editor, translator, composer or compiler where there is no author.
[ii] Title Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, bibliographic details of information materials
are alphabetically according to the title of the information materials. In this arrangement,
articles in front of the title [a, an, the] are ignored as they do not constitute part of the title.
[iii] Subject Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, lists of information materials are arranged
alphabetically under subject heading.
[iv] Dictionary Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, lists of information resources are
arranged in one alphabetical sequence without considering difference in surname of the
author or title of the information materials as these are combined.
[v] Classified Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, information materials are arranged
alphabetically in the order of their classification numbers or call numbers. This
arrangement varies from one library to another depending on the scheme used.
[vi] Union Catalogue- this is a catalogue listing the collections of more than one library.
How to evaluate Library Sources:
In evaluating library sources students need to look at:
[a] The author’s reputation i.e the author is experience and qualification in writing in
whatever he/she is writing in.
[b] Critical reviews in respected journals
[c] The publisher’s reputation for high quality work.
[d] Comments of the editor if available
[e] Aim, scope and methodology of the information material as provided in the preface or
foreword of the information material.
[f] Relevance and comprehensiveness of the work as shown by its list of contents and
subject index.
[g] Authoritativeness of the work by going through the bibliographical references of the
information material if provided.
[h] Blurb of the information material where the publisher makes a comment about the
information material.
TOPIC EIGHT: EXAMINATIONS TAKING SKILLS
An examination, commonly known as exam, is a set of questions or exercises evaluating
acquired knowledge or skill. It is an assessment intended to measure a student’s
knowledge, skills, aptitude, and creativity among others. Examinations are used as an
evaluative tool evaluating whether ant learning has taken place.
Examinations test the student’s ability to recall and re use the knowledge learnt to create
something new. An exam is an official evaluation tool used to test knowledge or ability in
a particular subject. In the university, an exam is used to evaluate both teaching and
learning.
Examinations are one way of effectively measuring how well you have studied a certain
subject or course. Success or failure in your work is determined almost entirely by your
ability to perform well in examinations. A little anxiety is good because it makes you read
but a lot of anxiety is bad since it can incapacitate you. Examinations have some benefits
for students:
                        -They are forced to revise previous work
                        -They cover larger units than they normally do.
                        -They take wider views and perceive the relationships of the parts of the
whole.

Types of Examination questions:

Generally, question types fall into two categories:
1. Objective- which require students to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question
or complete a statement. Objective exams are easy to take and mark.
They test the students’ ability to recall what was learnt. Examples of objective type
questions include: multiple choice, true-false, matching, filling in the gaps, and outlining or
stating among others. Objective exams at the university are given as sit in CATs.
Objective tests are appropriate when:
 The group to be tested is large and the test may be reused.
 Highly reliable scores to be obtained as efficiently as possible.
 Impartiality of evaluation, fairness, test scores which can be measured are required.
 The weight of the questions are a less marks such as 2mk, 5 Mks.
2. Subjective- These are those exam questions that require thinking and recreating what
was learnt. Subjective exams questions are essay type questions which permit the student
to organize and present an original answer. Examples: short answer essay, extended-
response essay, problem solving, performance test items.
Essay tests are appropriate when:
 The group to be tested is small and the test is not to be reused.
 The teacher wishes to encourage and reward the development of student skill in
 writing.
 The teacher is more interested in exploring student attitudes than in measuring
his/her achievement.
 When the weight of the exam is great. The awarded marks range from 10mks
onward.
Either essay or objective tests can be used to:
 Measure almost any important educational achievement a written test can measure
 Test understanding and ability to apply principles.
 Test ability to think critically.
 Test ability to solve problems.
REVISING FOR AN EXAM
 Final success in your examination depends on laying a foundation at the outset. Make it
a habit to do all the assignments, to take good notes and to review your work
consistently. The more familiar you are with the course content, the easier it is to revise
for tests and examinations.
 Be aware of what is expected of you by the examiner. You will need to get the course
outlines of your courses. It is important that you cover 100% of the content. Do not go
into an examination room with gaps in your knowledge or understanding.
 Look for past examination papers of the past three to four years to see what grounds are
covered and also to find out the following: number of papers that you are expected to
sit for, the number of questions you are expected to answer, how long the paper will be,
the choice of questions to be answered. For example, if they are equally weighted or
not.
 Make revision aids from your notes for quick reading.
 Review lecture notes, study notes and main ideas emphasized by lecturers.
 Make a revision time table bearing in mind the total number of exams, subject length
and difficulty, and your own strengths and weaknesses.
 For each subject, make a list of specific topics to be revised, e.g. note-taking,
examination skills etc.
 Decide on the order of importance of the topics and allocate time appropriately.
 Limit each study session to two hours or less; allow for breaks within a revision session
and at the end of each session, before embarking on the next topic. During the break,
reflect on what you have been revising.
 Allow for repeats of difficult topics,
  Plan to revise different topics in a day for variety

INTERPRETING EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:

  The Skill of interpreting and answering examinations questions is of extreme importance  
to a student. One's knowledge, skill or attitude in a particular subject or course is usually
determined by the score or grade one obtains in an examination. It is therefore necessary
that every student is able to:
 Read and interpret examination questions more efficiently by
concentrating key terms.
 Choose the right questions
 Organise your answer according to the type of question
 Use the time available economically
Various studies have identified the main factors that make an exam difficult for the
particular group doing an exam. These factors can be summarised as follows:
 Subject or concept difficulty
 Process difficulty, where a particular operation or sequence of
operations demands manipulation of data at a high level and the
recall of specific learned items.
 Question or stimulus difficulty, where the guidance given to
candidates in directing their attention to a particular response, or the
support given in terms of additional information or data, is either
minimal or non-specific.
The third factor can be isolated as the most common, with relevance to university students.
The problem usually arises from the candidates' failure to interpret DIRECTION WORDS.
One reason why it is very difficult to interpret direction words is that many of them are
used interchangeably, for example, the word write may mean state, outline, name, list,
construct or even trace.
The following are common direction words and their meanings in examination contexts.
            Describe- Recount, sketch, or relate something in sequence or story form. Give a
good word picture of the concept.
            Definition- Give a clear, concise meaning for a term. It generally consists of
identifying a class to which a term belongs and how it differs from other things in that
class.
            Illustrate- Show by means of a picture, diagram or some other graphic aid. It may
also mean to bring forth specific examples or instances which illustrate a law, rule or
principal
            Classify/categorise- Place persons or things together in a group because they are
alike or similar. In science there is an order in which all groups follow when it comes to
classifying or categorizing: phylum or division, class, order, family, genus,
species and variety.
            Compare- To bring both points of similarity and differences, but generally with the
greater emphasis on similarities.
            Contrast- To particularly stress differences
             Cause and Effect- The relationship described in this kind of writing refers to the
cause, reason or purpose of an event, situation, action, idea or problem and their effect,
consequence, result or outcome, e.g. heat CAUSES iron to expand; the prices rose as a
RESULT of increased demand.
            Account- To give an account of means to describe. Brief account indicates, that not
too much detail is required.
   To account for means give reason(s) for.
            Apply (to)- This means to put something to use; show how something can be used in
a particular situation. The 'something' that is to be applied may be a theory, or certain
findings, data results of research, etc.
          Comment (on)- Give your views on something; say what you think about something.
This word is often used with a quotation or statement: you are expected to give your own
reaction to it (views on it). Do you agree with the statement or not? What are your reasons?
          Consider- Describe and give your thoughts on.
          Discuss-It means to examine and talk about an issue from all sides. Every point raised
should be immediately followed with an appropriate and clear exemplification or
demonstration. You may make your own conclusions based the argument advanced
          Evaluate- Decide the worth of something; judge; decide how good, bad, worthwhile,
relevant, important, etc. something is. It is advisable to back up this type of answer with
evidence (facts, figures, instances, etc) rather than simply with appeals to authority.
          Explain- To bring out into the open, make clear, analyse, and clarify. It is closely
related to discussion but implies more of an emphasis on cause-effect relationships or step-
by-step sequences
          Identify- Put a name to or list something.
          Indicate- Point out, does not usually giving very much detail.
          List/enumerate/state- Make a list of a number of things. Usually involves
remembering or finding out a number of things and putting them down one after the other,
but it is often better if you make your list according to same kind of system.
          Plan- Think out how something is to be done, make or organised etc. You usually
have to show that you can think your way into a problem, foresee difficulties and think of
practical solutions.
          Report (on)- Describe what one has seen or done. Usually refers to something which
has been experienced directly (personally).
          Review- Write a report on something. Sometimes it involves both stating what facts
are and also saying what your own opinions are.
          Specify- Give details of something. Usually involves being specific, ie. Precise,
accurate.
          Work out- Find a solution to a problem etc.

PREPARING FOR AN EXAMINATION

    a) One week before the exam
Find out about the examination
 When and where will be examination be held?
 What time does it start and how long does it take?
 What areas will it cover?
 What forms will the question take? Objective? Short answer?
Essays? Problem solving? Practicals? Or combination?
 How many questions should be attempted?
 Are some questions compulsory?
            b) The day before the exam
 Check again the time and place of examination?
 Check again your examination number/registration number
 Make sure that you have all the materials you need for the
examination
 Revise only the top priority areas
 Avoid learning new information
 Be relaxed and focus your mind on the forthcoming exam.
 Go to bed early and wake up in good time to avoid rushing.
            c) On arrival at the examination venue
 Arrive at the examination venue in good time.
 Avoid discussing the forthcoming examinations.
 Once in the examination room, arrange all the materials you will
need on the table.

           The actual examination

When you get the question paper, apply the PWRST technique. Preview Question, Re-
read, Select, Think
1.         Preview
            -Read all the general and specific instructions, and essay questions.
            -Skim passages and objective questions
2.         Question
            -Take note of the sections, in the paper, number of questions per section, any
compulsory questions and the marks allocated for each question.
3.         Re-read
            Re-read the specific instructions for each section/question. Pay special attention to
key verbs. E.g. circle, underline, compare, define, criticize, write, evaluate etc.
          4.  Select
Select the questions you feel most confident to answer. Start with the easiest questions;
more progressively to the more difficult ones.
            5. Think
Think of how to make the best use of the time allocated. Allocate time proportional to the
marks available per question.

            ANSWERING OBJECTIVE AND SHORTANSWER QUESTIONS

Use the SCORER mnemonic: Schedule, Clue, Omit, Read, Estimate, Review
Schedule
Allocate time for each question proportional to the indicated marks and leave ample time at
the end for revision.
Clue
Use clue words. In true/false tests, certain words indicate give a clue e.g. always, every, all,
invariably, often, seldom, never, sometimes, usually,
Omit
Omit difficult question on first attempt. Each time you omit a question, make minus (-)
mark in the margin against the question. Whenever you attempt a question skipped earlier,
change the minus (-) to a plus (+).
Read
Read each question carefully and do not omit any part. There may be information at the
end that changes the meaning of the entire question.
Estimate
Estimate the answer when you are not sure. Make an intelligent guess.
Review
Review your work to make sure that you have answered all the questions required and
followed the instructions given.

         ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS

            Apply the POWER mnemonic: Purpose, Organise, Write, Evaluate, and Revise
            Purpose
            Establish the purpose and stick to it. Ask yourself-what exactly am I supposed to do
and how best can I achieve that purpose? This is important to avoid irrelevancy.
            Organise
            Organise your answer before you write it. Make a fairly detailed outline. Make sure
that    supporting ideas contribute to the main ideas.
            Write
            Write the essay. Put your outline before you and refer to it often. Each paragraph
must contain only one idea. Pay special attention to words that indicate relationships e.g. in
addition, furthermore, similarly, as a result, consequently etc. Write as legibly as possible.
            Evaluate
            Evaluate your work and use of time as you proceed. Keep asking critical questions
like: are there enough facts and examples to support this statement? Is there meaning of
this statement absolutely clear? Am I operating within the time allocated?
            Revise
            Revise the essay. Proofread your essays carefully to ensure that you have written
what you intended to write.

END OF THE EXAMINATION PAPER

 Check to ensure that you have answered the correct number of questions.
 Ensure that all answers and pages are appropriately labeled
 Ensure that all the identification details appear on your answer booklet
 If you use loose paper, staple the answer sheets together in the order in which you've
answered the questions.
 Check through your answers for factual details, spelling, punctuation and grammatical
errors.
 Do not discuss the exam after doing it.

Test Taking Strategies:

Examinations are a fact of life in college. But the only time an exam should be a trial is
when you aren't prepared for it, and the best sign that you aren't prepared is when you have
to stay up all night to "cram." Cramming won't do very much for you (except make you so
tired that when you take the exam you won't be able to think clearly enough to answer the
questions you DO know).
Here are some tips to help you develop test taking skills:
BEFORE THE TEST:
1. Start preparing for your exams the first day of class. You can do this by reading your
syllabus carefully to find out when your exams will be, how many there will be, and how
much they are weighed into your grade.
2. Plan reviews as part of your regularly weekly study schedule; consequently, you review
over the whole quarter rather than just at exam time.
3. Reviews are much more than reading and rereading all assignments. You need to read
over your lecture notes and ask yourself questions on the material you don't know well. (If
your notes are relatively complete and well organized, you may find that very little
rereading of the textbook for detail is needed.) You may want to create a study group for
these reviews to reinforce your learning.
4. Review for several short periods rather than one long period. You will find that you
retain information better and get less fatigued.
5. Turn the main points of each topic or heading into questions and check to see if the
answers come to you quickly and correctly. Try to predict examination questions; then
outline your answers.
6. It may seem "old-fashioned", but flashcards may be a helpful way to review in courses
that have many unfamiliar terms. Review the card in random order using only those terms
that you have difficulty remembering.
DURING THE TEST:
There are also some things to keep in mind when you are TAKING the test.
1. First, read the directions carefully!! Many points have been lost because students didn't
follow the directions.
2. Note start and end times and divide the time you have with the questions you will be
answering.
3. Remember to preview the test to see how much time you need to allot for each section.
If the test is all multiple choice questions, it is good to know that immediately.
4. Work on the "easiest" parts first. If your strength is essay questions, answer those first
to get the maximum points. Pace yourself to allow time for the more difficult parts.
5. When answering essay questions use the technique of writing a topical paragraph.
Organization, clear thinking, and good writing are important, but so is neatness. Be sure to
make your writing legible. Introduce and conclude each point.
6. Save time at the end of the exam to review your test and make sure you haven't left out
any answers or parts of answers. This is difficult to do under the stress of exams, but it
often keeps you from making needless errors.
7. Use your first instinct. As you read a question, attempt to answer it before reading the
answers listed. After doing so, select from the list that most closely matches your answer.
8. It is recommended to bring a watch. This will help you keep track of time in case the
clock is in a location hard for you to see.
9. Take a few deep breaths when you get stuck. If you come across a question you’re not
sure how to answer in the exam, stop for a moment and take a few deep breathes (in for the
count of 3 and out for the count of 3). If you are not sure how to answer it there and then,
move on to another question. The worst thing you can do is start to panic, because as they
say ‘stress makes you stupid’. You won’t be able to think clearly.

AFTER THE TEST

If the instructor reviews the exam in class, make sure you attend. Many students choose to
skip class of the day of the review because "nothing is happening" that day. On the
contrary, this is an important class to attend because it helps reinforce the information one
more time in long term memory. Even if you aren't interested in the "learning" aspect of
the class, it is an opportunity to hear what the instructor was looking for in the answers.
This can help you on the next exam.
Keep in mind that there are things you can do before, during, and after exams that will help
you succeed in the class. You may want to read and complete the Test Taking Checklist to
evaluate your development as a test-wise student.

TOPIC NINE: PRESENTATION SKILLS

A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking
situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A
presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking
engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video
conference. A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will
often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work
of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive
additional funding for a project.
Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging
presentations to a variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the
structure of your presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the
body language you convey. To be an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the
method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.
Planning your Presentation
It can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:
a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in
giving the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.
b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;--to inform, persuade, motivate or
change things. What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and
who they are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be
realistic about this. Find out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will
have about your topic, so that you know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to
have any preconceptions or misconceptions about the subject that you need to address and
put right? How might your audience use what you have to say?
d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be
available. Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you
decide on type of seating arrangements), and other facilities.
e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.
f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my
message across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How
much time will I need?
g) Structure your talk.
Structuring Your Presentation
This is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear
to both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a
flipchart, whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify
important points and aid understanding?
NB: Do not use too many slides/points.
Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline. Different authors advocate
different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has their merits (Hartley and
Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.
(i) Introduction:
Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.
Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;
• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,
• providing a relevant and interesting fact,
• giving a story,
• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,
• telling them why they need to know the information,
• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.
Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the
subject matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your main
objective. It can also be helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly
how you plan to proceed with it.
ii)The Main Body:
Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your
audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you
have decided on the key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you.
This sequence may take various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-
solution based, simple-complex based etc. (Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.
iii)Conclusion:
There are various ways of concluding a presentation including
• changing the pace,
• using a new visual aid,
• summarizing your main points,
• drawing the conclusion and its importance,
• making recommendations,
• asking for questions,
• getting feedback,
• asking for or recommending particular actions,
• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,
• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.
Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close;
e.g. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc.
Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics detailed above. Research has long
since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing parts of a presentation over
the detail in the middle.

Delivery
DeVito (1990) outlines four main types of delivery:
1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least
preferred method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are
called on to speak at short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a
card to help give you some structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had
only a short time to prepare.
Also keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if this
is not the case) can be a very effective style.
2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered
without notes or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using
very few notes. Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any
notes or slides and with minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This
involves cue cards or slides on which you summarize the main points which you then flesh
out.
3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more
difficult when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized.
However, a useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.
4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript.
However, while this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far as possible
rather than reading it word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted.
Practice and rehearse in order to remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or
combination of methods, that is least stressful for you.
Techniques of Delivery
Hargie et al (2004, p. 72) outline a number of features of effective deliveries, summarised
as follows:
  Use appropriate language and avoid jargon. If the audience does not understand
most of what is being talked about, they will become detached.
 Be suitably paced. Inexperienced speakers have a habit of speaking too quickly. On
the other hand, speaking too slowly is a recipe for boredom. Where speed of
delivery may be a particular concern, think about placing an accomplice in the
audience primed to signal when you get too slow or too quick.
 Use visual aids without placing them centre stage. Even the best of these are only
aids to assist the speaker.
 Make use of sub-summaries, signposts and links. Pause at transitional points in the
flow of ideas to briefly summarize the material covered. Explaining how this
‘chunk’ of information links with what comes next helps to signpost the path
through the presentation and increases its coherence.
 Emphasize key points verbally, non-verbally and vocally. Emphasize verbally
through listing key points (e.g. ‘It is vital that you recognise…’), repeating core
elements etc; non-verbally (e.g. Gestures, changes in posture, position); and vocally
(e.g. Altering volume, speed of delivery, tone of voice).
 Be verbally fluent. Effective public speakers do not have to be word perfect.
Nevertheless, lots of ‘umms’ ‘ahhhhs’ and other fillers such as ‘you know’ can be
highly distracting.
 Be concrete and precise, rather than appearing vague and indefinite.
 Be varied, e.g. intersperse talk with graphs, slides or pieces of video that the
audience can look at as a break from listening. If appropriate, encourage some
discussion or ask the audience to work on a brief exercise.
 Include carefully chosen examples – as a bridge between what the listener knows
and is familiar with and the new material being introduced.
 Avoid distractions, e.g. pacing around, playing with a pen or pointer, over use of
certain stock phrases. Gain control of body language.
 Seem natural and not contrived. This can take some time and practice.
 Rehearse what is going to be said.
Body Language during presentation:
Remember the importance of non-verbal communication!
  Behave enthusiastically,
 make and maintain eye contact,
 smile,
 Act ‘as if’ you are confident and relaxed (even if you do not feel it) and make your
introduction without reading from your notes too much.
 The manner of speech is also important.
 As well as ensuring that your voice can be heard by the furthest member of the
group,
 speak clearly and at a conversational,
 Appropriate speed.
 Varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm
and can create a sense of interest in the listener.
 Pause before key points and stress key parts of the sentence by using change in
tone.
Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:
1. Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.
2. Prepare well.
3. Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes
from negative and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational
view. That worst case scenario you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than
positive outcome does occur, it is unlikely to be the end of the world!
4. Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.
5. Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.
i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,
ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will stand, set out your notes, change your
slides etc,
iii. Use other non-verbal behaviors to appear confident